Unit 1

The Concept Of Word Formation

1.1.          The Concept of Word Formation

English vocabulary has been enriched from time to time from other languages.New words are either borrowed or coined. Roughly 70% of the words in English are borrowed or coined. T.C. Baruah says "A word says "A word is the smallest meaningful unit of sound.Every language has its own distinct patterns of combining morphemes to get larger units.

A form to which a rule of word-formation applied is called a base. Once a base has undergone a rule of word-formation the derived word itself may become the base for another, deviation and by re-application.It is possible to derive words of considerable morphological and semantic complexity. There are three major processes by which the base is modified. They are:

1. Affixation
2. Conversion
3. Compounding

There are some other minor devices also called reduplication, clipping blending and acronym.

AFFIXATION: Prefixes and Suffixes
 

Change is the forte of any living language. Affixes are those used to form new words. These affixes are added either before or after the base form. It is of two types. Prefixation and suffixation.

Below are examples of some commonly used prefixes with their meanings:

Below are some examples of the most commonly used suffixes with the change in forms of words:

CONVERSION
 

Conversion is the derivational process whereby an item changes its word class without the addition of either a prefix or suffix. In this process the same word is made to serve different grammatical functions. Many English words belong to more than one part of speech Ex: hope, love, work may be nouns as well as verbs. In addition to this,there is a deliberate transfer of a word from one part of speech to another. He calls it a conversion.

i) Verb - Noun conversion:
a) State - State of mind/sensation/doubt, love etc.

Ii) Adjective - Noun conversion:
He seemed average (adjective)

The average was eighty (noun)

Iii) Noun - Verb conversion:

a)     To put in/on noun bottle (to put into a bottle) corner, floor.

b)    To give or to provide with somethingcoat - to give a coat of paint- mask.

Iv) Adjective Verb conversion:
They were very humble (adjective)

They humbled him (Verb)

v) Adjective - Adverb Conversion:
The poem reads well (adjective)

He reads the poem well (adverb)

Vi) Stress shift:
con ‘duct (n) – ‘conduct (n)

Pro’duce (v) – ‘produce (n)

COMPOUNDS

English has a genius pattern for the formation of very expressing compound words. A compound word is a unit that consists of two or more words. There are no formal criteria that can be used for a general definition of compounds.

Orthographically they are written as one-word (bedroom) sometimes they are hyphenated (tax-free) and sometimes as two words without a hyphen (reading room) compounds may be classified on the basis of their syntax.

A. Noun compounds:
i)Subject and verb compounds:
The sun rises: Sunrise
The day breaks Day break
The girl dances: Dancing girl.

Ii) Verb and object compounds:
x calls the girl: call girl
x chews gum: chewing gum
x pays taxes: Tax payer
xsee sights: sight seeing

Iii) Verb and Adverbial compounds:
x swims in the pool: swimming pool
x sits with the baby; baby sitter
xwork at home : Home work

Iv) Noun + Noun (Verb compound)
Wind mill, Toy factory, Blood stain, Oak tree, girl-friend, motor cycle,Ashtray

v) Other noun & noun
It names an entire thing by specifying some features.
Paper back - the book has a paper back
- blockhead - pot-belly, blue bell, bird brain, high brow, loudmouth
- pale face, fat head, etc.

B. Adjective compounds:
a) Verb+Object compounds
Man - Eating - x eats man
- heart breaking
- self-defeating
- breath taking

b) Verb+Adverb compounds:
x goes across oceans: Ocean going
x feel it in the heart :Heart felt
x  works hard : Hard working

Reduplicative

Re-duplicatives are compounds which have two or more elements either identical or only slightly different.
eg: goody-goody (affectedly good)

The difference between the two elements may be in the initial consonants as in walkie-talkie or in the medial vowels egcriss-cross Most of the re-duplicatives are highly informal or familiar.

a)to imitate sounds:
tick-tack, bow-vow, ding-dong, ping-pong, flip-flap

b) to suggest alternative movements
see -saw

c) to identify
tip-top

d) to disparage by suggesting instability, nonsense, insincerity, vacillation, etc.
e.g:

• Humpty – dumpty
• Hurry – burry
• Hanky-panky                                                        
• Higgledy–piggledy
• Pell–mell
• Wishy - washy
• Zig – zag

CLIPPING
 

It is formed by the people who are fond of brevity - the term clipping notes the subtraction of one or more syllable from a word. This is used in informed style.

The shortening may occur at

a)   The beginning of the word:
Telephone – phone
Omnibus - bus
aeroplane– plane

b)  The end of the word :
Mike – Microphone
exam - examination
Movies - Moving pictures
add – advertisement
Photo – Photograph

c)   At both ends of the word:
flu –influenza

BLENDS

In a blend atleast one of the elements is fragmentary; words are coined by combining parts of words. Many blends have only a short life and are very informal.

e.g.
Motel from Motor + Hotel

Smog from smoke + Fog

Transistor from Transfer + Registor

Brunch from breakfast + lunch

Electrocute from Electro + Execute

Telecast from Television + Broadcast

ACRONYMS:

Acronyms are words formed from the initial letters of words. They are abbreviations of words. They are pronounced as a succession of Letters (alphabetisms) as in BBC, TV etc or as words in NATO, SEATO,etc.

A)Alphabetisms:
C.O.D - Cash on delivery
U.N - United Nations
G.H.Q - General head quarters

b) Words:
UNESCO - United Nations educational scientific and cultural organization
RADAR - Radio Detection and Ranging.

By the process of word formation, the original roots have acquired a variety of meaning.

1.2.          Root Words from Foreign Languages and Their Use in English

English is part of the German branch of the family of Indo-European language, so why is it so influenced in Latin and Greek? Although the origin of the English languages ​​was introduced in England at the beginning of the 5th century by people from Denmark and Germany, the language was not entirely different from what we speak today.

When the Normans, a number of French Catholics, invaded the British islands in 1066, they came with their two languages: Latin and French. Because they were a ruling party long after the invasion, English became the language of the weak, effectively forcing English speakers to accept Latin and French words in their own language to match. Since the Renaissance began, nearly 500 years later, many Latin words, as well as those of the Greeks, were included to make English a more '' learned 'language because of the Renaissance's emphasis on classics.

• Abacus:
  Abacus is derived from the Greek word - abax, meaning "sand tray."
   
• Allegory:
  Allegory is derived from Greek - allos meaning "other" and agora meaning gathering place (especially the market). Eventually words join and are linked to the verb to speak of one thing and another to mean another.
   
• Apricot:
  The term comes from the French -  abricot - and it was a bit confusing until the fifteenth century - it does not have a single simple etymology, but rather a mixture of many theories under consideration. But all these roads lead to Rome, from where that name - and fruit - began to spread throughout Europe.
   
• Addictive:
  Slaves agreed to allow Roman soldiers to pay for a concert in battle they were considered addicted to. Finally, a person who was addicted to anything called addiction.
   
• Alarm:
  From Italian, "All'arme" - "To arms!"
   
• Alcohol:
  Alcohol is taken from an Arabic al-kuhl, which has meant that there is a very good antimony powder used for eye makeup. It voiced the idea of ​​something so elegant and smooth, so the Arabic alchemists give the name of al-khul which brings in any insubstantial powder obtained by slow release (a direct conversion of a solid base into a vapor, or process of return), and thus for all computers available through the sanitization process.
   
• Algebra:
  The name means "the science of equations" in English comes from an article by one of al-Khowarizmi's (see "algorithm"), "Ab his AL-JAHR w'almuqaBAlah", meaning, "The Science of Transportation and Sanitation/ Cancellation."
   
• Algorithm:
  The name means "rules of computing" in English, which is based on al-Khowarizmi (Try saying it soon), an Arabic mathematician who lives around A.D. 825 who completed the best known numerical work using Arabic numerals.
   
• Appendix:
  In Latin it means "the hanging part." The human supplement hangs at the end of a large stomach; appendices given at the end of the book.
   
• Assassin:
  Assassin from the old Arabic word "hashshshin," means "person who loves hash," that is, marijuana. Earlier it was referring to a group of heroes who would smoke before the war.
   
• Asthma:
  Latin for asthma, "asthma," meaning "asthma" and "hypertension." The Latin word is derived from the Greek that feels the same.
   
• Avocado:
  Avocado from "awaguatl," the original American testicle name. The Spaniards got the word and used to refer to what we now call avocado.
   
• Ballot:
  Ballot, an Italian word meaning "small ball or pebble or stone." Italian citizens voted by placing a small stone or ball in one of the many boxes.
   
• Barbarian:
  Barbarian from "barbaroi" in Greek, meaning "babblers”.
   
• Bead:
  Bead from the Old English "gebed," which means, "prayer."
   
• Biscuit:
  Biscuit from mediaeval French 'Bis + cuit' which means 'double cooked'
   
• Boulevard:
  Boulevard from (French) Boulevard; and Bulwark
   
• Bucolic:
  From the Greek "boukolos," meaning "shepherd," from "bous," meaning "ox."
   
• Bulimia:
  Bulimia comes from the Greek "bous" meaning "ox" and "limos," which means "starvation," probably because a person with Bulimia is hungry for beef.
   
• Cab:
  Old Italian terminology for goat (cabra in Spanish).
   
• Calculate:
  The calculation comes from calculus, the Latin word pebble.
   
• Canter: (Spanish) Singing
  From the Latin "Cantare," which means, "to sing often." Latin "Canere" simply means "to sing."
   
• Carnival:
  Literal meaning: "Flesh, farewell." The end of "val" does not appear in the Latin "Vale." The modern Italian carnevale comes from the Old Italian "carnelevare"; levare = raise, place, remove. ) where people used to fast.
   
• Catharsis:
  In Early Modern English, it is used in the sense of "cleaning." The concept of this name was still used as recently as 1803.
   
• Candidate:
  From the Latin Candidus a word that means, "bright, shining, white, white." The ancient Roman members who were elected to this position wore bright white hats. The same name also spelled out the "firm", who are often not elected.
   
• Cell:
  Originally meant a monastery. It was Robert Hooke, who invented the first telescope. His first guess was the cork stem, which was made up of small columns. To him, the tiny fractions were like the little monasteries in which they lived, known as cells. Therefore, he called these microscopic building blocks "cells".
   
• Chapel:
  From the Cape "Italian" Capella, since the original Chapel was where the cape ("capella") of the St. Martin of Tour was kept.
   
• Vulture and Chasm:
  From the Greek "chainein," which means, "to soften"; So chaos was "just the beginning of the abyss" without the known universe we know.
   
• Champion; and Campus:
  Check out Kampf
   
• Charlatan: 
  From the Spanish "charlar” for discussion /to chat.
   
• Cheers:
  From the Greek "Kara" for "face," with Latin "Cara," and the French French "Chiere". So "Take courage," it means, "Put on a happy face."
   
• Chocolate:
  It comes from the Spanish word for the same name, which came from the Nahuatl word (Aztecs language) "tchocoatl."
   
• Cider:
  It comes from the Greek Greek sycamore, which came from an ancient Hebrew shekel, which means "any alcoholic beverage other than wine made to ferment fruit juice."
   
• Claim:
  From the Latin "clamor", which is a judicial or public appeal raised on the discovery of sin.
   
• Coward:
  From Old French "coe" which means "tail." The OED adds, "The exact indication of the tail is uncertain: it may be an animal that 'turns tail' on a plane, or a practice in frightened animals to draw the tail between the hind legs: cf. The use of Heraldic in theory B 2. It is noteworthy that in the Old French version of Reynard the Fox ,Coart is the name of a hare: this may be a descriptive adjective with regard to its zeal; it is closed, and that the word is then transferred to 'the heart of a hare.'
   
• Companion: Compañero (Spanish); Copain (French) Partner
  From the Latin "Companionem," which was, "breadwinner" - "Con" (also) and "Pan" (bread) - your "partner" may have been someone to break bread with. "Look again to the Lord and take care of it.
   
• Cretin:
  From the French "Crétin", which originally meant "Christian."
   
• The cup:
  See Kopf
   
• Currant:
  From the Corinthians
   
• Curfew:
  From the French "couvrir feu," literally, "Cover the Fire."
   
• Daisy:
  From "Eye of the Day." George Eddington writes, "Not special in itself, but Mata Hari also means" Eye of the day, "the young woman took the name because she lived in the Dutch East Indies and heard the natives so much in the sun. "
   
• Debonair:
  French "good spirit." In the Middle Ages, people's lives were judged in part by the way they smiled. The person giving out “a good spirit” was viewed as a healthier and happier person.
   
• Deer:
  From the Old English "deor," which means "animal."
   
• Demon: (German and English)
  From the Greek "Daimon" this supernatural force is somewhere between humans and gods, without undesirable touch. An example would be the daimon of Socrates. The daimonans had a genius that did not conform to our modern ideas of good or evil: it was a natural force that could give clues about the circumstances and the critical actions.
   
• Denim:
  The heavy cloth used for jeans was originally made in Nimes, France, as well as in Genoa, Italy (see jean). It was renamed Serge di Nimes - later reduced to di Nimes, which became denim.
   
• Derive:
  From the Latin "De Rivus," "From the broadcast."
   
• Deutsch: (German by German)
  "Deutsch" comes from the Old German word "diutisc" which means "human language" (as opposed to Latin). There are uncertain hints of the "Germanic" origins as the Celtic "Angry Men" or Old High German "Greedy Men"!
   
• Dexterity:
  From the Latin "dexter," meaning "right" (in the left sense).
   
• Dibbs:
  It is suggested that this phrase is based on an old children's play called dibstones. The game, which was played with sheep knuckle-bones or gemstones, dates back to at least the 17th century (that's right, that's when the name started being written). The goal was to catch his opponent's stones, and when a stone was hit, the winner would call "Dibbs!" with the meaning "I want [stone]". It was recently used out of the game but with the same meaning, and there you have it. Interestingly, the use of this outside of the game was not recorded until 1932 in the US. (Lee Quinn)
   
• Elite:
  From the Latin Latin, which means "to choose," from which we find a modern Spanish word that means the same, elegir.
   
• Escape:
  In Latin, escape means "out of the cape." The ancient Romans often avoided arresting the runaway population.
   
• Essay:
  The English noun phrase comes from the French verb "story", to try. The earliest scholars believed that their papers were a modest attempt to present their papers.
   
• Exchequer:
  The Moors introduced Abacus in Europe to expand the Europeans, and monks distributed the device throughout Europe. In Britain, it was used but in its simplicity: they used a checkbox and letters such as checks (instead of using standard rods and beads) - and this gave the British version an "exchequer" to the "Chancellor" of the Exchequer.
   
• Faro: (Spanish) Lighthouse
  An ancient island from Egypt, the Paroah Island, had a lighthouse.
   
• Forest:
  From the same French meaning, Forest comes directly from the Latin realm, meaning "outdoors," and took the concept of a place restricted or protected by an obstacle. The concept will later outline the legal barriers around areas reserved for royal hunting (as well as logging). Unfortunately, the English foreign word is taken in parallel, indicating a foreigner outside the royal realm, beyond the borders.
   
• Fowl:
  From the English "fugol," which means "bird."
   
• Freedom:
  This comes in German (a literal, modern translation, "Freiheit"), but is actually very close to taking the German word "Friede", which means "quiet"
   
• Fromage (French); Status (Medieval French); Formaggio cheese (Italian)
  From the Latin word for basket or wooden box where curds were cut to form cheese, forma, itself derived from the Greek word phormos (This is where the English word "form" comes from). According to them, the English word cheese, the Spanish word queso and the German word Kaese all come from the Latin word cortus, food too.
   
• Gohen :(Germany) To go
  From the beginning it means, "emptiness"
   
• Genuine:
  It originally meant "put on his knees." In Old Rome, a father formally admitted that his new child by sitting in front of his family put his son on his knees.
   
• Gift:
  From the Old English as "gift," which means, "to pay one's wife" for one meaning "marriage" in the plural. The Middle Dutch "gift", now labeled "gif," meant the same, but today it means "poison." Old High German "gift" turned into "poison". From the root "geb-", from which the English word "give." There is another German word, however, which includes the word "gift", but which retains the old meaning of "paying a wife". The name "Mitgift", which is a modern German word for "dowry".
   
• Gin; Ginebra (Spanish); Genievre (French):
  The English word "gin" comes from the French word genievre, meaning "juniper," a berry name that gives gin its unique, spicy flavor. Unfortunately, the word "juniper" comes from the Celtic word jenupus, which means "spicy." One final note: the name of the western city of Geneva and comes from the same source. Evidently, the countryside around Geneva was initially littered with juniper forests.
   
• Gorilla:
  New Latin from the Greek Gorillai, a tribe of hairy women, probably of African descent.
   
• Groggy:
  It comes from the description that many British sailors face when they are going to drink a lot of "grog", a mixture of rum and water. Grog is said to have taken the nickname "Old Grog" given to British Admiral Vernon by his sailors; much like Lord Mountbatten later, he was in the process of wearing a sort of heavy grogram coat, a soft weather cloth (the name comes from French gros-grain). Sailors began to use his nickname in an amusing way in their rum fragments, after he ordered in 1740 to be purified by water.
   
• Guapo :(Spanish) Handsome
  Guapo, and Chulo ("cool"), both originally had the meaning of "scoundrel", claiming to be "good-looking" perhaps in the form of "heroes." The despicable "Wop" comes from "guapo", in the form of the Italian language "guappo".
   
• Gymnasium:
  The Greek of the place where you train is naked.
   
• Hazard:
  The word came from Arabic "al zahr", which means "dice" and was used by people in Western Europe to name each of the various dice games they learned while in the Holy of Holies during the Crusades. The name eventually caught the attention of the danger, because from the very beginning, dice games were associated with gambling and cartoonists using corrupted dice.
   
• Heresy:
  The Greek is "Choice."
   
• Hierarchy:
  Previously it was the separation of angels from different periods into different stages.
   
• Home:
  From the old English "hum," which also comes with the words, such as Nottingham.
   
• Host, Hospital, Hostel, Hospitality, hospice:
  From the Latin for "nurses, patients," which means, "one who receives stacks in his home." In English, "Host" also means "edible bread eaten at the Hospital"; so the link between friendship and bread is also noteworthy; see Partner with the King.
   
• Husband:
  It comes from the old German words hus and bunda, meaning "house" and "owner," respectively. The word originally had little to do with marital status, except that the fact that home ownership made husbands more desirable to date.
   
• Idea, ideal, Idol:
  Everything from the Greek word "idein" to "seeing"; you see Sanskrit "vid" (knowing) and Latin "videre" (seeing) and English "intelligent." The W / V sound from the Indo-European root is lost in ancient Greek.
   
• Incentive:
  From the Latin word "delicate," meaning "to sing." The idea is "When playing music, one has to = dance."
   
• Jeans:
  Genoa - called "Gene" by the sixteenth-century Europeans - was the first city to make denim cloth (see Denim) used for jeans. The pants were named after the city.
   
• Ketchup:
  The Chinese invented the ke-tsiap - a drawing of spiced fish and spices (but no tomatoes) - in the 1690s. By the early 1700's its popularity had spread to Malaysia, where British explorers first encountered it. By 1740 the sausage - called ketchup - was a peculiar English phenomenon, and was beginning to become popular in American colonies. Tomato ketchup was not invented until the 1790s, when colonies in New England began mixing tomatoes in sauces. It took a long time to add tomatoes to the sauces because, most 18. For a century, people thought they were poisonous, because tomatoes are a close relative of belladonna poisonous plants and nearby plants.
   
• Kike - a shameful, offensive name for a Jew:
  Initially it was developed by German Jews to use against Russian Jews. It comes from the "k" sound at the end of many Russian Jewish words, such as "Lewinsky" or "Lemcoff."
   
• Knave:
  Dropped from the old English word "cnafa" which simply means, "youth."
   
• Knight:
  From the Old English "cniht," which means "boy, servant."
   
• Kopf (in German) Head:
  From the Latin "cup", meaning "cup"; The Romans used the cup as a metaphor for the upper part of the head. Similarly, another Latin word meaning "cup," "testa," has now become the French word "Tête," meaning "head,". Note that the Germans and Celts use "skullcap" "on top of one's head") as a drinking container; this has been part of the recognition of enemy culture. So it has to do with "chief" and "capital" (and "testicle").
   
• Lettuce; and Leche (Spanish) Milk:
  Latin lettuce was "lactuca sativa," which means "milky sap"; so it has to do with the Spanish "leche" of milk and "lactic" and other derivatives.
   
• Liberty:
  The Latin words "Liber," "Libera," and "Liberum" - by Long I - came from a source meaning, "to pour." In this case, we get the word "Freedom" (which is why it's pronounced I) short, from the freedom we feel when we get drunk. See Library (unrelated).
   
• Library:
  From the Latin word, Liber - whose name is I - meaning "divination," which would call for the inner sound of a tree. The earliest manuscripts were written on these bins, and from this bark we find the modern name "Library." See Liberals (unrelated).
   
• Liebe (German) Love:
  From the Latin for the word "Libido," from the Latin "Libere" (for free, as in "Liberals").
   
• Light; and Licht (German) Light:
  It is related to the Latin "Luna," which means, "the moon." "Moonlight" is therefore something like tautology.
   
• Lindo (Spanish) Beautiful:
  Related to "limpid" and "legal."
   
• Lobster:
  From the Latin "locusta," which means "locusts." The OED adds, "The Latin word for origin. It means the same lobster or crustacean, the locust application is suggested by a similarity of position."
   
• Lord:
  It comes from the Anglo-Saxon "hlaford," named after "hlaf" and "weard," and then, "loaf-ward"; likewise, "Lady" comes from the Anglo-Saxon "hlaefdige," or "bread-maid." See also partner and host.
   
• Lucifer:
  Lucifer is Latin for "Light Bringer". The same Hebrew, Haleal, means "antagonist." The passage in Isaiah (the only place in the Old Testament that mentions Lucifer) uses the Hebrew word for the Morning Star (ie planet Venus). The verse refers to the Babylonian king excessively, saying that he regarded himself as God, just as the Morning Star is a shining light in the sky, but pearls in comparison to the sun.
   
• Lukewarm:
  Tautology; "luke" Means warm or lukewarm [from ME lew, yes, luke, lewk and OE hleowand h hrr = lukvuarm]
   
• Madera (Spanish) Wood:
  From Latin materia, from PIE * mater-, meaning "mother"
   
• Malaria:
  From the medieval Italy "mal" "(bad) and" aria "(wind), which describes miasma from areas around Rome during the summer months, which are believed to be the cause of the downfall.
   
• Mayonnaise:
  The suffix spoken is French for "native" or "from within." Mahonnaise is said to have been created to celebrate the victory of the French war of 1756 by defeating the British on the Spanish island of Port Mahon.
   
• Marcher (French) To Walk:
  The OED states, "The etymology of Fr. March is obscure; the passing idea is that the ancient engraving concept of 'tread' was based on the concept of hammer ', and that the name stands for Gaulish Latin * marcare, f. L. Marcus hammer. "
   
• Mark (German) The German unit of currency (pre-Euro):
  Originally meant "Borderland," from medieval German border towns - that's why the English word "Mark," as it stands, "mark the border." So, the German place names, Finland, Dänemark, Ostmark, etc. From Mark German, we also find the "marshal" of French as well as Spanish, Portuguese, Italian, and Catalan, "marca."
   
• Mistress:
  From the French "Maîtresse," which means "bride".
   
• Money:
  From the Latin word "moneta" which means "warning"
   
• Mound; and Monde (French),  Mundo (Spanish) World:
  From pre-Christian, the German word "mund" or protection, such as that given by a family or tribal leader to group members. This was also the name of the small garbage hills or "protection" used to bury deceased members of the nation. It is interesting to note that the name was introduced by the Germanic tribes (ie, Goths, Visigoths, Vandals, Alemani, Suevi) who invaded the Roman province of the late fifth century AD and where they derived the word "this monde" (in French) and "el mundo. "(Spanish) meaning" earth "(literally" mound of clay ").
   
• Muscle:
  From the Latin mus (mouse) and ele (dim.) - a small mouse that goes under the skin when flexed.
   
• Museum, Mosaic:
  Both from the Greek Muse (the Latin museum for "The Place of the Muses"; the mosaic is from the Greek logoios, "related to the Muses")
   
• Mustard (Eng.) / Moutarde (Fr.) / Mostrich (N. Ger. Dialect) / Mostarda (It.) / Mostaza (Sp.):
  As a courtesy, mustard has been enjoyed for thousands of years. It is made from the crushed seeds of a member of the Cruciferae family known as Sinapis. Originally, crushed seeds were mixed with vinegar - much as we enjoy it today - but vinegar was eventually replaced for some time in the Middle Ages with grapes "must" (which is the result of the win-win process). So, the word "must" ard. The botanical name Sinapis introduced the French name of the plant itself, seneve, and the German name of the mustard, Senf.
   
• Nacht (German) Night:
  Originally it meant “Day,” as the ancient Germans, like the ancient Jews, measured daily from sunset to sunset. See also Tag.
   
• Nemesis:
  From the same Greek, it originally meant, "the act of distributing or distributing others" and later "wrath and vengeance, righteous indignation for breaking the law."
  Nemesis was the god that restored balance. It would have been a mass of shipowners to introduce the ship without sacrificing to the gods, for example, this destructive act could provoke a counter-reaction, as we saw with the Titanic. There was no judgment or divine punishment involved, simply a response from another world to the loss that occurred in this country.
   
• Nice:
  From the Latin word "nescius," which means "ignorance," and, at various times before the appointment of the present meaning means "foolish" then "foolishly accurate" and "precisely accurate" and "correctly accurate" and then our current definition.
   
• Noon:
  It is derived from the Latin noun. The word "afternoon" originally meant nine o'clock after sunrise, or 3:00 p.m .-- usually the hottest part of the day and time when most people in the Roman Empire skipped lunch.
   
• Nostril:
  From Old English "nosthryl," they came from the OE words "nosu" (meaning "nose") and "thryl" (meaning "pit").
   
• Occasion:
  From the Latin place, which means, "an accident, or a great event."
   
• October:
  From the Latin octu (m), meaning "eighty," and imber, meaning "rain." The same "Imber" in September.
   
• Office:
  It originally meant, "Church Server." (Note the country of origin of that name.)
   
• Old; and Alt (German) Elder:
  "Alt" originally meant, "You've grown"; the "growth" role; related to "Alan," which means, "to grow" but is no longer available in modern German. In ancient English, the word "Alan" was also used in the same sense of growth or diet. Latin related "alt" which means "high."
   
• Omelette:
  Coming to English by using the French word for the same, the word is thought to come from the Latin word lamella, "small plate," referring to the longer, more omlette form, as well as to represent the gradual decomposition of allumelle first, then allumelette. Alomelette (The cuisinerfrancois of 1651 has aumelette). The modern name "omelette" first appears in the 1784 Chinese bourgeoise.
   
• Opportunity:
  From the Latin Ob-, meaning "in relation to," and portu (m), meaning "port."
   
• Orange (Eng.); Orange (Fr.); Naranja (Sp.); Arancia (It.):
  Interestingly, none of those terms come from the Latin word for orange, citrus aurentium; instead, all of them come from the traditional Sanskrit nagaranga, which accurately means "fatal indigestion for elephants." In certain traditions the orange, not the apple, is that the fruit liable for sin . There was an ancient Malay fable--which made its way into the Sanskrit tongue round the Seventh or Eighth Centuries B.C.--that links the orange to the sin of gluttony and has an elephant because the culprit. Apparently, at some point an elephant was passing through the forest, when he found a tree unknown to him during a clearing, bowed downward by its weight of lovely , tempting oranges; as a result, the elephant ate numerous that he burst. a few years later a person stumbled upon the scene and noticed the fossilized remains of the elephant with many orange trees growing from what had been its stomach. The person then exclaimed, "Amazing! What a nagaranga (fatal indigestion for elephants)!"
   
• Ostracize:
  "Ostron" may be a Greek word for pottery. Periodically the Greeks would hold an election to work out if someone was a danger to their community. Everyone would write their votes on broken pieces of pottery ("ostron") and if the vote was successful, the person was banished or "ostracized."
   
• Pagan:
  From the Latin paganu(m), for "someone who isn't from the town , rather from the country." In Late Latin , this became pagensis, "one who is from the country," and this utimately became the French pays and thus the Spanish País, both meaning "nation."
   
• Palaver:
  From the Spanish, "palabra," meaning, "word."
   
• Parlour (French) to talk :
  From the Latin "Parabolare," meaning, "to tell parables."
   
• Pavilion:
  Pavillion comes from the Latin "papilion-em," meaning, "butterfly." Pavillion meant a tent and therefore the allusion is to butterfly wings.
   
• Pay:
  Pay goes back ultimately to Latin, "pax" peace, by way of , appease, pacify. So "pay" originally meant "pay off," to stay the peace.
   
• Pedigree:
  From the French "Ped de gru," which suggests or meant, "Crane's foot," the /|\ symbol "used to denote succession during a genealogical table."
   
• Peach:
  When the peach first made its thanks to the Roman Empire from Persia, it had been called malum persicum, "Persian apple." The persicum then became pessicum, pessica and pesca (In modern Russian, it's still piersika.). The Italians have retained the term pesca, and it's become "peach" in English, peche in French, and Pfirsich in German. The Spanish differ from the remainder of Europe in calling it melocoton, literally "cotton-skinned apple"--from melum, "apple," and cotonium, meaning "quince" in Latin.
   
• Pecuniary:
  From the latin "pecunia," which originally meant, "wealth from livestock."
   
• Pearl:
  From from the Latin leg, because the bi-valve that produces pearls seems like a leg-of-mutton.
   
• Pineapple (Eng.); Piña (Sp.); Nana (Fr.); Ananas (Germ.):
  When Columbus landed in Guadeloupe in 1493, he found pineapples, which probably had originally come from Brazil. As Father de Acosta observed as early as 1589, the Spanish thought this new fruit resembled a pine cone; hence, the Spanish name of pinya, and therefore the English name of "pineapple" (the fruit was often just called a "pine" when it had been first introduced into Britain). The word nanais some of the Brazilian Guarani word meaning "perfumed" and was retained in both French and German.
   
• Pedestrian:
  Originally meant a lover (originally of Aristotle).
   
• Planet:
  From the Greek "Planasthai" for "to wander."
   
• Porcelain (French) Porcelaine:
  French porcelaine, from Old French pourcelaine, from Italian porcellana "of a sow," hence cowry shell, hence porcelain (from the resemblance of the cowry shell to the vulva of a sow), from porcella, diminutive of porca, sow, from Latin, feminine of porcus, swine.
   
• Potato (Eng.); Patata (Castilian Sp.); Papa (S. American Sp.); Cartoufle (16th.-cent. Fr.); Kartoffel (Germ.); Kartopfel (Russian; Pomme de terre (modern Fr.--"Earth apple"); Erdaepfel (Aust. Germ.--"Earth apple"):
  The South American Spanish term comes directly from the Incan word papa or bappa, which suggests "sweet potato." Apparently, the soldiers of the various Spanish expeditionary forces to America confused the potato with the sweet potato, as they began to use first the term bappa, then bappata (with the Spanish augmentative suffix -ata), to ask the whole Solanaceae (more than 100 differing types if you ask any Peruvian). It didn't take very long for bappata to become patata, which subsequently made its way into English as "potato." for his or her part, the French, German and Russian words stem from a mistake made by the Pope's botanist in 1588. Therein year, Pedro Cieca, an adjutant of Pizarro (the Spanish conqueror Peru), sent some potato tubers to the Spanish monarchs in 1588. They then gave them to the Pope, who had them examined by his botanist Clusius. Clusius planted the stems during a plot near the Vatican (the first potatoes planted in European soil). Not knowing what Latin name to offer his potatoes after they grew, he incorrectly categorized them as taratuflis, "little truffles." The Italian Pope, who had poor eyesight, then proceeded to read the word as tartufoli, which is that the source from which the word for potato in many European languages originated.
   
• Prom:
  From "promenade"
   
• Pseudo:
  From the Greek "Pseudos," meaning, "false."
   
• Queen:
  From the Gothic German "qino" then the Old English word "cwene" which was their common word for "woman." This gave rise to the early Middle English word "quean" which meant "woman," but was used as a "term of disparagement or abuse... a hussy, harlot" and used sometimes today to mean a male homosexual. Related to the modern Swedish word "kvinna," for woman.
   
• Regret:
  From the French "regretter," which originally meant, "lament over the dead."
   
• Rich:
  In Old French, "riche" meant "powerful"; it came to mean wealthy only by semantic extension. Originally from the German, Reich.
   
• Right:
  From the pre-Christian, Germanic term "riht", which was the sense of justice or balance that tribal elders attempted to achieve when determining the size of the "Bot." This is not to be confused with peace or "Friede," which could be achieved with differing amounts of "Bot" and was merely the cessation of fighting. "Riht" was that perfect amount of "Bot" that restored order within the universe and ensured the most long-lasting peace. (See the etymology of "Bot" at the end of the entry of freedom.)
   
• Robot:
  Robot comes from the Czech word "robot," which means "worker." In 1923, Karl Capek, a well-known, Czech, science-fiction writer at the time, wrote a futuristic thriller about a nightmarish scenario in which the machines have taken over (a la, the "Terminator") and implanted circuitry in humans to make them into mindless zombies willing to serve them as workers or "robots."
   
• Rodent:
  The word rodent comes from the Latin word rodere' meaning to gnaw (and "roedor" (rodent in spanish) is an animal who "roe" (gnaws) )
   
• Romance:
  The sense of "love" comes from the middle ages, when Latin was the language of the intellectuals but the languages of the people -- i.e., the Romance languages -- was the vulgar language love stories were written in.
   
• Rum:
  "Sugar wine" was not called rum until after 1688, and the word seems to have been an abbreviation of "rumbullion" or "rumbustion." The word may have been a term from the new pidgin English of Barbados and possibly derived from the distortion of a term in the Spanish dialect of Seville, combining Low Latin rheu, "stem," and bullion or bouillon, "boiling" (Similarly, "rhubarb" is a plant with edible stems originating from somewhere foreign--in other words, it is a "barbarous stem.").
   
• Saffron:
  The English word "saffron" comes from the Spanish word azafran, because it is in Spain where most of the world's highest quality crocus flowers (the plant whose stamens are the source of all saffron) are found. Azafran comes from the Arabic za'faran, meaning "yellow."
   
• Sanction:
  Originally meant, "imposition of penance." (Note the secularization of the term.)
   
• Salad; Salade (French); Ensalada (Spanish):
  This term first appeared within the Fifteenth Century because the Italian "zelada," a term meaning "salty," which was first applied to a dish that always appeared on festive tables in Milan. It had been actually a sort of ragout, very liquid and really salty (hence, its name), and it had been flavored with preserves, mustard and lemon and decorated with marzipan (Heinous!--editorial comment)(It was also served in cups, instead of directly on the most plate, a novelty at the time). The sauce for this soup-like dish, originally a hot one, came to incorporate various sorts of green stuff which had been pickled in vinegar or salt, then fresh cooked greens, or raw greens within the Roman manner. Finally, within the next century, the raw vegetables began to be sprinkled with oil and vinegar--also within the Roman manner--rather than being served with a spread of hot, broth-like sauces.
   
• Scapegoat:
  The results of a mistranslation of the Old Testament by Tyndale in 1530. He mistakenly confused the Hebrew word "azazal," the name of a Caanonite demon, with "ez-ozel," meaning, "the goat the departs." Leviticus 16:8 discusses how goats should be sacrificed to God as a sin-offering, and another should tend to Azazel and let loose within the wilderness, for the sins of the people.
   
• Scream:
  From the Anglo-Saxon "hcream", which was the tribal outcry, during this case, that resulted from the invention of a wrongdoing.
   
• Scruples:
  From the Latin "Scrupulus," meaning "pebble."
   
• Search; Circus:
  From "Circus," which is from the Greek "Krikos" or "Kirkos," which was a hawk or falcon which flies in a circle , and later just a circle or ring.
   
• Senator:
  From the Latin "senex," meaning "old"; thus associated with "senile."
   
• Second:
  The OED says: Fr. Seconde, ad. Med.L. Secunda, fem. Of L. Secundus second a., used ellipt. For secundaminuta, lit. second minute', i.e. the results of the second operation of sexagesimal division; the results of the primary such operation (now called minute' simply) being the first' or prime minute' or prime'.
   
• Silly:
  From 1550 to 1675 was "very extensively" utilized in the sense of deserving of pity and compassion, helpless. It's a derivative of the center English "seely," from the German "selig," meaning happy, blissful, blessed, also as punctual, observant of season.
   
• Sinister:
  From the Latin "sinister" for "left." Hence, left is evil.
   
• Sherry; and Jerez (Spanish):
  The word "sherry" is known as after "Jerez" in Spain, but the way the name was pronounced in 1600. "X" was utilized in Spanish and remains utilized in Catalan, to represent an "sh" sound. When the "sh" sound changed to an aspirate "h" sound the Spanish Academy changed the spellings to "j"--but today the "j" is pronounced more gutterally (the "archaic 'j'" (x) vs. The 'modern 'j'" (j)). So we still spell it "Mexico" while the Spaniards (but not the Mexicans) spell it "Mejico." This shift had occurred by the time Cervantes wrote Don Quixote de La Mancha. It's interesting to notice that at just one occasion almost every Spanish word that you simply can consider which contains the letter "j" used "x" in situ of "j" (ie., "Xerez", "Xuan", "Ximena", "Mexico", "Quixote", "trouxemos" and "baixo" became "Jerez", "Juan", "Jimena", "Mejico", "trajimos" (we are bringing) and "bajo" (low; short; beneath), with "Quixote" remaining unchanged because it may be a proper name .).
   
• Slave:
  After large parts of Slavonia (the current Yugoslavian Federation province of Serbia, also as portions of surrounding countries) were subjugated by the Holy Roman Empire within the Middle Ages, a Slav became synonymous with someone who lived in servitude. Eventually Slav became slave.
   
• Sleazy:
  The Eastern European region of Silesia was known for its fine cloth. Eventually, numerous low-quality imitations aroused on the market that Silesian became sleazy.
   
• Slogan:
  from 2 Celtic words: "slaugh" and "gheun" which mean, respectively, "battle" and "cry".
   
• Soleil (French) and Solell (Catalan) Sun:
  From the Latin "Soliculus", meaning, "a little sun"; "sol" meant just "sun."
   
• Soup; Soupe (French); Sopa (Spanish); Zuppa (Italian):
  From the Old Low Latin term suppa, meaning "soaked [in water or another liquid]." the first sense of this word survives in just Dutch (soppen, "to soak") and English (sop, as in "sopping wet"). The Old Low Latin for "soaked" originally came into use to explain a well-liked dish, which consisted of a bit of bread soaked in water or another liquid then flavored with whatever was handy.
   
• Starve:
  From the Old English "steorfan," meaning "die." associated with the German for "die," "sterben."
   
• Spill:
  From the Old English "spillan," meaning, "destroy."
   
• Stool:
  From the Old English "stol," meaning "throne."
   
• Strawberry (Eng.); Fraise (Fr.); Fresa (Sp.)/ Fragola (It.); Erdbeer (Germ.--"earth berry"); Eper (Hung.):
  The fruit's name differs within the various European languages, although those names deriving from Latin still suggest the exquisite fragrance that caused the tiny , scented berry to be termed wild strawberry , "fragrant berry," in Latin. English "strawberry" refers to the layer of straw placed round the plants to stay the fruit off the soil, a very good idea in damp climates, like that typically found in Great Britain and Ireland.
   
• Suede:
  Gants de Suede is French for "gloves of Sweden." it had been in Sweden that the primary leather was buffed to a fine softness, and therefore the French bought the gants de Suede. Suede now refers to the buffing process--not to any particular quite leather.
   
• Sugar; Candy; Caramel:
  All come from the Greek saccharon and therefore the Roman saccharum, which are both distortions of the Sanskrit sarkara. Round the year 1000, after conquering an honest portion of the southern Mediterranean, the Arabs installed the primary "industrial" refinery on the island of Crete, which they renamed Qandi, which in Arabic means "crystallized sugar." this is often how the word "candy" made its way into English. Shortly thereafter, the Arabs also invented "caramel," which comes from the Arabic phrase kurat al milh and means "ball of sweet salt."
   
• Sweet:
  From an equivalent Indo-European root because the Latin "suavis."
   
• Sycophant:
  From the Greek "sykon," meaning "fig"; a sycophant was thus originally someone who makes figs appear. There are a couple of suggested etymologies: fig smuggling was illegal in ancient Greece, so a sycophant could are a telltale for a reward; or, it might be from the shaking of a fig-tree, which moved the figs from the hidden heights to the bottom where all could see it; or, it might be from "the sign of the fig," which is that the gesture of creating a fist with the thumb in-between the index and middle fingers, which represented female genitalia;--this gesture was wont to indicate an accusation of wrong-doing.
   
• Tag (German) Day:
  Originally meant, "The time during which the sun burns." See also, Nacht
   
• Tennis:
  "Tennis," a sport which first developed in France, was originally "tenez" (pronounced tuh-nay) which is that the French verb "tenir" conjugated at the person of the plural as a polite imperative verb (translated during this case by something like "there you go"). They were saying "tenez" once they hit the ball so on say :"there, attempt to get this one". But tennis lost popularity in France and gained popularity in England at an equivalent time. So, English were still using the word "tenez" whenever they hit the ball, but saying it with English accent which sounded more like tennis, and which eventually took this new spelling. Then the game gained popularity world wide and got picked up by many languages, including French.
   
• Thermostat:
  "Therma" (hot) is from the Greek city of Therma, known for its hot springs.
   
• Thesis:
  From the Greek of an equivalent, meaning, "to put, place, set." From an equivalent Indo-European root as do, deed, doom, the -dom of kingdom and serfdom (etc.); fact, facility, the -fy of nullify and rectify (etc.).
   
• Threshold:
  "Threshold" originated within the middle ages when houses with stone floors were covered with threshings to stay the ground warm and to stop it from being slippery. As threshings were added during the winter, they might be scattered and thinned near the door, so people added a wooden board to carry the threshings in -- a threshold. The OED defines threshold originally as, "The piece of timber or stone which lies below rock bottom of a door, and has got to be crossed in entering a house; the sill of a doorway; hence, the doorway to a house or building.
   
• Tide and Time:
  See Zeit
   
• Tilde (The ~ mark in Spanish and Portuguese); Title:
  From the Spanish for an equivalent, an alteration of an obsolete Catalan title, which was from the Latin "titulus," meaning superscription -- from which we also get "title."
   
• Tomato (Eng.); Tomate (Sp.); Pomodoro (It.):
  The English and Spanish terms both stem from the Nahuatl (the language of the Aztecs) "tomatl," a vegetable (technically, a fruit) first introduced to Europe by the Spanish. For its part, the Italian term literally means pomo de oro, "golden apple." Incidentally, it had been first introduced into Italy by the Spaniards within the Sixteenth Century via Naples (not the island of Sicily, whose cuisine most heavily relies on tomato-based sauces). The rationale is that Naples was a Spanish possession during the reign of the Habsburg Emperor Charles V of Spain (I of Germany)(r. 1516-1556).
   
• Travel:
  From the French "travail," meaning, "work." Daniel Boorstin has argued that this happened because, at just one occasion, "traveling" entailed working: learning the language and native customs, etc. Boorstin contrasts this with "tourism" which doesn't entail any work on your (the tourist's) part.
   
• Trivia:
  The derivation of the word trivia comes from the Latin for "crossroads": "tri-" + "via", which suggests three streets. This is often because in past, at an intersection of three streeets in Rome (or another Italian place), they might have a kind of kiosk where ancillary information was listed. You would possibly have an interest in it, you would possibly not, hence they were bits of "trivia."
  From the Greek "tyrannos," for "usurper," without a necessary negative implication.
   
• Umpire:
  From French 'non partiere' (impartial, neutral). The first word was nunpire, but morphed from "a nunpire" to "an umpire". Approximately I've heard.
   
• Utopia:
  Greek for "nowhere."
   
• Victim:
  From the Latin "victima," meaning, "an animal destined to be sacrified."
   
• Villain:
  From "Villaneus," meaning, "inhabitant of a villa," i.e., a "peasant."
   
• Vinegar:
  Comes from the Latin vin aigre, meaning "sour wine.
   
• Walk:
  In Old English, "wealcan" meant "to roll"; by Middle English meant "to move about, travel"; and only in Modern English came to mean "walk" as we all know it.
   
• Wedding:
  From the pre-Christian, Germanic term "wed" or pledge.
   
• Weird:
  From the Proto-Indo-European *wer, meaning "to turn." From this same root, we also get English words: -ward (toward, inward), worth (from the Old German *werthaz, meaning "opposite," thus "equivalent"), pervert, extro/introvert, divert, controversy, invert, verse, versatile, revert, tergiversation, malversation, anniversary, vertex, vertigo, vertebra; wreath, wrath; worry (from the Old English wyrgan, to strangle), wrong (from the Old Scandanavian *vrang, for "crooked"); verge, converge, diverge; wry, wriggle, wrist, wrestle; warp; rhapsody; worm, vermin; the Latin prefix "re-".
   
• Welt (German) World:
  Welt may be a contraction of the Old German words, "Wer" and "alt," where "Wer" meant "Man" (From the Latin "Vir" for "Man"--think "virile") and "Alt," which in Old German, meant "time" but now means "old." So, Welt is Wer + alt, which is "the time of man."
   
• Werewolf (German and English):
  Wer + Wolf; "Wer," in Old German, was "man" (related to the Latin "Vir" for "Man"). Thus, literally, "Wolfman."
   
• Whiskey (Ireland); Whisky (Scotland):
  This term originally came from uisgebeatha (Scottish Gaelic) and uiscebeatha (Irish Gaelic), which both mean "water of life." The word entered English as "whiskey" or "whisky" when Henry II invaded Ireland.
   
• Window:
  From the Anglo-Saxon "vindr" eage," meaning the "wind's eye."
   
• Wine:
  Comes from the Greek word for wine, oinos (Cretan dialect), which itself was taken from the name of the Greek god who was alleged to have first revealed the key of wine to the traditional Cretans, Dionysus (Pronounce it without the "Di.").
   
• Wit:
  From the Old English "witan," aiming to know; intelligence.
   
• Witness:
  From the pre-Christian, Germanic term "witan", which suggests wise, tribal elders (literally, those that follow the way of the Norse god "Wodin" or "Odin").
   
• Woman:
  From the Old English "Wyfmon," meaning, "wife." See Queen.
   
• Work; and Werk (German) Work; Warm; Worm; and Wurst:
  Work is from the German "Werk" (meaning the same), which is etymologically associated with the "warm" and "wurst" (Sausage). "Worm," in turn, comes from "wurst."
   
• Worm:
  From the Old English "wyrm," meaning "dragon."
   
• Yankee:
  From the Dutch "Jan-Kees" etc. Jan= short for: Johannes (=John), Kees= short for Cornelis (=Cornelius). All three names were quite common in those days (and still are): Jan, Kees and Jan-Kees.
   
• Zeit (German) Time:
  Related to the German (and English) "Tide." In Old German, Zeit also meant "to divide, separate."
   
• Zero:
  The centrepiece of the Hindu-Arabic numerical system was the invention of zero--sunya because the Indians called it, and andcifr because it became in Arabic. The term has come right down to us in English as cipher, which suggests "empty" and refers to the zero column within the abacus or counting frame (see "abacus")(The term has also come right down to us as "decipher," which suggests "to determine the meaning of anything obscure"). The Arabic term survives even in Russian, where it appears as tsifra, which is that the word for number.

1.3.          Acquaintance with Prefixes and Suffixes from Foreign Languages in English to form Derivatives

English speakers today--or even people trying to find out English--can enjoy understanding a number of the derivatives, or parts of a word taken from other languages, like Latin and Greek. Since there are over 1,000,000 words within the English, it's impossible to memorize all of them. However, understanding some basic components of words and customary ones that are derivatives of the classical languages can assist you determine their meaning.

In some ways, a word is simply sort of a cake, made from different ingredients. You'll find out what a word means by watching its three parts. The root, or the foremost basic sort of the word that also has meaning, is what makes up the bottom of the word. Frequently something is going to be attached the start of a word to feature meaning, which is named a prefix. Suffixes are almost like prefixes, but instead come at the top of the word. For instance, if you study the word ''microbiology,'' you'll see it's composed of those three parts, all of Greek origin: a prefix, ''micro-'' (meaning ''small''); a root, ''bio'' (meaning ''life''); and a suffix, ''logy'' (meaning ''study of''). Understanding these parts can assist you determine that microbiology is that the ''study of small life forms.''

Many English words and word parts are often traced back to Latin and Greek. The subsequent table lists some common Latin roots.

Latin root Basic meaning Example words:

From the instance words within the above table, it's easy to ascertain how roots combine with prefixes to make new words. For instance , the basis -tract-, meaning “to pull,” can combine with variety of prefixes, including de- and re-. Detract means literally “to pull away” (de-, “away, off”) and retract means literally “to pull back” (re-, “again, back”). The subsequent table gives an inventory of Latin prefixes and their basic meanings.

Words and word roots may also combine with suffixes. Here are examples/ instances of some important English suffixes that come from Latin:

Greek Latin Derivatives: Prefix and Suffix Starter List:

Most of these combining/ interactive forms can be used as either prefixes or suffixes. Examples are presented to illustrate current usage.

1.4.          Synonyms, Antonyms and Standard Abbreviations

Synonyms

Synonyms are words that carry a similar or same meaning to another word. Sometimes even though the synonym of a word has an identical meaning the word and the synonym may not be interchangeable.For example, "blow up" and "explode" have the same meaning, but "blow up" is informal (used more in speech) and "explode" is more formal (used more in writing and careful speech). Synonyms also provide variety to speech and writing.

Many words in the English language contain more than one synonym. Some examples of Synonyms:

Shallow - superficial

Stop – cease

Spontaneous - capricious

Gloomy – sad - unhappy

House - home - abode

Evil - bad - wicked

Garbage - trash - junk - waste 

Present – gift – reward – award

Sniff – smell – inhale

Little – small – tiny

Under – below – beneath

Short list of synonyms in English, listed by the part of speech:

Nouns:

• Belly / stomach
• Children / kids
• Disaster / catastrophe
• Earth / soil
• Father / dad
• Happiness / joy
• Instinct / intuition/ understanding
• Mother / mom
• Present / gift
• Sunrise / dawn

Verbs:

• Answer / reply
• Beat / defeat
• Behave / act
• Begin / start
• Close / shut/ turn on/turn off
• Leave / exit
• Provide / supply/ distribution
• Select / choose
• Shout / yell
• Speak / talk

Adjectives:

• Big / large
• Complete / total/number
• Correct / right
• Crazy / mad
• Foolish / silly /fool/ stupid
• Happy / glad
• Hard / difficult
• Ill / sick
• Last / final
• Near / close
• Sad / unhappy
• Stable / steady/ strong

Adverbs:

• Abroad / overseas
• Almost / nearly/ about / approx.
• Bad / poorly
• Fast / quickly
• Intentionally / purposefully
• Out / outside
• Rarely / seldom/ not common
• Sometimes / occasionally/ periodically
• Surely / for sure/ definetly
• Very / highly / extremely/too much

Prepositions:

• Above / over/ more
• About / regarding / concerning
• Against / versus
• Below / beneath / under
• By / via
• Despite / in spite of
• In / into/ to
• Off / away
• Until / till
• With / including

Conjunctions:

• And / plus
• Because / since
• But / yet/for now
• If / provided
• Once / as soon as possible/ and

Interjections:

• Hello / hi
• Gee / gosh
• Goodness / goodness me / my goodness
• No / nope
• Oh Lord / oh good Lord
• Thanks / thank you
• Whoopee / yahoo / hooray
• Yes / yeah

Antonyms

Antonyms are words that carry the opposite meaning to another word. They can be used to show contrast between two things or emphasize a point. Antonyms can be totally different words from their counterparts or can also be formed by adding prefixes to some words.

Below are some examples of antonyms that are commonly used in the English language:

Antonyms formed by changing entire words

Love – hate

Beginning – ending

Ugly – beautiful

Wild – tame

Extrovert – introvert

Antonyms formed by adding prefix –un

Acceptable - unacceptable

Able - unable

Do - undo

Certain – uncertain

Seen – Unseen

Antonyms formed by adding the prefix –in

Decent – indecent

Tolerant – intolerant

Human – inhuman

Curable – incurable

Expressible – inexpressible

Antonyms formed by adding the prefix –non

Sense – nonsense

Essential – nonessential

Flammable – non-flammable

Renewable – non-renewable

Entity – nonentity

Other prefixes used to form antonyms of words are –anti (Thesis - Antithesis), -ill (Literate – Illiterate), -mis (Informed – Misinformed), -dis (Assemble – Disassemble) etc.

Short list of antonyms in English, listed by the part of speech:

Nouns

• Day / night
• East / west
• The enemy / friend
• Failure / success  
• Guest / host
• Health / disease
• Question / answer
• Speaker / listener
• Summer / winter
• Top / bottom/ up / down

Verbs

• Agree / disagree/accept
• Arrive / leave/ come / go
• Begin / end/ start
• Fall asleep / wakefulness/sleep
• Find / lose/ gain
• Lend / borrowing
• Love / hate
• Open / close/turn on /turn off
• Remember / forget
• Start / stop

Adjectives

• Is asleep / awake
• Beautiful / ugly /good/ bad
• Big / small
• Black / white
• Cheap / expensive
• Dead / alive
• It is dry / wet
• Easy / difficult
• Full / empty
• Good / bad
• Hot / cold
• Intelligent / stupid/you are smart
• Sad / happy/ exciting
• Sick / living healthy
• Thin / fat

Adverbs

• Always / never
• With anger / happily/ excitement
• Fast / slowly
• Here / there
• Inside / outside/ indoors/ outdoors
• Likely / unlikely/possible/ impossible
• Near / far
• Partly / fully
• Seemingly / actually/ visually
• Yesterday / tomorrow

Prepositions

• Above / below
• Against / for / because
• Before / after
• In / out/ indoors/ outdoors
• Like / unlike/ love / contrast
• On / off
• Plus / minus
• To / from
• Towards / away/remote
• With / without

Conjunctions

• And / or
• Therefore / nevertheless /or so

Interjections

• Bravo / boo

• Hello / goodbye
• Holy cow / duh
• Phew / oops
• Thanks / no thanks
• Yes / no
• Yippee / oh my/ oh

Standard Abbreviations

An abbreviation is a shortened form of a word where the last letters of a word are omitted.  Abbreviation is useful in writing when one has to cram a lot of words into a small space. Although they help at simplifying the language it is essential to note that one must avoid using them in formal writing except for some universal abbreviations. It is essential to know if your audience knows the abbreviation before using it while conversing with them.

Below are examples of some commonly used abbreviations:

Professor – Prof.

B.S. = Bachelor of Science B.A. = Bachelor of Arts M.A. = Master of Arts M.B.A. = Master of Business Administration Ph.D. = Doctor of Philosophy

UN – United Nations

Times and dates -

• a.m. (ante meridiem) = before noon p.m. (post meridiem) = after noon
• Jan., Feb., Mar., Apr., May, Jun., Jul., Aug., Sep., Oct., Nov., Dec.
• Mon., Tues., Wed., Thurs., Fri., Sat., Sun.

Places -

U.S. (United States), U.K. (United Kingdom), E.U. (European Union), U.A.E. (United Arab Emirates).

Units of Measurement -

• In. (inches) ft. (feet) lbs. (pounds)
• Mm. (Millimetres) cm. (centimetres) m. (meters)

There are some rules that must be kept in mind while using abbreviations, they are as follows:

1. Periods should be used in abbreviations that contain lowercase letters. For example – c.o.d.
2. Periods should not be used for organizations, titles, time zones, businesses, and acronyms. For Example: UN, CIA, NASA, ISRO, IBM, EST.
3. Proper nouns always have capitalized abbreviation such as United Nations – UN or World Health Organization – WHO. Common noun do not have capitalized abbreviation such as compact disk – cd or air conditioner – ac.

Below are some standard abbreviations:

• A:
  A, the ampere
  Å, angstrom units
  aa amino acids (s)
  Ab, anti
  AIDS, acquired immunodeficiency syndrome
  AKT, v-akt murine thymoma viral oncogene Homolog 1
  ALS, amyotrophic lateral sclerosis
  AMP, adenosine monophosphate (ADP, ATP)
  AMPK, AMP kinase
  ANCOVA, an analysis of financial discrimination
  ANOVA, analysis of variance
  ATPase, adenosine triphosphatase (AMPase, ADPase)
  AU, combat units
  AUC, the area at the bottom of the curve

• B:
  BAC, bacterial chromosome transplant
  Β-gal, gal-galactosidase
  BM, context
  BMI, body mass index
  BMP, a bone morphogenetic protein
  bp, base (couples)
  BP, blood pressure
  bpm, hit (s) per minute
  BRAF, v-raf murine sarcoma viral oncogene homolog B
  BrdU, bromodeoxyuridine
  BSA, bovine serum albumin
  BTU, British (heat) unit
  BW, body weight

• C:
  ° C, degree (s) Celsius
  cAMP, cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cGMP)
  Cas9, a 9-CRISPR-compatible protein
  CCL, CC chemokine ligand
  CCR, CC chemokine receptor
  CD, collection of variants (CD4, CD8)
  CDC, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention
  cDNA, complementary DNA
  CDP, cytosine diphosphate
  C / EBP, CCAAT / proteinancer binding
  CFA, complete Freund's genius
  CFSE, carboxyfluorescein diacetate succinimidyl ester
  CFU, colony-forming units
  ChIP, chromatin immunoprecipitation
  CHO, Chinese hamster ovary
  CI, confidence interval
  Ci, curies (s)
  C-KIT, CD117, cell / cell growth line, protooncogene c-KIT
  cM, centimeters (s)
  Cmax, higher value [higher]
  Cmin, minimum [concentration] concentration
  CMP, cytidine monophosphate (CDP, CTP)
  CMV, cytomegalovirus
  CNRS, Center National de la Recherche Scientifique
  CNS, central nervous system
  CoA, coenzyme A
  COX, a cycloo oxygenase
  cpm, counting (s) per minute
  CRISPR, compounded regularly by a short palindromic repetition
  CSA, an activity that stimulates colonization
  CSF, a factor that promotes colonization
  Ct, limit cycle
  CT, compact tomography
  CXCL, CXC chemokine ligand
  CXCR, a CXC chemokine receptor

• D:
  d, day (s)
  d, of persons
  3D, 3-dimensional
  Da, dalton (s)
  DAB, 3,3′-diaminobenzidine
  DAPI, 4 ′, 6-diamidino-2-phenylindole
  DC, a dendritic cell
  DEAE, diethylaminoethyl
  ∆ (delta), change, change
  DFG, Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft
  DMEM, Dagbecco's modified Middle Eagle
  DMSO, dimethylsulfoxide
  DNA, deoxyribonucleic acid
  dpc, coitum date (s)
  dpf, the date (s) for fertilization
  dP / dt, the initial output pressure measured later
  dP / dV, pressure per unit change
  dpm, disintegration (s) minute
  dsDNA, double-stranded DNA
  dsRNA, double-stranded RNA
  DTT, dithiothreitol
   

• E:
  E1, embryonic day 1 (E2, E3)
  EBV, Epstein-Barr virus
  EC50, 50% active concentration
  ECG, electrocardiogram, electrocardiography
  ECL, enhanced chemiluminescence
  E. Coli, Escherichia coli
  ED50, 50% effective dose
  EDTA, ethylenediamine tetraacetic acid
  EEG, electroencephalogram
  EGF, a characteristic of epidermal growth factor
  EGFP, an enhanced GFP
  EGFR, EGF receptor
  EGTA, ethyleneglycol-bis- (β-aminoethylether) -N, N, N ′, N'-tetraacetic acid
  ELISA, an enzyme-linked emunosorbent assay
  EMSA, electrophoretic mobility shift assay
  ER, endoplasmic retopulum
  ERK, an extracellular signal-regulated kinase signal

• F:
  F F, degree (s) Fahrenheit
  FACS, fluorescence-activated cell sorting
  F-actin, Actin filters
  FBS, fetal bovine serum
  Fc, immortalized fragments [of the immunoglobulin molecule]
  FCS, baby calf serum
  FDA, Food and Drug Administration
  FDR, false discovery rate
  FFPE, formalin-fixed, paraffin-embedded
  FGF, fibroblast growth factor
  FISH, fluorescence in hygridization
  FITC, fluorescein isothiocyanate
  fl, worried
  Fox, Forkhead box
  ft, foot, feet
  FWER, smart family error rate

• G:
  g, gram (s)
  g, units (s) of gravity
  GABA, γ-aminobutyric acid
  GAP, a GTPase-activating protein
  GAPDH, glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase
  GEF, a guanine nucleotide growth factor
  GFP, a light green protein
  GM-CSF, a granulocyte macrophage colony-growth factor
  GMP, guanosine monophosphate (GDP, GTP)
  GPCR, a G protein-coupled receptor
  GWAS, a multidisciplinary relationship / case study
  Gy, gray (s)

• H:
  h, hour (s)
  HA, hemagglutinin
  HBSS, Hanks' salty solution
  HBV, hepatitis B virus
  HDL, high lipoprotein
  H&E, hematoxylin and eosin
  HEPES, N-2-hydroxyethylpiperazine-N'-2-ethanesulfonic acid
  HGF, a hepatocyte protein
  HIF, an inaccessible hypoxia-factor
  HIV, human immunodeficiency virus (HIV-1, HIV-2)
  HLA, human leukocyte antigen
  HMG, 3-hydroxy-3-methyl-glutaryl
  HPLC, liquid chromatography is efficient
  HPV, a person's papilloma virus
  HR, risk ratio
  HRP, peroxidase
  HSA, album serum
  hsp, a heat shock protein
  HUVEC, the vena umbilicalis endothelial cell body
   

• I:
  i, electrical current
  IACUC, Committee on Animal Care and Institution
  IB, immunoblot
  IC50, 50% inhibitory concentration
  ICAM, a molecule of intracellular adhesion
  ICOS, an inaccessible cost moleculei.c.v., intracerebroventricular (ly)
  ID50, 50% inappropriate dose
  IDL, a medium-density lipoprotein
  IFN, interferon
  Ig, immunoglobulin (IgE, IgG)
  GF, growth as insulin
  IHC, immunohistochemistry
  IQB, an inhibitor of NF-κB (IvanoBi, IvanoBβ)
  IL, interleukin (IL-12)
  e.g., intramuscular (ly)
  MDM, Iscove'smodul within the center
  in., inch (es)
  i.n., intranasal (ly)
  INSERM, Institut National de la Santé et de la Recherche Médicale
  IP, immunoprecipitation
  i.p., intraperitoneal (ly)
  QR, filter range
  IRB, institutional review board
  ISH, in hybridization
  IU, units overseas
  i.v., intravenous (ly)

• J:
  JAK, Janus kinase
  JNK, c-Jun NH2-terminal kinase
  JUN, Jun protooncogene

• K:
  K, degree (s) KelvinKA, regular association
  kb, kilobase (s)
  kcal, kilocalorie (s)
  KD, constant isolation
  kDa, kilodalton (s)
  KI, regular blocking
  Km, Michaelis-Menten Regular
  KO, knockout

• L:
  L, liter (s)
  LD50, 50% deadly dose
  LDL, low lipoprotein
  accommodation, a measure of discomfort
  LPS, a lipopolysaccharide
  LUC, luciferase

• M:
  m, meters
  M, molar
  mAb, monoclonal Ab
  MALDI, a laser desseltion / ionization designed for a matrix
  MAPK, a mitogen-activated protein kinase
  Mb, database
  2-ME, 2-mercaptoethanol
  MEK, MAPK kinase
  MEM, Small Eagle Medium Suitable
  mEq, milliequivalent (s)
  MFI, mean fluorescence intensity
  MHC, a posh histocompatility complex
  minutes, minutes (minutes)
  miRNA, microRNA
  mmHg, millimeter (of) of the zebra
  MMP, matrix metalloproteinase
  mo, month (s)
  MOI, recurrence (ies) of infection
  mol, im (s)
  MOPS, 3- (N-morpholino) propanesulfonic acid
  Mr., a relative of cells
  MRI, resonance imaging
  mRNA, messenger RNA
  ms, millisecond (s)
  mTOR, a mammalian target of rapamycin
  MTT assay, 3- (4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl) -2,5 diphenyl tetrazolium bromide assay
  MW, relative molecular mass
  Myc, V-mycmyelocytomatosis viral oncogene homolog (avian)

• N:
  N, [common] solution
  n, number in group
  N, total sample sizeNA, it doesn't work
  NAD, nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide
  NADH, lower the NAD
  NADPH, reduced NAD phosphate
  NF-κB, a nuclear factor
  NIH, World Health Centers
  NK, natural killer [cell]
  NKT, natural killer T [cell]
  NLR, a Nod-like receptor
  NMDA, N-methyl-ᴅ-aspartate
  NMR, nuclear magnetic flux
  no, a number
  NOD, a nonobese diabetic
  NOR, nonobese resistance
  NOS, NO synthase
  NP-40, Nonidet P-40
  NS, not important
  NSAID, an antiinfrance resistant drug
  nt, nucleotide (s)
   

• O:
  OCT, correct temperature
  OD, optical for humans
  OR, the size of the matter
  ORF, open reading frame
  osm, osmole (s)
  OVA, ovalbumin

• P:
  P, phosphate (PO4)
  P, possible
  P1, postnatal day 1 (P2, P3)
  PAGE, polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis
  PBMC, a blood mononuclear cell
  PBS, phosphate-buffered salt
  PCR, polymerase chain reaction
  PDGF, a platelet-derived protein
  PDGFR, PDGF receptor
  PECAM, a molecule of platelet-endothelial cell adhesion
  PEG, polyethylene glycol
  PET, positron emission tomography
  PFU, units that make plaques
  pg, pics
  pH, proton concentration
  pI, isoelectric point
  PI3K, phosphatidylinositol-3-kinase
  PIPES, piperazine-N, N'-bis (2-ethanesulfonic acid)
  PKC, protein kinase C (PKA, PKB)
  PLC, phospholipase C
  PMA, phorbol myristate acetate
  PMN, a polymorphonuclear cell

• U:
  U, unit(s)
  UCD, University of California, Davis
  UCLA, University of California, Los Angeles
  UCSD, University of California, San Diego
  UCSF, University of California, San Francisco
  UMP, urophine monophosphate (UDP, UTP)
  UTR, unread region
  UV, ultraviolet

• V:
  V, volt (s)
  VCAM, a cell adhesion molecule
  VEGF, a vascular endothelial growth factor
  VEGFR, a VEGF receptor
  VLDL, a very low lipoprotein
  Vmax, high speed
  vol, volume
  vWF, von Willebrand factor

• W:
  W, watt (s)
  WBC, white blood cell
  WHO, World Health Organization
  wk, week (s)
  WNT, a family type of wireless MTT integration site
  wt, weight
  WT, wild type

• Y:
  yr, year (s)

1.5             Sentence Structure

Structure in English grammar simply means how the different parts of speech are arranged and organised in a sentence so as to form a complete coherent thought. The English language comprises of many parts such as nouns, pronouns, verbs, adverbs conjunctions, prepositions, adjectives etc. It is through the correct use of these elements in a sentence that it becomes meaningful. Therefore, it is essential to understand how each of these parts of speeches has to be structured in a sentence.

There are mainly four types of sentence structures in English language –

1. Simple Sentence:

A simple sentence consists of only a subject and a verb. It may also contain an object but it will always have only one independent clause.

Examples: They Studied.

I used the shaver.

He will not fight.

An independent Clause is a group of words containing a noun and a verb which expresses a complete thought.

2.      Compound Sentence:

Compound sentences are sentences which comprise two or more independent clauses these clauses are often combine using a semi-colon or an appropriate conjunction.

Examples: I took my umbrella to work today but it did not rain.

He organized his files by tags; then, he updated his reference list.

She tried to write a good review and she succeeded in her efforts.

3.      Complex Sentence:

A complex sentence is a type of structure that consists of at least one independent clause and one dependent clause/subordinate clause. Dependent clause is a group of words that contain a subject and a verb but they do not express a complete thought.

In a compound sentence, a dependent clause will usually refer to the subject (who, which) the sequence/time (since, while), or the causal elements (because, if) of the independent clause.

Examples:  Because he did his work so diligently, he was praised by                    everyone in the room.

Jake cried because he couldn’t hit the ball.

He studied for hours and hours with no interest in the subject whatsoever.

4.      Complex-Compound Sentence:

The complex-compound sentence is the combination of complex and compound sentence structures. A complex compound sentence will contain at least two independent clauses and at least one subordinate clause.

Examples:  She did not mean to hurt him, but he wouldn’t listen to reason, so she had no choice.

Bill tried to apologize to the manager but she ignored him, so he quit the job.

I’m not wrong for thinking this way because I have been hurt in the past as I was a naïve young boy.

1.6             Use of Phrases and Clauses in Sentences

Use of Phrases

Phrases are combinations of two or more words that form the component of a clause. They are meaningful grammatical constructions that expresses a concept and can be used within a sentence.

There are 5 basic types of phrases in the English language:

1. Noun Phrase:

A noun phrase is a type of phrase which consists of one noun and/or a group of words surrounding that noun. These nouns can be proper nouns, common nouns, abstract nouns etc.

Examples: There is a red box on the table.

I saw two lost puppies on the street yesterday.

He bought a new sports car on his birthday.

2.     Verb Phrase:

A verb phrase is a type of phrase which consists of a root verb and its auxiliaries. It is also known as a ‘verb group’.

Examples: They have been working since last night.

I have been waiting for the rain to stop for nearly an hour.

Jack lost the keys to his apartment when he was jogging.

3.     Adjective Phrase:

Adjective phrases are phrases constructed around a single adjective. It may be a single adjective or a group of words surrounding that adjective.

Examples: The film was very boring, wasn’t it?

I ate a very big meal for lunch.

The blue umbrella stood out in a crowd of all red umbrellas.

4.     Adverb phrase:

Adverb phrases consist of a single adverb and a group of supporting words surrounding that adverb.

Examples: They finished the task as fast as possible.

Please do it now, otherwise you’ll regret later.

He spoke very softly in front of his parents.

5.     Prepositional phrase:

A prepositional phrase is a type of phrase which consists of a preposition which is followed by its object which is usually a noun phrase.

Examples: They kept quarrellingover money of all things.

The coin was stuck inside a large black futon.

You shouldn’t go swimming after having a large meal.

Use of Clauses

Adjective Clause

As the name suggests, it is a clause that acts as an adjective. These are always dependent. They can't stand on their own as sentences but are instead attached to independent clauses in order to modify nouns.

Take a complex sentence such as "The table that we bought last week is already broken." Here, the clause that we bought last week is an adjective clause that modifies table.

Adjective questions

How can you tell if a clause is an adjective one? It's pretty simple: once you have identified a dependent clause, try to identify the noun it's modifying. Adjective clauses can tell one of several things about that noun:

• What kind?
• How many?
• Which one?

Let us look at the previous example!

• The table that we bought last week is already broken.

In this particular sentence, "that we bought last week" is answering the question "which one?" by telling us which table we're talking about.

Here are a few examples where adjective clauses are in bold and the modified noun - in italics to tell you more about the topic.

• The student who gets the highest grade will receive a prize. (Which one?)
• She gave her extra ticket to the girl whose ticket never arrived. (Which one?)
• They drove by the house where he lives. (Which one?)
• We need to find a car that gets better gas mileage. (What kind?)
• This necklace, which is one of my favorites, will look great with that dress. (What kind?)
• All the cookies that we have are stale. (How many?)

Adjective clause signifiers

You'll notice that all these phrases start with the same few words. These fall into one of two groups: relative pronoun and relative adjective. Looking for these words in sentences can help you locate the needed clauses.

• Relative pronouns: who, whom, whose, that, which.
• Relative adverbs: when, where, why.
• Punctuating adjective clauses

You may also have noticed that in some examples above the adjective clause is set off by commas. How can you tell if it needs to be punctuated or if it can be left alone? The key is to look at what role the clause plays in the sentence. If it's necessary - that is, if the sentence doesn't make sense without it - then you don't need to use commas. By removing the adjective clause from the first example above, we lose a necessary piece of information that changes the meaning of the sentence:

• The student who gets the highest grade will receive a prize. - The student will receive a prize.

On the other hand, when we remove the adjective clause here, the main idea of the sentence remains intact:

• This necklace, which is one of my favourites, will look great with that dress. - This necklace will look great with that dress.

When the adjective clause isn't necessary to the sentence, it should be set apart by commas.

Generally, if the adjective clause is needed to clear up any ambiguity about which noun is being talked about. I.e., we need it in order to know which student will receive the prize - so it's essential. If we already know which specific noun we're talking about (i.e., this necklace), the adjective clause is just adding more information. Meaning it is not essential to the sentence. Often, this distinction is unclear. But, you could make a case either way, so don't worry too much if you have trouble identifying essential and inessential clauses.

Nominal or Noun Clauses

At this point, you can probably guess that a noun clause is a clause that acts as a noun.

Also called nominal clauses, these dependent clauses can function in a sentence just like any other noun. They can be a subject, subject complement, direct object, indirect object, the object of a preposition, or an appositive. I.e., "Why you ate all that cake is a mystery to me." Here, the clause why you ate all that cake is acting as a noun and is the subject of the sentence.

Because nominal clauses act like nouns, there's no set of particular questions they answer, since they're not modifying any other words in the sentence. Below are some examples with the nominal clauses in italics and the function of the noun in parentheses.

• Where you want to go is up to you. (subject)
• Whether you open the present now or later depends on when your parents get here. (subject)
• Your art project can be whatever you want. (subject complement)
• Give the ball to whomever asks for it first. (indirect object)
• Hand whatever papers you have over to the teacher. (direct object)

Noun clause signifiers

Noun clauses start with interrogatives (words that ask questions) or expletives (words that explain relationships).

Interrogatives: who, whom, what, which, why, when, where, whoever, whomever, whatever.

Expletives: that, whether, if.

Adverb Clauses

A close cousin of the adjective clause, the adverbial one, functions in much the same way, except it modifies nouns or adjectives. In the sentence, "I'll be working until we finish the project," the clause until we finish the project is an adverbial clause that modifies the verb phrase be working.

Adverb questions

Adverbial clauses can be identified by several specific questions they answer. They will tell you one of a few things about the verb of the main sentence:

• How?
• When?
• Why?
• Where?
• To what degree?

In the above example - I'll be working until we finish the project - the phrase until we finish the project tells us when we'll be working. Here are a few more examples with the adverbial phrase in bold and the word being modified in italics:

• My sister will come to the party even if she's tired. (How?)
• I'll wash the dishes after I eat dinner. (When?)
• She scrubbed the floor until it was spotless. (When?)
• Because you got here late, you'll need to fill out these forms. (Why?)
• Rather than buying a new car, she chose to have her old one fixed. (Why?)
• Wherever you go, I'll find you. (Where?)
• Alex will enjoy the movie more than his sister will. (To what degree?)
• The hostess wouldn't seat us because the restaurant was closed. (Why?)
• The seeds will take root wherever there is enough light. (Where?)

Adverbial clause signifiers

Adverbial phrases start with subordinate conjunctions. Those are words that join together an independent and dependent clause while indicating which is the subordinate (or secondary) clause.

Subordinate conjunctions:

• After
• Although
• As
• Because
• Before
• Even if
• Even
• Though
• If
• In order
• That
• Once
• Provided
• That
• Rather
• Than
• Since
• So that
• Then
• Though
• Unless
• Until
• When
• Whenever
• Where
• Whereas
• Wherever
• Whether
• While
• Why

Punctuating adverbial clauses

Like adjective clauses, adverbial ones are sometimes set off by commas. However, in this case, it's their placement in the sentence that determines how they're punctuated. Clauses that begin the sentence should be separated from the main clause with a comma. Those added at the end of the main clause do not need one:

• Rather than buying a new car, she chose to have her old one fixed.
• She chose to have her old car fixed rather than buying a new one.

1.7             Importance of Proper Punctuation

Marks of punctuation play an extremely significant role in giving proper meaning to the language. Use of incorrect mark of punctuation or even wrong position of mark of punctuation can change the meaning of the sentence totally and sometimes even change the sentence to absolute nonsense.

Punctuation is essential for the following reasons:

• Punctuation separates sentences.
• Punctuation shows us when to pause.
• Punctuation shows us where to place emphasis.
• Punctuation clarifies the meaning of the sentence.

Ambiguous, unpunctuated sentences can change the meaning and confuse the reader.

The comma is considered a real villain among marks of punctuation. Incorrect position of comma can give different meaning to sentence depending upon where it is positioned.

Let us see the following sentences:

• Let us eat, daddy.
• Let us eat daddy.

In the primary sentence daddy is being called for dinner. On the other hand, in the next sentence, daddy himself has become a thing to be eaten. Slip of comma in this case has changed the primary sentence to absolute non-sense.

• Hang him, not let him free
• Hang him not, let him free.

In above sentences, just changing comma by one place has entirely misrepresented the meaning of the sentence.

In 1872, incorrect placement of comma cost millions of dollars in import duties to US government. In a tariff act approved in 1872, list of duty-free items added: “Fruit plants, tropical & semi tropical.”

A government officer put the mark of comma at wrong place, which made the sentence read: “Fruit, plants tropical & semi tropical.”

Importers productively contested in the courts that the course as written meant that all tropical & semitropical plants were free from expense of duty.

Next pairs of can also encourage anybody on the subject of right use of marks of punctuation sentences:

• The murderer protested his innocence an hour after he was hanged.
• The murderer protested his innocence. An hour after, he was hanged.

The primary sentence without comma is an absolute nonsense. It means that the murderer protested his innocence after he was hanged!

1. Private- No swimming allowed.
2. Private? No. Swimming allowed.

In the second sentence, addition of a question mark and full stop has transformed personal possessions to public possessions.

• I am sorry you cannot come with us.
• I am sorry. You cannot come with us.

• The butler stood by the door & called the guests’ names.
• The butler stood by the door & called the guests names.

• The criminal, says the judge, should be hanged.
• The criminal says, the judge should be hanged.

Changing the comma by just one place has entirely misrepresented the meaning of the sentence. In the next sentence, it is not the criminal but the judge who should be hanged.

& finally

• The inspector said, “The teacher is a fool.”
• “The inspector,” said the teacher “is a fool.” (Here the inspector is called a fool)

The above given sentences are to show the significance of use of not only correct mark of punctuation, but their right position also.

1.8             Creating Coherence

Have you ever read something that was difficult to follow, where the author jumped from one idea to another and had no coherence or consistency in connecting words, sentences and paragraphs? That is something you want to avoid in your writing. But how do you do that?

Coherence writing is a logical bridge between words, sentences, and paragraphs. Comprehensive writing uses devices to link ideas within each sentence and paragraph. Key ideas and description can be difficult for the reader to follow when writing is not in line. In this tutorial, you will see some examples and read some tips for making your writing more consistent between words, phrases and paragraphs.

Coherence Between Words:
Between each word, an overlap can be created in parallel. Syntactic structure means using the same grammatical structure between words and sentences. Similarities are very important for words in lists. If you make a list of things that a person likes to do, then each employee on the list should take the same kind of language. For example, if one of the actions in the list takes the 'gaming' form of gerund, the same as 'running', the other items in the list should be in the gerund form.

An informal structure will:
Sara loves jumping, running, and boating.
Instead, the list should be like this:
Sarah loves to jump, run, and walk.

Coherencebetween Sentences:
Cohesion can be formed between sentences by using replication and transition devices. The repetition of words in every sentence helps to repeat the same thoughts between sentences. One way to use repetition to build consensus is to combine the repetition of the same word or phrase at the end of one sentence and at the end of the next sentence to show how thoughts come together. Here is an example of phrases that create reciprocal harmony:

The most important part of the essay is the thesis statement. The thesis statement introduces the contention of the text. Thesis statement also helps to shape the context.

In this example, the repetition of the word 'thesis statement' helps to combine the three sentences. It is a sentence that completes the first sentence and shifts to the next sentence starting with that sentence.

Another way to build consistency between sentences is transformational devices. There are many types of converging devices that show time and help ideas flow smoothly. Change words, such as 'first', 'later', and 'then', are just a few examples of interchange devices that show time to help ideas flow smoothly. Swap devices are like display signs that tell the reader what happened before and where the conversation is going.

CoherenceBetween Categories:
Temporary words can also be used between paragraphs. Words such as:

• Therefore
• However
• Thus
• First
• Later
• After that

It can be used not only between sentences, but between paragraphs to connect them. Other ways to build consistency between categories include paragraph structure and visual consistency. The structure of a related paragraph includes a topic sentence, which focuses on the main idea. The topic sentence usually comes first in the paragraph. The topic sentence is followed by supporting sentences that develop the idea and finally the concluding sentence to put it all together. Temporary words then close the gap between paragraphs, and then the structure begins with another topic sentence in the next paragraph.

Establishing Associations
 

It is important to consider the conjunction when writing at the sentence level. However, cohesion shapes the flow of text and must be established.

There are various ways to ensure consistent cohesion:

• Write sentences that flow with varying lengths and structures, use punctuation, and extend your choice of words.
• Use simple modifications, such as "in addition, additionally, and, therefore, the opposite, in the same token, at the same time, in other words, etc."
• Repeat your keywords but beware of excessive repetition.
• Repeat sentence structures, used as a means of livelihood rather than unity to emphasize the similarities between sentences.
• Ensure consistency regarding them
• Begin each sentence or paragraph with information showing the content of the next sentence.

Academic writing is improved in terms of cohesion. Without unity and cohesion, students will become confused and ultimately disinterested in the subject. Your ideas are then lost and the original purpose of writing is lost.

Strategies for coherent writing:

There are six ways to make a cohesive encounter, which you will find useful while researching your manuscript.
Building relationships is not as difficult as it seems, but you will need the right tools and strategies to achieve it.

Lexis creates cohesion using text templates, hyponyms, and superordinates. The use of lexical chains creates variety in writing and avoids monotony.

• The index creates combinations by using noun phrases (e.g. Yours, theirs, etc.), pronouns (e.g. He, I, etc.), and commentators (e.g. Those, these, etc.).
• Submission, which is to use a different name instead of the previously mentioned name (e.g. "I bought a designer bag today. You did the same.")
• Ellipsis removal or omission because its meaning is defined in context (e.g. "You go to yoga classes in the afternoon. I hope I can too.")
• Related nouns are also called umbrella nouns because they summarize many words in one.
• Suffixes include words that write ideas (e.g. First, next, then, last, etc.)

1.9             Organizing Principles of Paragraphs in Documents

Business documents - such as letters, emails, reminders and reports - use categories to distinguish different types of information, ideas, and ideas. The sections written in the business format are organized in an orderly, professional and well-organized manner. When writing a business document, we have to look at how the paragraph will appear on the page, the organization of the section and its placement throughout the article. We have to agree on the way our categories are organized. We should use short language and simple style to keep the reader focused on our message.

Block Status:

The general visual format of the sections in the business document is the block format where the section start is missing. Instead, the entire section is separated on its own and left with a reason, which means it corresponds to the left edge of the paper. A blank line is inserted at the back of each section to distinguish it from the next section or item of a document. Semi-block, where each article's beginning is inserted, is rarely used.

Font:

The sections in the business document are typed in traditional font such as 12-point Times New Roman. Avoid using strange fonts that deviate from your text. Use the same font for the rest of the document, except for titles, which can use either a larger font size or a stronger typeface.

Paragraph content:

Each section has to deal with one main idea. Introduce the main idea to a common statement in the first paragraph of a paragraph. Follow this topic sentence with a few sentences that support the main idea. This may contain informative information or debate to defend your view. Wrap up the paragraph with a summary sentence. If the class is running too long, you risk losing the student's attention. Instead, arrange the long section into two or more sections.

Paragraph Order:

A business document, such as a report or letter, begins with a paragraph that informs the title of the book. This is followed by one or more sections that develop the lesson. The concluding paragraph summarizes the information you provided or asked the student to take some action. For example, a letter outlining the reasons for an ad campaign may begin with an introductory paragraph introducing the campaign, followed by three sections each explaining the unique purpose of the campaign and a concluding paragraph asking the reader to approve the campaign. If the document is long, use headers to separate large sections.

Style:

While the tone can be friendly, business texts are written in formal style. Your writing may be read by third parties and kept by the company for many years, so avoid personal comments. Keep your writing up to date using gender-neutral language, as well as grammar and spelling. Keep your sentences short and to the point. Avoid clichés, contraction and slang.

Techniques of Writing a Paragraph

Below are the Techniques of writing a good paragraph:

1. Before you begin to figure out what the composition of a particular role is going to be, you have to look at what the most important concept you are trying to convey to your student. This is a "controlling concept," or thesis statement in which you name the remainder of the paragraph. In other words, your paragraphs should remind your reader that there is a general relationship between your control concept and the information at each stage. The research problem serves as the seed from which your paper, and your ideas, will grow. The whole process of stage development is a work-in-progress progression from seed theory to full-scale research where there is a direct, family-friendly relationship on paper between all of your control ideas and the stages they come from.

• Unified - All sentences in one paragraph should be accompanied by a single control point [usually expressed in paragraph heading].

• Obviouslyrelated to the research problem — All sentences should refer to the central idea, or thesis, of the paper.

• Coherent - Sentences should be organized correctly and should follow a detailed development plan.

• Well-Developed - All the ideas discussed in the section should be adequately explained and supported by evidence and data that work together to explain the concept that governs the section.

There are many different ways you can organize a category. However, the organization you choose will depend on the regulatory vision of the sector. Methods of classification in academic writing include:

• Narrative: Tell a story. Go in chronological order, from beginning to end.

• Descriptive: Provide specific information about how something looks or feels. Sort by location, chronological, or topic.

• Procedure: Explain step by step how the object works. Maybe you are following in order - first, second, and third.

• Classification: Divide into groups or describe different parts of a topic.

4.     Devote one paragraph to one idea

One paragraph should develop one idea. This will help you see two important issues you will have to correct:

(1) The ideas in the paragraph which do not relate to the main idea – this means their position should be changed; and

(2) you have several sentences with the same main idea – this means you have to remove repetitive content.

5.     Use of Active Voice

It is advisable to change all of the passive sentences into active voice (the exclusions may be the methodology section in scientific papers). Active voice improves clarity of sentences and makes the paper more engaging.Scientists and engineers might use passive voice to avoid the use of personal pronouns. However, all scientific and engineering journals now encourage authors to use I and We. You should also use personal pronouns – they do not make the writing biased; on the contrary, they make authors assume responsibility for their inferences and decisions.

However, students should try avoiding personal pronouns, but this does not mean you should use passive voice. When you look critically at your writing, you will see that in many cases the passive tone is not necessary and you can simply reverse it to active with no loss in meaning.

6.     Use semicolons, colons, dashes and parentheses to effectively combine and separate ideas

Proper use of punctuation will provide more clarity to your ideas and will help you organize them better.

Semicolons can solve the issue of two short sentences following each other. They also help to separate an idea from the previous one while holding some form of connection. For example: “A short sentence may emphasize and make a reader pause; several short sentences in a row break this connection.” Colons help to cut clutter when enumerating. Dashes and parentheses can both be used to put a clause aside and ease reading. However, use them carefully, as dashes emphasize what they separate, while parentheses – deemphasize it (actually, what is found in the parenthesis can be simply skipped by a reader).  

Features of a Paragraph - Unity, Coherence and Emphasis

Paragraph Unity means that the sentences in a paragraph should be united as a whole. It means that all the sentence a paragraph should be directly supportive of the topic sentence.

They unity of a paragraph can only be said to be established when all the sentences in that paragraph connect to the main idea. Many times while writing, the topic may be ambiguous, insufficient materials or resources may be available, or the purpose might be indefinite, which can lead to a diversified paragraph lacking unity.

Unity in a paragraph always starts with the topic sentence. Every paragraph must contain one single, controlling idea which must be expressed in its topic sentence, which is usually the first sentence of the paragraph. A paragraph must be then written in such a way that it is unified around this main idea, with the supporting sentences providing detail and discussion. In order to write a good topic sentence, think about your main theme and all the points you want to make in your paragraph. Decide which are the driving points, and then write the main one as your topic sentence.

Paragraph Coherence means that each and every sentence in a paragraph are linked together in a continuous line of thought and are organised in such a way so as to form a unity of idea. The sentences in a paragraph must always connect to each other and should work together as a whole with no gaps in the logical process.

Using transition words is one of the best methods of achieving coherence. These words act as bridges that connect sentences. Transition words that show order (first, second, third); spatial relationships (above, below) or logic (furthermore, in addition, in fact) are very useful for connecting sentences. Also, in writing a paragraph, using only one tense throughout and using only one perspective for descriptions are important ingredients for coherency.

There are some techniques which may be helpful with forming coherence in the paragraph:

• First is to think of a very clear topic sentence, the topic sentence must contain the central idea of the paragraph.
• Second is to use question and answer pattern in writing down the topic sentence. The question and answer pattern may be in the form of problem-solution or in general to particular to general format.
• Third is by positioning the topic sentence in the paragraph. Topic sentence is usually placed as the first sentence of the paragraph or sometimes it might serve as a transitional information before the paragraph. It may also be possible to put the topic sentence in the last sentence of the paragraph if it is not explicitly stated but is being implied.
• Another technique is to structure the paragraph using an ordering pattern such as the question-answer pattern, the problem-solution pattern and the topic-illustration pattern.

The third most important requirement of a well ­constructed paragraph is Emphasis. Emphasis in literal terms means “force” or “stress.” You may have a fairly well structured, coherent and unifiedparagraph but it might be lacking emphasis which is a common mistake among writers. Emphasis means that the main idea of the paragraph must be stressed in every sentence. A paragraph must not seem like a mass of useless details and unnecessary explanations. By keeping the same subject in every sentence, you can be sure that you are emphasising the main idea, whenever this is possible. In this way you are likely to improve the unity because it will not be so easy to go off the track. You are much less likely to introduce unrelated ideas if you are not changing subjects.

There are some techniques which might be useful in emphasising the paragraphs main idea:

You can establish emphasis by position, by repetition by climactic order.

• In establishing emphasis by position, it should be considered that the most significant ideas should be put in the introduction, in the conclusion, or in both parts within the paragraph. The paragraph should be filled with relevant statements not excluding minor details depending upon the need. Ending the paragraph by a summary of recapitulation is also beneficial.
• In establishing emphasis by repetition, the central idea can be repeated by using different words which will stress its importance. This strategy usually impresses the readers most emphatically with what the writer is trying to explain.
• In establishing emphasis by climactic order, the details in the paragraph must be arranged gradually beginning with the simple or least significant and ending with the most complex or most significant.

1.10        Techniques for Writing Precisely

By the term 'text' we refer to a passage consisting of different sentences written in continuous prose. It could be just a paragraph. When we read the paragraph, we can understand what is said and we can be able to follow the thinking of the writer. If we are not able to follow we can say that the concerned paragraph lacks cohesion and coherence.

Precise writing promotes two types of skills namely discourse skill and coherence.

It is a skill of presenting ideas and arguments of the writer logically. If this skill is developed we come to know what is coherence and cohesion. Every line has a logical link with the previous one in the text or paragraph which is called the link between sentences in a paragraph. They are:

i)    topical

Ii)  grammatical

Iii)     logical.

This type of link or inter connectedness is known as cohesion. Topical cohesion is lexical in nature. Logical cohesion is known as coherence.

i) Topical cohesion

In a text only one topic is dealt with. It has collocation of related make use of words. Whenever we are writing on a particular topic we appropriate register. So register is the term used to denote the variety of language which depends on its particular use. But using proper register is a hall mark of advanced mastery of the language. Hence it is sufficient to learn collocation rather than register. Topically connected words and its repetition is seen in the text. Synonyms are freely used.

Ii) Grammatical cohesion:

Here sentences can be interconnected by grammar. Grammatical relationship can be brought about by the use of pronouns appositives etc.

Iii) Logical cohesion or Coherence:

A sentence in a text should be logically connected. Logical cohesive is achieved by the use of certain words and expressions. There are a about a dozen logical devices used to promote cohesion.

• Addition: We add one sentence to another by using linguistic markers like and, besides, in addition, moreover, further, again etc.

e.g:    He has a car. In addition, he owns a bike

• Amplification: Amplification means adding details to the text. It is more or less like addition. The same linguistic markers are used here also.

e.g:    He came to see me moreover he brought good news.

• Comparison: Here the first sentence states something. Similar idea is expressed in the second sentence. Markers used are similarly and likewise.

e.g:    Rama got his degree. Similarly, Gopal also got his degree

• Contrast: The second sentence strikes a contrast with the first sentence making use of linguistic markers like 'but, however, whereas, etc.

e.g:     He is poor but he is kind.

• Concession: The second sentence makes a concession on the basis of the sentence. The linguistic markers used are through, although, even though.

e.g:    He is poor. Though he is poor he is kind.

• Condition: The second sentence puts forth a condition-based idea with reference he first sentence if, unless, as long as are used.

e. g: If you work hard, you will pass.

• Cause and effect: The first sentence states the cause or reason. The second sentence covers the effect of that cause. As a result, therefore are used as refers to the linguistic markers.

e.g: He is suffering from fever. Therefore, he has not come to school.

• Enumeration: The sentence making, use of this device draw up a list. The markers used are 'first, to begin, finally' etc.

e.g: He was persistently asking me for a loan. Finally, he went away.

• Exemplification: The second sentence gives an example for what is stated in the first sentence. The linguistic markers used are for example, for instance, etc.

e.g: The government has implemented a number of good schemes.

For example adult education has been given great importance.

• Temporal Relationship: The second sentence refers to a time factor connected to the first sentence. 'before, after, during, meanwhile etc. are used.

e.g: We were discussing the problem.

Meanwhile the problem has worsened.

• Conclusion: The second sentence arises at a conclusion based on the idea expressed in the first sentence. The markers used are" to conclude, to sum up, in brief etc.

e.g: He has no clear alibi, to conclude he is the culprit.

• Reformulation: The second sentence 'remarks the first sentence. The markers used are in the other words, he is dishonest etc.

Below are the three stages of precise writing:

1. Planning

Planning is the "generating ideas" part of the writing process when one works to determine the topic and the position or point-of-view for a target audience. Planning should be offered with the time necessary for an individual to create a plan or develop an outline to organize materials for the final product.

Planning Methods/ Techniques for the Planning Stage

There are a number of ways that one can tackle the planning stage of the writing process. Following are a few of the most common methods and strategies that one can use.

Brainstorming - Brainstorming is the process of coming up with as many ideas as possible about a topic without being worried about the feasibility or whether an idea is realistic or not. A list format is often the easiest to organize.

Freewriting - The free write strategy is when one writes whatever comes into their mind about the topic at hand for a specific amount of time, like 10 or 15 minutes. In a free write, one should not worry about grammar, punctuation, or spelling. Instead, they should try and come up with as many ideas as they possibly can to help them when they get to the writing process.

Mind Maps - Concept maps or mind-mapping are great strategies to use during the planning stage. Both are visual ways to outline information. There are many varieties of mind maps that can be quite useful as one work in the planning stage. Webbing is a great tool that has one write a word in the middle of a sheet of paper. Related words or phrases are then connected by lines to this original word in the centre. They build on the idea so that one has a wealth of ideas that are connected to this central idea.

Drawing/Doodling – Some individuals respond well to the idea of being able to combine words with drawings as they think about what they want to write in the planning stage. This can open up creative lines of thought.

Asking Questions - One often comes up with more creative ideas through the use of questioning. The point of asking questions to oneself is that these questions can help uncover a deeper understanding of the topic before the drafting process begins.

Outlining - One can employ traditional outlines to help them organize their thoughts in a logical manner. One would start with the overall topic and then list out their ideas with supporting details. It is helpful to point out that the more detailed their outline is from the beginning, the easier it will be to write on the topic.

2. Drafting

Drafting is the second step in any writing process. While drafting, the writer organizes his ideas into complete thoughts and translates them into sentences and paragraphs. The writer organizes his ideas in a way that allows the reader to understand his message.  He does this by focusing on which ideas or topics to include in the piece of writing.

While drafting, the writer must compose an introduction to the piece and develop a conclusion for the material presented.  At the end of this step of the writing process, the writer will have completed a “rough draft.” or the First draft of the text.

Below is the drafting process in detail:

Drafting: Stage 1

Follow your plan

Write your first draft using the plan and argument you have already prepared. If you stick to your plan, your first draft should be quite quick to write.

If new ideas occur to you, make notes in a separate document and insert them later, making sure they fit with your plan.

One point per paragraph

Focus on making sure each paragraph contains a point that elaborates on a different aspect of your argument. You will usually make your point in the first sentence of a paragraph. This is often called the topic sentence.

Signposting

As you draft, you might like to include section headings to help keep you on track. You can take them out later. Provide your reader with signposts so they can follow your line of argument without the headings.

At the end of a paragraph, indicate how your point leads on to the next one. Alternatively, use the first few words of the new paragraph to show how it links to the previous one.

Drafting: Stage 2

Check your argument

Now, check what you've written: your argument and how it is structured. Have you answered the question, and all parts of the question? Are the main points clear?

Check that your sections are in the best order for the argument to flow well. You can read through your topic sentences to see this.

You may need to expand one area and reduce another, and substitute quotes or references. But make sure you stick to roughly the right word count.

Keep track of changes by renaming your document as Draft 2. You could put the parts you take out in a ‘spare text' document in case you realise later that you need any of them.

Introduction and conclusion

Once you are happy with the main body of the text, check that your introduction and conclusion reflect what you have written.

3. Editing

Editing is generally considered as correcting grammar and syntax along with punctuation. That's somewhat correct, but only the tip of the iceberg. The editing process involves many sets of eyes and several layers to complete.

It’s important to understand the different types of editing to know what to expect from the process. The revision levels focus on specific individual needs, including stylistic and substantive content. The process of editing consists of four main steps which are to be covered: content and development, line, copy, and proofread.

Steps for Editing:

Step 1: Content and Development Edit

The first step of editing for most documents is content and development editing—reviewing the central content of the text. Developmental editing tackles the following:

• Flow
• Organization
• Chapter (arrangement, length, and number)
• Logic
• Descriptions
• Sentence Structures
• Pacing
• Impact of POV (first, second, third, or combination)

Content and development edits will often lead to reorganization of thought patterns in the text with changing or shuffling minor ideas due to incoherencies.

Step 2: Line Edit

Line edits focus primarily structural patterns of sentences and paragraphs with special attention towards:

• Words or phrases that are repetitious
• Restructuring sentences that are not complete or inaccurate
• Run-on sentences
• Usage of words that clarify meaning
• Enhances tedious wording

A line edit restructures sentences to elevate clarity and flow. Say there are two sentences describing something important, but they don’t quite pull together. During this step, the editor will take the two sentences and formulate them in such a way that they read effortlessly and are in a logical order.

Step 3: Copy Edit

Copy editing is focused on specific grammatical rules including but not limited to:

• Grammar and punctuation
• Spelling nuances (British English versus American English)
• Capitalizing, hyphenating, italicizing
• When to use numbers instead of letters

The copy edit can and must be automated using rules. While editing it is prudent to use two to three references to maintain consistency—specifically, a dictionary and a style manual. Use of dictionaries should be selective to ensure spelling and meaning is correct. Merriam-Webster dictionary is most common.

Step 4: Proofread