Unit 2

Ecosystems, Biodiversity, and its conservation

2.1   Ecosystem 

Concept of an ecosystem

Term ‘Ecosystem’ was tossed in the year 1935 by an English Botanist- A.G. Tansley.

An ecosystem is a geographic area which contains both Biotic as well as Abiotic factors and their interaction with each other.

There are various types of Ecosystems such as:

• Terrestrial
• Aquatic
• Desert
• Grassland
• Forests
• Marine
• Freshwater, etc.

Structure and function of an ecosystem

Ecosystem has 02 major components:

1)     Biotic (Living)

2)     Abiotic (Non- Living)

These 02 components when interacts with each other in a system, then give rise to an ecosystem.

Biotic Components are of 03 further types:

1)     Producers

2)     Consumers

3)     Decomposers

Abiotic Components are of 03 sorts:

1)     Climatic Factors (Rain, Lightning, Humidity, Wind, Temperature, etc.)

2)     Edaphic Factors (Soil based factors such as pH, minerals, etc.)

Fig2.1 Classification of Ecosystem and its components

Functions:

Basic function of ecosystem is merely an exchange of energy and nutrients in the food chain which impacts the survival of existence of all life forms. This exchange is responsible for the setting up of equilibrium between biotic and abiotic components.

Producers, consumers and decomposers

1)     Producers: They prepare their own food and initiate the cycle.

Example: Plants prepare their own food with the help of photosynthesis.

2)     Consumers: These are primary (who feeds on producers) & secondary (who feed on both producers and primary consumers)

Example: Herbivores & Carnivores

3)     Decomposers: Feeds on dead of lifeless residues of producers and consumers.

Example: Bacteria, Fungi, etc.

Energy flow in the ecosystem

The behaviour of energy in ecosystem can be conveniently termed as energy flow because of unidirectional energy transformations. Total energy flow that constitutes the energy environment has already been dealt in detail, and now we take up the study of that portion of the total energy flow that passes through the biotic components of the ecosystem. Entrance of energy, its retention within the ecosystem and dissipation into space, are governed by two laws of thermodynamics. According to the first law, the law of conservation of energy, in a closed system, no energy comes in or escapes out and not created or destroyed but may be altered from one form to another. The second law of thermodynamics, the law of entropy, states that there is always a tendency for increase in entropy or degradation from a concentrated (non-random) to a dispersed (random) form leading to dissipation of heat. All the energy entering the earth’s surface can be accounted for. Some energy is used in photosynthesis; the rest is used in converting the water into vapours or heating the soil and air. Ultimately the energy reflected back to outer space as heat. The light energy fixed by green plants in the process of photosynthesis may be represented by the following equation:

Out of the amount of energy so fixed by green plants, some is released again in respiration. The fixed energy, in the form of food, then passes from plant source through herbivores to carnivores. At each stage of food transfer, potential energy is released, resulting in further loss of a large part of energy. The energy flow, thus follows the second law of thermodynamics.

Ecological succession

Ecological succession is the phenomenon or process by which an ecological community undergoes more or less orderly and predictable changes following disturbance or initial colonization of new habitat. Succession was among the first theories advanced in ecology and the study of succession remains at the core of ecological science. Succession may be initiated either by formation of new, unoccupied habitat (e.g., a lava flow or a severe landslide) or by some form of disturbance (e.g. Fire, severe wind throw, logging) of an existing community.

1. Primary succession

Succession that begins in new habitats, uninfluenced by pre-existing communities is called primary succession. In primary succession pioneer species like lichen, algae and fungus as well as other abiotic factors like wind and water start to "normalize" the habitat. This creating conditions nearer optimum for vascular plant growth; pedogenesis or the formation of soil is the most important process.

These pioneer plants are then dominated and often replaced by plants better adapted to less odd conditions, these plants include vascular plants like grasses and some shrubs that are able to live in thin soils that are often mineral based.

For example, spores of lichen or fungus, being the pioneer species, are spread onto a land of rocks. Then, the rocks are broken down into smaller pieces and organic matter gradually accumulates, favouring the growth of larger plants like grasses, ferns and herbs. These plants further improve the habitat and help the adaptation of larger vascular plants like shrubs, or even medium- or large-sized trees. More animals are then attracted to the place and finally a climax community is reached.

2.    Secondary succession

Succession that follows disruption of a pre-existing community is called secondary succession. (e.g. Forest fire, harvesting, hurricane) that reduces an already established ecosystem (e.g. a forest or a wheat field) to a smaller population of species, and as such secondary succession occurs on preexisting soil whereas primary succession usually occurs in a place lacking soil.

Food chains, food webs and ecological pyramids

1)     Food Chains:

Food chains were first introduced by the African-Arabic scientist and philosopher Al-Jahiz in the 9th century but got popularized by Charles Elton in the year 1927.

It is defined as an order of living organisms in a community in which continuous consumption of one organism by other organism and so on takes place.

It can be stated as a chain of organisms in their natural surroundings, through which energy is transferred.

Fig 2.2 A typical Food Chain comprises of producers, consumers and decomposers.

2)     Food Web:

A food web may be defined as a graphical representation depicting interconnection between various food chains.

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Fig 2.3 Simplified Food Web depicting energy movemet and nutrient flow between 03 basic food chain components (Carnivores, Herbivores & Decomposers)

As a food web contains a number of interconnected food chains, hence it results in a complex structure.

Whenever various food chains form such a structure by overlapping each other, it results in generation of a Food Web.

Fig.2.4 A complex food web

Introduction, types, characteristic features, structure and function of the following ecosystem

a)  Forest ecosystem

A terrestrial environment consisted and dominated by trees growing in a closed system is called as a forest.

So, a scientific study of interrelated processes, patterns of flora, fauna and their surroundings in a forest is stated as Forest Ecosystem.

• Case: Chunati Wildlife Sanctuary (CWS), Bangladesh

     Forest Resource Collection is the significant employment choice for larger part of the individuals living in or around the Chunati Wildlife Sanctuary (CWS), Bangladesh.

     The study helped to identify the nature and sorts of forest resources, their collection and quantification in order evaluate the value of the amount of forest resources collected by different resource collectors.Market based approach was being used to estimate the value of the collected resources. Interviews of the resource collectors and multiple checking of the selling price of that particular resource from the adjacent local markets was criteria used for it

     A total of 28 forest trails (used by the local communities as entry or exit points for forest resource collection) out of 56 were selected proportionately from two forest ranges (12 from Chunati and 16 from Jaldi) and from all categories of forest trails based on frequency of use (heavily used, moderately used and less used) for the study.

     The survey was conducted during the dry season (October to May) as it is found to be suitable for resource collection compared to wet season (June to September).

     Result of the study shows that 481 resource collectors per day enter into the CWS through surveyed trails before noon and get back before evening of which 22% are female. Higher numbers of resource collectors were found to carry fuel wood (30%) followed by NTFP or fruits (13%), timber (11%), agricultural products (11%), bamboos or bamboo shoots (10%), sungrass (10%), etc.

     The mode of carrying forest resources was by shoulder load (63%) followed by head load (30%). Among the resource collectors 84% are adult and the rest 16% are minor. The resource collectors spend 5.71 hours per day on average at the forests to collect resources and travel 6.41 km on average for each visit to the CWS.

     The average value of the resources collected by each collector on each visit is BDT 301 (USD 3.71) which may be calculated as BDT 289,735 (USD 3,697.16) for the whole of CWS per day.

     The findings of this study will give a better insight to the problem of forest degradation in Bangladesh and particularly in the CWS.

b)  Grassland ecosystem

A grassland ecosystem is one which is dominated by non woody (herbaceous) plants and various types of grass.

• Case: Grassland of Middle South Inner Mongolia

     In this study, we analyse the changes of indicators of ecosystem services and functions, in order to understand the main cause of grassland degradation due to climatic variation or land use changes in the middle-south Inner Mongolia.

     The soil nutrient and the water supply of supporting service got recovery during 1988–2008. The loss of net primary production declined, and the quality of the retained unconverted grassland (RUG) even increasingly degraded from 2000 to 2008.

     Analytical results show that environmental degradation on the land-use-changed-area is lower than that on the RUG from 2000 to 2008. It illustrates that climatic variation has more negative impacts on grassland ecosystem service, and which is significantly higher than the so-called “overgrazing” induced grassland degradation.

     Moreover, it cannot be excluded that those species died out on the RUG due to natural selection or competitive evolution in an evolutionary process under the deteriorative weather condition rather than overgrazing.

     The positive impacts of human activities such as conservation programs and wildlife protection laws also benefit to regional grassland ecosystem obviously in the study area, so that can delay the environmental degradation even if each planet has its life cycle.

     It indicates that an integrated regional planning involving the considerations of climatic conditions, geographical characteristics, socioeconomic factors, and ecological functions and biodiversity can benefit to regional grassland conservation based on monitoring and management via scientific methods

c)  Desert ecosystem

A desert is a barren land of landscaping area with very little precipitation (rain), lack of vegetation and very hostile living conditions for plant and animal life.

Case: The Western Desert, USA

     The western desert covers an area of over 2 lacs sqkms in south-west USA.

     It has 03 sub-deserts: Mojave, Chihuhuan and Sonoran.

     It extends in the states of Arizona & California (USA) and some parts of New Mexico too.

     Major Extractions done in this region are: Coal, Copper, Uranium, etc.

     Due to its solar potentiality, it has a huge capacity to generate solar electricity.

     Some oil reserves are also found here.

     Peppers and grapes are few farming crops found in this region.

     With around 30 million tourists per year, tourism is a key indicator of its economy.

Some challenges that are being faced in Wester Desert are as follows:

     Extreme Temperature

     Inaccessibility due to its vastness

     Inadequate water supply

     Very low rainfall

Hoover Dam, constructed on Colorado River is playing a crucial resource for counteracting irrigation and drinking problems.

d)  Aquatic ecosystem (ponds, streams, lakes, rivers, oceans, estuaries)

‘Aqua’ means ‘water’. Hence, an ecosystem present in a body of water is called an Aquatic Ecosystem.

Types of Aquatic Ecosystems:

1)     Freshwater Ecosystem

2)     Marine Ecosystem

3)     Transitional Communities

Fig 2.5 Classification of Aquatic Ecosystem

Case: Chilika Lagoon, Orissa

     A Case Study on evaluating Aquatic Biodiversity and its Conservation from Chilika Lagoon, Orissa.

     East Coast of India Chilika is the largest back water lagoon of India. It is a wetland of international importance. It is one of the hotspot of biodiversity in the country and some rare, vulnerable and endangered species which have been listed in the IUCN Red list of threatened animals, inhabit in the lagoon.

     170 species of plankton, 61 species of foraminifera, 136 species of mollusca, 7 species of sponges, 31 species of polychaetes, 61 species of crustaceans, 4 species of sipuncula and 2 species of echinodermata are found in the lagoon.

     A total of 259 species of fishes, 28 species of prawns/shrimps and 35 species of crabs are recorded from the lagoon. The lagoon serves as a paradise for millions of aquatic birds during winter season. More than 175 species of birds are available in the lagoon. There are about 18 species of mammals and one river dolphin (Irrawady Dolphin) is found in the lagoon. There are 7 species of amphibians and 30 species of reptiles found in the lagoon

e root  causes  of the  degradation  of the lagoon were

Due  to  siltation,  shiing  of  the  inlet  channel,  reduction  in  salinity,

Decline in sh landing,  proliferation of fresh water weeds and  invasive

Species, poor discharge of ood water leading to water logging in the

Peripheral  land  areas,  unauthorized  Gheri  culture,  encroachment  of

Peripheral land of the lagoon, soil erosion etc.

e root  causes  of the  degradation  of the lagoon were

Due  to  siltation,  shiing  of  the  inlet  channel,  reduction  in  salinity,

Decline in sh landing,  proliferation of fresh water weeds and  invasive

Species, poor discharge of ood water leading to water logging in the

Peripheral  land  areas,  unauthorized  Gheri  culture,  encroachment  of

Peripheral land of the lagoon, soil erosion etc.

It was found that the main cause of degradation of lagoon were as follows:

     siltation,

     reduction in salinity,

     proliferation of fresh water weeds,

     Unauthorized Gheri culture in the area & encroachment of peripheral land

     Shifting of inlet channel

It has been suggested the ecosystem approach for integration of limited resources will promote conservation & sustainability of Chilika Lagoon.

2.2  Biodiversity and its conservation

Definition

Biodiversity: Bio = Diversity = Variety

The term Bio-Diversity was first coined by Walter G. Rosen in 1986. Biodiversity, refers to the variety of life on Earth. It includes diversity of ecosystems, species and genes, and the ecological processes that support them. Everything that lives in an ecosystem is part of the web of life, including humans. Each species of vegetation and each creature has a place on the earth and plays a vital role in the circle of life. Plant, animal, and insect species interact and depend upon one another for what each offers, such as food, shelter, oxygen, and soil enrichment. Maintaining a wide diversity of species in each ecosystem is necessary to preserve the web of life that sustains all living things.

There are three levels of Diversity

• Species diversity
• Genetic diversity
• Ecosystem or Habitat diversity

Genetic, species and ecosystem diversity

Species diversity:  The species diversity peaks in the tropical forest and coral reefs. India has around 2,00,000 species of the total species described.It is defines as variety of different species of living forms in a given area.

Genetic diversity:   These variations help the individuals to have a variant that help it to be suite for the new environment. The more genetic diversity in a population, the more chances in variations.

Ecosystem or Habitat diversity: Ecosystem is the structural and functional unit of the biosphere. Ecosystem diversity is defined as „the aggregation of various habitats, community types and abiotic environment in a given area‟.  India has one of the richest ecosystem diversities, ranging from deserts, plains, hills, mangroves, rainforests to cold Himalayas. Out of the 18 hot spots of biodiversity recognized in the world, India has two of them, Eastern Himalaya and The Western Ghats. Eastern Himalayas is recognized as the “Cradle of Speciation” due to rich diversity of primitive flowering plants.

Bio-geographical classification of India

Bio-geography is the study of the origin of world biota, environmental relationship and distribution of organism, both past and present, over the face of earth.  India is mega diversity country with different types of climate and topography in different parts. Variations due to the variability in flora and fauna . It is important to study and know the distribution, evolution and environmental relationship of plants and animals.  To know about the relationship of flora and fauna, biogeographers classified India into ten biogeographic zones .  They are :

1. Trans-Himalayas
2. Himalayas
3. Dessert
4. Semi-arid
5. Western Ghats
6. Deccan Peninsula
7. Gangetic Plain
8. Northeast India
9. Islands
10. Coasts

Value of biodiversity

Environmental economics (or ecological economics) provides methods of assigning economic values to species, communities and ecosystem. These values include the harvest (or market place) value of resources, the value provided by un-harvested resources in their natural habitat, and the future value of resources. For example, the Asian wild guar could be valued for the meat could be harvested from its current populations, its value for eco-tourism, or its future potential in cattle breeding.

The values can be divided as:

1. Direct values

Direct values, also known as use values and commodity values, are assigned to the products harvested by people. Direct values can be readily estimated by observing the activities of representative groups of people, by monitoring collection points for normal products and by examining the export/ import statistics. These values can be further sub-divided as:

a) Consumptive use value

It can be assigned to goods such as fuel wood and goods that are consumed locally and do not figure in national and international market

b) Productive use value

It is assigned to products that are derived from the wild and sold in commercial markets, both national as well as international markets.

2.    Indirect values

Indirect values are assigned to benefits provided by biodiversity that do not involve harvesting or destroying the natural resource. Such benefits include ecological benefits such as soil formation, nutrient cycling, waste disposal, air and water purification, education, recreation, future options for human beings, etc. Indirect value can be further sub-divided as:

a) Non-consumptive use value

It is assigned to benefits such as soil formation/ protection, climate regulation, waste disposal, water and air purification, eco-tourism, medical research, etc.

b) Aesthetic, social and cultural value

The diversity of life on Earth brings us many aesthetic and cultural benefits. It adds to the quality of life, providing some of the most beautiful and appealing aspects of our existence.

Biodiversity is an important quality of landscape beauty. Many species of birds, large land mammals, sea animals and flowering plants are appreciated for their beauty. Millions of people enjoy hiking, camping, picnics, fishing, wildlife watching, and other recreational activities based on nature. These activities provide invigorating physical exercise and allow us to practice pioneer living skills. Contact with nature can also be psychologically and emotionally restorative. In many cultures, nature carries spiritual connotations, and a particular plant or animal species or landscape may be inextricably linked to a sense of identity and meaning.

Today we continue to imbue certain animals and plants with cultural significance; for instance, in India tiger and peacock, which are endangered, are especially valued because they have been adopted as national animal and bird respectively.

c) Option value

The option value of a species is its potential to provide our economic benefit to human society in the near future. For instance, there are several plant species which are edible and superior than those which are currently in use; e.g. Katemfe, a plant found in W. Africa, produces proteins that are 1,600 times sweeter than sucrose.

d) Existence value

It is assigned to protect wildlife. Since, for many people, the value of wildlife goes beyond the opportunity to photograph or even see a particular species. They argue that ‘existence value’, based on simply knowing that a species exist, is a sufficient reason to protect and preserve it. This right to exists was also stated in the U.N. General Assembly World Charter for Nature, 1982.

e) Ethical value

Moral justification for conservation of biodiversity is based on the belief that species have a moral right to exist, independent of our need for them. Consequently, the argument follows that in our role as the most intelligent species on Earth we have a responsibility to try as much as possible for the continuance of all forms of life.

Ethical values are deep rooted within human culture, a religion and society, but, those who look on cost benefit analysis, they overlook these ethical values. International boycotts of furs, teak and ivory are the good examples of moral justification.

Consumptive use, productive use

Various uses of biodiversity regarding direct and indirect values are as follows:

1. Timber

Wood is one of few commodities used and traded worldwide that is mainly harvested from wild sources. It is also one of the economically most important commodities in national and international trade. Wood export constitutes a significant part of the export earnings of many tropical developing countries. Malaysia, Papua New Guinea and Indonesia are among the major exporters of hardwoods, including prized timbers such as teak and mahogany, produced mainly from natural forests.

2.     Fishery

Fish and other fishery products make up another class of commodities of great economic importance in international trade that are harvested mainly from wild sources. These resources are also of crucial importance to global food security. Annual landings of aquatic resources have increased nearly five-times in the past four decades; and more than 80% was harvested from marine capture fisheries, the remainder was from inland fisheries and from aquaculture, both inland and marine. Though there are over 22,000 species of fish, but just ten individual marine fish species make up one-third of marine capture landings. The most important are the herrings, sardines and anchovies group.

3.     Food

Food plants exemplify the most fundamental values of biodiversity. Presently, around 200 species have been domesticated as food plants. Out of these about 15 to 20 are of major international economic importance.

4.     Medicinal value

Living organisms provide us with many useful drugs and medicines. Digitalis, an important drug in the treatment of certain heart ailments, comes from a small flowering plant – purple foxglove; Penicillin is a derivative of fungus; and so on. The UNDP estimates the value of pharmaceutical products derived from Third World plants, animals and microbes to be more than $30 billion per year.

There are numerous organisms that may produce useful medical compounds that are as yet unknown and untested. For instance coral reefs offer a particularly promising use in pharmaceutical drugs, because many coral reef species produce toxins to defend themselves. Many plant species native to India such as Neem, Tulsi, etc. too have potential medicinal applications.

5.     Genetic value

Biological diversity is a valuable genetic resource. Most of the hybrid varieties of crops under cultivation have been developed by incorporating useful genes from different species of plants to produce better quality of the product with longer self-life or having better resistance to pests. Though such breeding techniques are unlimited in scope; but, for getting better strains in future, it is essential to build-up a gene-pool because the quality, yield, and resistance to pests, disease and adverse climatic conditions mostly depend on genetic factors and combination of genes which may be different in different strains/ varieties of species. There are hundreds of examples which illustrate how genetic modification helped in improved quality of the product. A few of them are mentioned as under:

The genes from a wild variety of melon grown in U.P. Helped in imparting resistance to powdery mildew in musk-melons grown in California (USA).

The genes from the Kans grass (Saccharum Spontaneium) grown in Indonesia helped in imparting resistance to red rot disease of sugarcane.

A wild variety of rice from U.P. Saved millions of hectares of paddy crop from Grossy-Stunt virus.

6.     Tourism

Tourism industry is mainly based on observation of wildlife within protected areas and is a major source of income for many developing countries. Tourism is the major source of foreign income for Kenya. Eco-tourism is now getting more attention and it includes interest in the all species of plants and animals, and forests.

7.     Poor and indigenous people

Poor and indigenous people of under-developed countries are dependent on diversity in forests and wildlife for food, shelter, tools, and materials for clothing and medicines. Further reduction in the biodiversity can further increase the poverty of these poor people.

8.     Pollution control

Plants and certain micro-organisms in particular can remove toxic substances from the air, water and soil. Since the different species have different characteristics and capabilities, therefore, a diversity of species can provide wide range of pollution control. For example, toxins like carbon-di-oxide and sulphur-di-oxide are removed by vegetation; carbon-monoxide is controlled by soil fungi and bacteria.

Social, ethical, aesthetic and option values

Economic values: Biodiversity provides humans with raw materials for consumption and production. Many livelihoods, such as those of farmers, fishers and timber workers, are dependent on biodiversity.

Ecological values : Biodiversity provides functioning ecosystems that supply oxygen, clean air and water, pollination of plants, pest control, wastewater treatment and many ecosystem services.

Ethical values : This  related to biodiversity conservation are based on the importance of protecting all forms of life against illegal activities like cloning of animals, smuggling of valuable biodiversity instances, bio-piracy, illicit trade etc.

Aesthetic Values: Beautiful nature of plants and animals is the most important value of biodiversity is eco – tourism.

Biodiversity at global, national and local levels

Biodiversity patterns occur within species, communities, habitats, regions, ecosystems, biomes and the entire Earth. The within-species diversity is studied as genetic diversity and refers to the total number of characteristics in the genetic composition of a species. A biodiversity hotspot is a biogeography region with a significant reservoir of biodiversity that is threatened with destruction. An area is designated as a hotspot when it contains at least 0.5% of plant species as endemic. There are 25 such hotspots of biodiversity on a global level, out of which two are present in India These are: Indo-Burma (earlier The Eastern Himalayas) and The western Ghats & SriLanka. These hotspots covering less than2% of the world’s land area are found to have about 50% of the terrestrial biodiversity.

India as a mega-diversity nation

Biodiversity has three aspects, viz. Genetics, species and ecosystem. India is recognized to be uniquely rich in all these three aspects. The country has a rich heritage of biodiversity, encompassing a wide spectrum of habitats from tropical rainforests to alpine vegetation, and from temperate forests to coastal wetlands. Almost all the biogeographical regions of the world are represented here in India. With a mere 2.4% of the total land area of the world, the known biodiversity of India contributes 8.22% of the known global biodiversity. India is one of the twelve mega-diversity nations of the world accounting for 7.31% of the global faunal and 10.88% of the global floral total species. Currently available data place India in the tenth position in the world and fourth in the Asia in plant diversity. In terms of number of mammalian species, the country ranks tenth in the world; and in terms of endemic species of higher vertebrates, it ranks eleventh. In terms of number of species contributed to agriculture and animal husbandry, it ranks seventh in the world.

Some of the salient features of India’s biodiversity are as under:

• India has two major realms called the Palaearctic and the Indo Malayan; and three biomes, namely the tropical humid forests, the tropical dry deciduous forests and the warm desert/ semi-deserts.
• India has ten bio geographic regions, namely the Trans-Himalayan, the Himalayan, the Indian desert, the semi-arid zone, the Western Ghats, the Deccan Peninsula, the Genetic plain, North-East India, the Islands, and the coasts.
• India is one of the 12 mega-diversity nations of the world.
• India is one of the 12 centres of origin of cultivated plants.
• There are two hotspots that extend into India. There are the Western Ghats/ Sri Lanka and the Indo-Burma region (covering the Eastern Himalayas). Further these hotspots are included amongst the top eight most important or hottest hotspots.
• India has 26 recognised endemic centres that are home to nearly a third of all the flowering plants (angiosperms) identified and described to date.
• India has six Ramsar Wetlands. They are –

• Chilika Lake, Harike Lake, Loktak Lake, Keoladeo National Park, Wular Lake and Sambhar Lake.
• India has 5 world heritage sites namely, Kaziranga National Park, Keolades Ghana National Park, Manas Wildlife Sanctuary, Nanda Devi National Park and Sundarban National Park.
• India has twelve biosphere reserves, namely Nilgiri, Nanda Devi, Nokrerk, Manas, Sunderbans, Gulf or Mannar, Great Nicobar, Similpal, Dibru-Saikhowa, Dehang Debang, Pachmarchi and Kanchanjanga.
• Further, amongst the protected areas, there are 88 national parks and 490 sanctuaries in India covering an area of 1.53 lakh sq.km.

Hot-spots of biodiversity

• The most remarkable places/ areas on earth are also the most threatened ones, and many of them have been reduced to less than 10 percent of their original vegetation. These places/ areas are called hotspots of biodiversity for preservation. Hotspots are the main areas of focus for biodiversity conservation. These are the areas that are extremely rich in biodiversity, have high level of endemism, and are under constant threat of species extinctions and habit destruction.
• Recently, Norman Myers and a team of scientists have brought out updated lists of 25 hotspots (Myers et. Al. 2000). These identified hotspots of biodiversity are
• Caribbean, California Floristic Province and Mesoamereca in North and Central America; Tropical Andes, Choco-Darien-Western Ecuador, Atlantic Forest, Brazilian Cerrado and Central Chile in South America; Caucasus and Mediterranean Basin in Europe and Central Asia; Madgascar and Indian Ocean Islands, Eastern Arc Mountains and Coastal Forests, Guinean Forests of West Africa, Cape Floristic Region and Succulent Karoo in Africa; Mountains of Southwest China, Indo-Burma and Western Ghats of India in Mainland Asia; and Philippines, Sundaland, Wallacea, Southwest Australia, Newzeland, New Calenonia and Pollynesia and Micronesia in Asia Pacific region..
• The two hotspots of biodiversity that extend into India.

The two hotspots that extend into India are the:

1. Indo-Burma and Western Ghat

2. Sri Lanka.

1. Indo-Burma

The Indo-Burma hotspot covers about 2 million square kilometres of tropical Asia east of the Indian subcontinent. The hotspot includes all of Cambodia, Vietnam and Laos, and nearly the entire areas of Thailand, Myanmar and Bhutan, as well as part of Nepal, far eastern India and extreme southern China. In addition, it covers several offshore Islands including Mainan Islands in the South China Sea, and the Andaman and Nicobar Islands in the Indian Ocean. Today, it is estimated that about 1,00,000 square kilometres or 5% of the original extent of the habitat is in pristine condition.

The entire hotspot was originally covered with broad-leaf forests; but, today, only fragments remain. In these fragments, a wide variety of ecosystems is represented including deciduous, wet evergreen dry evergreen and montane forests. Also, there are patches of shrublands, woodlands and scattered heath forests. The hotspot has the world’s highest diversity of freshwater turtle species. Moreover, the hotspot is still revealing its biological treasures, for example, three large mammal species have been discovered in recent years.

2.     Western ghats and Sri Lanka

The hotspot encompasses the montane forests in the south-western parts of India and on the neighbouring Island of Sri Lanka. Although the two forest blocks are separated from each other by about 400 kilometres of land and water, yet they are similar enough that they can be grouped into a single hotspot. Though the entire extent of the hotspot was originally about 1,82,500 square kilometres; but, due to tremendous population pressure, now only 12,445 square kilometres or 6.8% is in pristine condition.

The Western Ghat Mountains stretch from India’s southern tip of Gujarat in the North, and run parallel to the country’s western coast. They cover an area of about 1,60,000 square kilometres. The western slopes of the mountains receive heavy annual rainfall, whereas the eastern slopes are drier. The wet tropical south-western zone of Sri Lanka is remarkably similar to the Western Ghats because of the repeated appearance and disappearance of a land bridge between them over many thousands of years.

The predominant vegetation of the entire hotspot includes deciduous and tropical rain forests, montane forests and grasslands, as well as scrup forests in lower, drier areas. The hotspot is home to a diverse and endemic assemblage of plants, reptiles and amphibians. The important populations include Asian elephants, Indian tigers and the endangered lion-tailed macaque.

Threats to biodiversity

Human actions have caused extinctions (elimination of species) over a long time, not just in recent decades. The earliest humans probably caused extinctions through hunting; with the invention of fire, humans began to change habitats over large areas; with the development of agriculture and the rise of civilization, rapid deforestation and other habitat changes took place; as new areas were explored, the introduction of exotic species became an important cause of extinction; later, in the twentieth century, with the introduction of industrial chemicals and emissions, pesticides, etc. into the environment, pollution has become an increasingly significant cause of extinction.

Habitat loss

Habitat loss : Habitat loss & degradation are major causes of species extinction, affecting 89% of all threatened birds, 83% of mammals & 91% of all threatened plants assessed globally. The main causes of habitat are agriculture activities, Mining, development of human settlement, industry etc.

Poaching of wildlife

Poaching of Wildlife: Poaching is another threat that has emerged in recent decades as one of the primary reason for decline in number of species. Wildlife is sold and traded in many countries for live specimens, folk medicines, furs, Skin, and other products such as Ivory, horns etc amounting to millions of dollars.

Man-wildlife conflicts

Man –wildlife conflicts: The conflict between man and wildlife started with the evolution of man, but intensity increased due to the activities of modern man. Due to the lack of stable food and disruption of movement, wild animals came out of forest area and attack the agricultural field and humans and in turn got killed by the humans.

Endangered and endemic species of India

Endangered species of India: When the number of species has been reduced to a critical level . Unless it is protected and conserved, it is in immediate danger of extinction. Unless it is protected and conserved, it is in immediate danger of extinction- 150 birds species, 100 mammals species ,450 plant species.  India’s biodiversity is threatened due to habitat destruction, degradation and over exploitation of resources.

Endemic Species: Species found only in particular region .  In India 47,000 species and 7000 plants are endemic . 62% of our endemic species are found in Himalayas and Western Ghats

1. Fauna – Animals present in a particular region 1. 81,000 species of animals

2. Flora – Plants present in a particular region

Conservation of biodiversity

In-situ and Ex-situ conservation of biodiversity

In-situ conservation: It simply means conservation of species in its natural ecosystem or even in manmade ecosystems. This strategy emphasizes protection of total ecosystem through a network of “protected area”. Protected Areas: an area of land and / or sea specially dedicated to the protection and maintenance of biological diversity and managed through legal effective means. There are different categories of protected areas which are managed with different objectives. These include; Biosphere reserves, National parks, Wild Life Sanctuaries etc.

Ex-situ conservation: It is defined as “the conservation of component of biological diversity (Sample of genetic diversity, particularly of endangered species) outside their natural habitats”. It involves maintenance and breeding of endangered plant and animal species under partially or wholly controlled conditions. E.g. Zoos, Botanical Gardens, Aquaria, Nurseries, DNA bank, Seed bank, Gene bank etc.

REFERENCES TEXT BOOKS

1. Text book of Environmental Studies for Undergraduate Courses by Erach Bharucha for University

Grants Commission, Universities Press.

2. Environmental Studies by Palaniswamy – Pearson education

3. Environmental Studies by Dr.S.Azeem Unnisa, Academic Publishing Company

4. Textbook of Environmental Science by Deeksha Dave and E.Sai Baba Reddy, Cengage Publications.

5. Text book of Environmental Sciences and Technology by M.Anji Reddy, BS Publication.

6. Comprehensive Environmental studies by J.P.Sharma, Laxmi publications.

7. Environmental sciences and engineering – J. Glynn Henry and Gary W. Heinke – Prentice hall of India Private limited.

8. A Text Book of Environmental Studies by G.R.Chatwal, Himalaya Publishing House

9. Introduction to Environmental engineering and science by Gilbert M. Masters and Wendell P. Ela - Prentice hall of India Private limited.