Unit 4

Comprehension

4.1             Comprehension

Comprehension simply means the ability to understand something. It comprises of the multiple processes involved in hearing, understanding and making sense of the spoken language. This includes grasping various speech sounds and understanding the syntax of sentences. Comprehension can also include the process of understanding how the presentation of sentences changes meaning.

Comprehension is the correct association of meanings with word symbols. It is the selection of the correct meaning suggested by the text It is a thinking process. It is thinking through reading. Students should lead and get complete meaning. There are two situations that arise while reading a passage. The pupils may find a reading comprehension passage difficult for them. The teacher should know about the difficulties beforehand and prevent their occurrence.

It is often contested that speaking as a skill is more important than listening which is a common misconception. Listening is as important a skill as speaking if not more, as it is only by listening one can learn proper pronunciation and intonation of words which allows him to speak fluently.

Oral language skills including listening comprehension also are important for writing development. Although oral language skills aren't explicitly laid out in the developmental models of writing, they are essential component skills as writing requires generation of ideas, which then need to be translated into oral language.

There are two ways in which a person can listen to something being said to them – active and passive. Passive listening is listening without giving the speaker your full attention. Passive listening is like not listening at all therefore one must always give the speaker their full attention and practice active listening in order to fully grasp the meaning of what the speaker wants to say.

Some common difficulties with comprehension are:

• Students are not able to concentrate on what they read.
• They are not able to recognize words. Noisy surroundings, inadequate lighting and uncomfortable seating arrangements.
• Unfamiliarity of the subject matter (eg) a child from a city may not understand a passage on farming and a village child about road signal systems.
• In effective questioning and answering techniques.
• Lack of appropriate guidance by the teacher Steps for the comprehension skills. These are various steps followed for the construction of comprehension.

4.2             Precis Writing

The term precis comes from a French word “précis”, which can be translated as "precise, clear, up to the point”. Therefore, the word precis in the context of writing means a summary of any writing piece, be it a book, an article, or a novel. What is typical while writing a precis is the outline of the main points and arguments presented in the given text. A precis does not contain a deep or critical analysis of the text, but it nevertheless objectively explains the situation narrated in a text.

Precis vs. Summary

A precis and a summary are quite similar to each other but they do contain certain major differences which set them apart. Below are the two main differences between a precis and a summary:

1. A summary consists of a number of brief statements which covers the main points of the text. It has no pre-defined word limit. A precis on the other hand, has its own title and should be 1/3 of the total words of the original passage.
2. A summary is a sort of general overview of the contents of a passage. Here only the main events in the passage are discussed. A precis, however, focuses on every detail and analyses a particular situation.

Rules

Below are the fundamental rules to be followed while writing a precis:

1. Understand the theme of the passage

The first and the most important thing is to thoroughly read and comprehend the purpose of the passage. Once you understand the theme, it is easier to grasp the key ideas in the passage, which will help you remember them while writing the precis.

b.     No copying from the passage

It is important in precis writing to use your own words and not copy from the passage. If you find certain sentences in the passage that you would like to incorporate in your precis, you need to understand them and then craft that sentence in your own words. Key words can be used but entire sentences should always be avoided.

c.      Carry clarity and conciseness

One of the most fundamental rules of writing a precis is clarity. The sentences should be clear, concise, meaningful and too the point. They should reflect the central ideas from the passage.

d.     A reflection of your intelligence

The precis should be written in such a way that it flaunts your writing skills. The use of language, vocabulary and structure of sentences should be perfect. A good precis will provide the readers a good impression of your writing skills and it will also make the precis comprehensible to the readers.

e.     Be original

Each and every sentence in the precis should be one's own creation with no plagiarism whatsoever. If you find a significant idea or motif from the passage that you want to include in your precis, read the passage again and again and try to re-construct the idea from your memory using your own words.

f.        Use of indirect speech

A precis must always be written in indirect speech since it employs the perspective of a third person. Direct speech leaves a personal impact and should be avoided while writing a precis.

g.     Use facts and statistics

To maintain the credibility of the text, try to include all the numbers and facts you read in the text. It will also help you enhance the quality of your writing and will build the interest of the reader in your precis. Therefore, any of the facts and numbers should not be missed while writing the Precis.

h.     An analysis of the various sections

Divide the text into sections and try to analyse each section carefully. A careful analysis of each section will let you draw in closer to the main themes and concepts in the text. Further, you can only mention the crucial content of the passage, if you have read it thoroughly and have identified the areas which carry high proportional value.

i.        An interpretation of the original passage

Always conclude the passage by providing your own understand instead of the writer's perspective. The conclusion has to be from your own point of view but should still be in the third person as if spoken by a third party. It is your interpretation of the text that gives meaning to the precis.

j.        The size of the precis

The size of a precis should always be one third of the original passage.  While writing the precis one should always be aware of the word count but one should also be able to retain the individuality of the passage in the prescribed word limit.

Precis Format

A precis should be short and concise and comprises of three parts: The introduction, the main body and the conclusion.

The Introduction

• The introductory sentence of a precis should mention the author’s name along with the article/book title. It should also include the date of publishing in parenthesis. After that, the topic that you want to discuss in your precis has to be elaborated using a few key words. Extravagant detailing of the topic should be avoided.

• In the introduction, try to include a rhetorical verb outlining the author’s primary purpose (e.g., “assert,” “argue,” “deny,” “refute,” “prove,” disprove,” “explain”). This will give a strong definition to the facts and concepts you are about to present in the main body of your precis.

• It is important to include the thesis statement of the text in the introduction. A thesis statement is the main idea or crux of a particular text. This thesis statement will be elaborated in the main body by providing facts and evidences in its favour.

The Main Body

• The main body should include clarification of how the author formulates and further explains the main themes in the text. It should be informative enough to incite the reader's interest and short enough to retain that interest.

• It should include a sentence that states the purpose of the author in writing the text. Phrases such as “in order” are helpful in developing this sentence.

• Describe how the author establishes his connection with the readers. Always keep the audience for whom you are writing in mind while writing a precis. This includes the using vocabulary and structuring sentences according to the needs of your audience.

• All key points and arguments must be contained in this section.

The Conclusion

• Present a finishing remark of 2-3 sentences to shed light on the author’s intended idea for the book or passage.

• Give a 1-sentence restatement of the major claim which the author used to develop their evidence in the reading.

Steps for Writing a Precis

Below are the steps involved in writing a precis

Step 1: As discussed, the very first step of Precis writing is to form a clear understanding of the passage. You should fully acquaint yourself with the subject first in order to get the meaning behind a passage before starting to write a precis.

Step 2: While reading the content, make sure you highlight the important points of the passage. It will help you in keeping track of the important information that needs to be written in your Precis. Also, you should omit the information, which you feel is not important for your Precis.

Step 3: Further, you need to remember that logical ordering is highly important when it comes to precis writing. Additionally, a logically organised text helps in making things much clearer to your audience and they tend to understand your take in a processed way.

Step 4: If you have some names to be mentioned in your Precis, remember, they should be with the designations, as it helps to increase the credibility of the content. In case, the designations are not mentioned in the passage, you can write the first name.

Step 5: Moving on, the word count of the passage should be taken into account, because one- third of the same has to be written in Precis. Therefore, conducting a word count before beginning the precis could be beneficial.

Step 6: Now, prepare the draft of your Precis by jotting all the important points together. While writing always remember to maintain the flow of your concepts and you should not miss any important information you have gathered while reading the passage.

Step 7: Before finally submitting your Precis, make sure you review all the details carefully. Also, you must do a thorough check of your grammatical and structural errors. Furthermore, one thing not to miss is to mention the total count in a bracket after the end point of your Precis.

4.3             Essay Writing

Dimension of Essay Writing

There are many types of essays and papers you can write as a student. The content and length of the essay varies depending on your level, subject of study, and the requirements of a particular course.

However, many subject bodies share the same goal. They aim to convince students of a position or perspective through informed, evidence-based, analytical and interpretive debates.

In addition, every story has an introduction, body and ending that always do the same or few things.

Essay Writing Process:

The essay writing process consists of three stages: preparation, writing and revision. These categories apply to each article or paper. However, the time and energy spent in each category depends on the sort of essay, for instance a private statement, a press release of intent, a high school essay or a grad school essay.

Preparation:

• Understand the assignment
• Understand your audience
• Select a topic
• Do some initial research
• Name the thesis statement
• Create an outline

Writing:

• Write an introduction
• Organize your arguments and give evidence
• Write the conclusion

Review:

• Analyse the organization
• Review the content of each paragraph
• Proofread for language errors
• Check for plagiarism

Introduction of an Essay:
 

The introduction is important to both capture the reader's interest and inform them of what will be found in the story. The introduction usually contains 10-20% of the text. To learn how to write an article introduction, first become familiar with its most important objectives.

• Move your student by chasing curiosity and curiosity:
  The first sentence of the introduction should draw your student's wish. This sentence is sometimes referred to as a hook. It can be a question, quote, a surprising number, or a bold statement that emphasizes the importance of a topic.
  Let's say you write an article about the development of Braille (a literacy program used by the visually impaired). A boat can be something like:
  The introduction of Braille marked the biggest turning point in the history of disability.

• Provide background and context for your topic:
  After you dismiss the student, it is important to provide context that will help your student understand your argument. This may include providing background information, providing an overview of important academic work or arguments on a topic, as well as explaining difficult words. Do not give too many details in the introduction - you can adequately describe the content of your essay.

• Explain the purpose and create a thesis statement:
  Next, you have to explain your basic argument or thesis statement. The thesis statement provides focus and reflects your position on the topic. Usually one or two sentences long. An example of a thesis statement from Braille essay can be seen as follows:
  The idea of ​​orthopaedics was not entirely new; Louis Braille adapted simple ways to create the first system for writing to the blind. But its success depended on the reception of people who had sinned before the social status of blindness was reversed, and the process was shaped by widespread debates about the place of people with disabilities in society.

• Provide a content map:
  Finish the introduction with an overview of your site structure. An overview should give the reader a general idea of ​​what each paragraph of your article is examining.

The Body of the Essay:
 

The theme of your article is when you make arguments that support your thesis statement, provide evidence, and develop your ideas. His main purpose is to present, interpret and analyse the information and sources you have gathered to support your argument.

• Length of body text:
  The length of the body depends on the type of description. On average, the body comprises 60-80% of your material. In a high school essay, this can be just three paragraphs, but with a 6,000-word graduate essay, the body can take 8-10 pages.

• Section layout/Paragraph Structure:
  In order to give your essay a clear structure, it is important to use paragraphs and topics. This makes the content unwanted and easy to digest. Each section should focus on a point of view or a single point of view.
  The purpose of each paragraph is presented using topic sentences. The topic clause creates a transition from the previous paragraph and informs the argument to be made in this paragraph. Change words can be used to create smooth transitions between sentences.
  After the topic sentence, demonstrate evidence by providing the reader with data, examples or quotes. Be sure to interpret and explain the evidence, and show how the paragraph helps improve your overall argument.

Conclusion of an Essay:
 

Conclusion The last paragraph of the article or paper. It takes about 10-20% of your article. Strong conclusion:

• Draws connections between the arguments made in the body of the story.
• State the consequences of your argument.
• Emphasize the importance and importance of a thesis statement of policy, education or the wider world.
• Evaluates key findings and the importance of the topic
  A good conclusion should end with a memorable or impactful sentence that emphasizes the importance of your work and leaves the reader with a strong final impression.

What you must not write in the conclusion
 

To make the end of your article as strong as possible, there are a few things you should avoid including. The most common errors are:

Includes new argument or evidence.

Minimize your conflicts (e.g. "This is one way for many").

Concluding phrases such as “Conclusion…” are used.

How to write an essay

• The story begins with a hook that catches your reader's interest.
• Introduction provides background and context that help your reader understand the topic.
• The introduction contains a thesis statement that provides focus and reflects your position on the topic.
• Paragraphs and titles are used for story planning.
• Each paragraph deals with a single idea, debate or issue.
• Subject sentences are used to create a smooth transition between paragraphs.
• The conclusion is not only brief, but draws a link between issues.
• The significance of the thesis statement is emphasized in the conclusion.
• Conclusion does not contain new ideas, arguments or evidence.

Types of Essays

Below are the various types of essays:

Scientific Essay

Before writing your essay, first and foremost, you need to know and understand what an essay on science is. So, what is a scientific essay? A scientific essay is an article whereby you have to analyse a scientific issue or problem and then try to develop a solution on the basis of factual information and perhaps provide some of your opinions from your own perspective on the matter as well. Essays on science can be considered different from other types of essays considering the freedom they allow. In other types of essays, you can express yourself. But, in scientific essays, there is little to no room to do so. Contrariwise, science essays seek out impartial logicality and accurate knowledge. Also, these essays test your judgment skills and analysis.

Literary Essay

A literary essay is a type of essay which involves closely studying a text, interpreting its meanings, and exploring why the author made certain choices. It can be applied to novels, short stories, plays, poems, or any other form of literary writing.

A literary analysis essay is not just a summarized version of the plot or a book review. Rather, it is a type of argumentative and analytical essay where you need to analyse various textual elements such as the language, perspective, and structure of the text, and explain how the author uses literary devices to create meaning and convey ideas.

Before beginning a literary analysis essay, it’s essential to carefully read the text and come up with a thesis statement to keep your essay focused. A literary essay follows the same structure as any academic essay:

• An introduction that defines what the rest of the essay is focused on.
• A main body, divided into paragraphs, that builds an argument using evidence from the text.
• A conclusion that clearly states the main point that you have shown with your analysis.

Narrative Essay

The first step in writing an outstanding narrative essay is learning the narrative essay definition. There is no universal definition of narrative essay simply because of how broad and all-encompassing this genre of writing is.

However, when asked to define narrative essay, most academic writers will say that it’s a piece of writing telling a story using a variety of literary device. The narrative essay format is one of the most personal ones in academic writing, but it also requires you to have extensive knowledge of the writing process, not just rely on your own experiences.

Descriptive Essay

Description is a tool that writers use to keep things live for their readers, to make sure their audience is fully immersed in the words on the page. Every time you tell someone a story, or when you tell someone something, you either use the description or you don't know it. The description is basically "I have a blue car" or "That beautiful baby" or "Flowers soften the sun's golden rays and start showing their bright colours". Descriptive words are used to provide more detail and provide more insight. In fact, commentary is a tool that allows many authors (and speakers) to show up instead of just saying, and enabling our readers to interpret our material.

There are two basic types of Objective and Subjective. The meaning of purpose is shown in the first two examples above; Provides a true account of the item. Co-explanation provides a personal examination of the details by selecting specific words and phrases, such as clarifying the colours in the example above. Vibration not only provides information on colours, but also gives the idea or judgment of the value in the description. Many interpretations provide a mixture of both, giving the audience an idea of ​​the emotional state of the subject being described.

Descriptive essays often describe a person, place, or thing that uses sensitive information. The structure of the descriptive text is more flexible than other filtering methods. The introduction of a descriptive article should set the tone and point of the essay. The thesis should convey the author's general opinion of the person, place, or thing described in the body paragraphs.

Article organization can better track spatial order, classification of ideas according to physical characteristics or appearance. Depending on the author's description, the movement can move from top to bottom, left to right, near and far, warm, cold, inviting, and so on.

Example, if the theme was the customer's kitchen during the renovation, you could start heading to one side of the room and then slowly to the other side, explaining materials, cabinetry, and so on. Or, you can choose to start with the old kitchen remnants and move on to new installations. Maybe start at the bottom and climb up to the roof.

Reflective Essay

A reflective essay is a type of written assignment where the author analyses the event from the past using a present point of view. The purpose of a reflective essay is to demonstrate the effect of the past event — specifically, what can be learned from the event and how the event helped shape the personality of the individual writing the paper.

In a way, a descriptive essay is somewhat similar to a reflective essay. Both refer to an event from the writer’s past and both can be equally rewarding for the writer, allowing them to relive the event in their thoughts and possibly even get some closure.

However, there is one key difference between a descriptive essay and a reflective essay is that the purpose of a descriptive essay is to simply describe a past event without providing an in-depth look on the effect of the event on the writer’s personality and present life.

You can use rich language and various literary devices to describe the event, but a descriptive essay barely requires the writer to do any analysis at all. A reflective essay also describes a past event in great detail, but its main purpose is to express the consequences of the event and how they changed the writer’s life and outlook.

The subject of a reflective essay can be nearly anything that influenced your life in a major way. The most popular thing to focus on when writing a reflective essay is a past experience — anything that occurred to you some time in the past. It can be a meeting or conversation with someone that left a lasting impression on you.

Expository Essay

An expository essay is a piece of writing where the author’s job is to introduce the audience to a particular concept.

The big and key difference between an expository essay and a persuasive essay is that the expository essay does not require the author to address his personal attitude to the subject, whereas writing a persuasive essay means expressing an opinion and attempting to convince the audience that it’s the only possibly correct opinion.

After learning the expository essay definition, it’s easy to think that this written assignment is pretty straightforward and can be mastered very quickly. That is why many students are surprised to learn that there are actually six main types of expository essays that are commonly used in modern schools:

1. Definition essay, where the writer attempts to give a more precise definition to a concept that has been already defined by other scholars;
2. Classification essay, where the writer takes a complete concept and breaks it down into groups and pieces;
3. Problem and solution essay, which requires the writer to define a problem and then offer a solution that has the highest chance of solving the problem;
4. Cause and effect essay, where the writer needs to cover the reasons for the subject in question happening and the possible results of the event;
5. Process essay, also known as the “how-to essay”, where the writer describes the steps in a particular procedure that will lead to the desired result;
6. Comparison and contrast essay, where the writer compares two subjects and defines their differences and similarities.

On paper, the assignment of writing an expository essay seems easy, but, as we have already established, there are six types and even more variations of expository essays that you may encounter throughout your academic journey.

The purpose of an expository essay, in general, is to give the readers a detailed introduction of the subject of the paper, but in reality, your job can be different. Always carefully check the writing prompt to see which type of essay you are required to write — only then will you be able to choose the appropriate expository essay format, structure, and content.

Argumentative Essay

An argumentative essay is a type of essay where the writer’s objective is to convince the reader that his opinion is correct by providing compelling arguments backed up by strong evidence.

An argumentative essay follows the same format as other academic essays. However, it is often believed that writing an argumentative essay is as easy as simply voicing your opinion. In reality, even though a personal opinion is an important part of the essay, it’s the arguments and evidence that make the work complete.

When learning how to write argumentative essay, it’s important to remember that the focus and most vital point of an argumentative essay is the argument itself. The rest of the paper, including the introduction, conclusion, and most of the body paragraphs, are simply there to set the context for the subject of the essay and offer support to the argument.

The argument of the argumentative essay is the backbone of the paper that holds it together. You should first state your main argument right in the introduction of the essay and then refer to it several times in the paper, so make sure to make it clear, concise, and able to resonate with the audience.

Imaginative Essay

An imaginative essay is an essay which is fictional in nature and is written completely from the author’s imagination. It may involve partial real-life events but the overall outcome is fictional. It tests the creative ability of a writer in formulating new thoughts, ideas and concepts.

An imaginative essay is narrative and descriptive in style and follows the same format as most academic essays including an introduction, the main body and the conclusion.

4.4             Listening Comprehension

The process of listening is receiving a language through the ears. It involves the identificationof the sounds of speech and processing them into words and sentences. Listening is the ability to precisely receive and interpret messages in the communication process.

Listening is one of the most important factors to all effective communication. Without effective listening ability, messages may be easily misunderstood. Therefore, as a result, sometimes communication breaks down and the sender of the message can easily become frustrated or irritated.

While listening, we use our ears to receive individual sounds (letters, stress, rhythm and pauses) and our brain converts these into messages that mean something to us.

Listening, like any other communication skill such as reading, writing or speakinge requires focus and attention. It is a skill that some people need to work at harder than others. People who have difficulty concentrating are typically poor listeners. Listening in a second language requires even greater focus.

Listening comprehension comprises of the multiple processes involved in hearing, understanding and making sense of the spoken language. This includes grasping various speech sounds and understanding the syntax of sentences. Listening comprehension can also include the process of understanding how the presentation of sentences changes meaning.

It is often contested that speaking as a skill is more important than listening which is a common misconception. Listening is as important a skill as speaking if not more, as it is only by listening one can learn proper pronunciation and intonation of words which allows him to speak fluently.

Oral language skills including listening comprehension also are important for writing development. Although oral language skills aren't explicitly laid out in the developmental models of writing, they are essential component skills as writing requires generation of ideas, which then need to be translated into oral language.

There are two ways in which a person can listen to something being said to them – active and passive. Passive listening is listening without giving the speaker your full attention. Passive listening is like not listening at all therefore one must always give the speaker their full attention and practice active listening in order to fully grasp the meaning of what the speaker wants to say.

What role does listening comprehension play in communication?

Listening to understanding is the first basic step of communication. The more a student understands what is being said, the better will be their ability to communicate. In addition, they will be better able to identify target language features that will help improve their language development in all four areas of competence.

Students can feel a great sense of pride when they are able to understand something in a target language. This can be a great motivation for continuing to learn the language, and teachers should do everything possible to promote this sense of accomplishment. As a result, teachers need to create learning activities that will enhance students' oral understanding (listening skills) and motivate them, too.

The work of Nunan and Lamb (1996) is of great help in this area. They set out a series of questions that teachers need to do in preparation for listening activities:

• What is the context of obedience?

• Should one or two items from the listening activities be designed for the whole class so that the learners know what to do?

• How often should the object be listened to?

• How will students assess the accuracy of their listening? (i.e., student responses?)

• Is it possible to assess the accuracy of listening to be done independently or collectively?

Purposes of Listening Skills

It is often contested that speaking as a skill is more important than listening which is a common misconception. Listening is as important a skill as speaking if not more, as it is only by listening one can learn proper pronunciation and intonation of words which allows him to speak fluently.

Oral language skills including listening comprehension also are important for writing development. Although oral language skills aren't explicitly laid out in the developmental models of writing, they are essential component skills as writing requires generation of ideas, which then need to be translated into oral language.

Below are some areas where listening skills can prove to be extremely important:

Academic Purpose

When one focuses on the material presented in a classroom, they will be able to identify not only the words used in a lecture but their emphasis and their more complex meanings. They will take better notes, and will more accurately remember the instructor’s claims, information, and conclusions. Many times, instructors provide oral cues about what is likely to appear in an examination, specific expectations for assignments and instructions on specific study material, hence active listening can be extremely beneficial.

Social Purpose

In a social setting, if a person genuinely listens to other people, they are often considered to be a good friend. Most people prefer "good listeners" over people who won't stop giving advice without even listening to a word the speaker is saying. Many people just wait for their turn to speak instead of trying to understand what someone is saying to them. Therefore, listening skills also help with one's social relationships.

Perceptual Purpose

A person who has the ability to listen properly is often considered an intelligent person. It is essential to let someone finish their thoughts before giving voice to one's own opinions. Listening silently while someone is speaking gives them a sign that they are being heard. This creates an image of a smart individual in the mind of the speaker.

Important for Public Speaking

When one listen's well to others without interrupting, they begin gathering up on more impressive ways to organize and present arguments. Which helps one understand how people think and what are the factors that influence them. While speaking publicly this can be helpful as one can assume how people will react to a certain argument. This also helps in connecting with people in general and potentially influencing them.

Types of Listening

There are a few different methods of effective listening, and each one is suited to specific circumstances. Here are descriptions of the main types of listening and the scenarios in which you would be likely to use them:

1. Discriminative listening:

Discriminative listening is the first form of listening humans develop as babies. This type of listening does not focus on words but rather the tone of voice and other subtleties of sound to understand meaning and intention. Babies don’t understand words, but they rely on their discriminative listening to understand who is speaking and what mood is being communicated. As an adult, you may find yourself relying on discriminative listening when people around you are speaking a foreign language that you don’t understand. Though you may lack the language skills to understand the words being spoken, you can rely on the tone of voice and inflection to derive a vague meaning. When you can only rely on discriminative listening, you may turn to visual stimuli. The mannerisms, facial expressions, and body language of a speaker help clue you in to the speaker’s message.

Comprehensive listening is the next level of critical listening skills that humans usually develop in early childhood. Comprehensive listening requires language skills and a grasp of basic vocabulary to understand what is being communicated through by the speaker. Comprehensive listening covers most other forms of listening that critical listeners utilize. Through the course of their day-to-day lives, people use comprehensive listening paired with verbal cues to understand what messages are being communicated to them.

Informational listening (or informative listening) is the type of listening practices during the process of learning. Informational listening builds upon basic comprehensive listening and requires a high level of concentration and engagement to understand new concepts and comprehend technical jargon. Informational listening has less to do with the emotional content of what is being communicated and more to do with critical thinking and following a logical sequence as it is communicated. When you try to learn important skills that are being taught to you, it’s vital that you pay attention and use informational listening skills.

Critical listening is the style of listening people use when they are trying to analyse and judge complex information that is being communicated to them. You might use critical listening if you’re problem-solving on the job and trying to decide if you agree with a proposal being floated by one of your co-workers. The word “critical” has multiple meanings, but in this case it simply means that you are evaluating information—not necessarily passing judgment.

Biased listening (or selective listening) is a type of selective listening where the listener only tries to understand what they want to hear. Biased listening is different from critical listening because the listener is not actually listening to the speaker's opinions but instead trying to confirm their own opinions. People generally do not realize that they are using a biased listening process. Biased listening can lead to a falsification of facts in the mind of a listener who is not in harmony with to what a speaker intends to communicate.

Sympathetic listening is an emotionally-driven type of relationship listening, wherein a listener processes the feelings and emotions of a speaker and tries to provide support and understanding in return. You might use sympathetic listening when a child tells you about trouble they had at school. In this case sympathetic listening is used to make the child feel heard and provide them with comfort and support. Sympathetic is useful in trying to establish a deep connection with another person, especially when that person is experiencing adversity.

Therapeutic or empathetic listening is a listening process wherein a listener tries to understand the point of view of a speaker and imagines themselves directly in the speaker’s position. Empathetic listening (sometimes referred to as empathic listening) goes a step further than sympathetic listening in that an empathic listener will relate to the speaker’s experience as if it were their own.

Strategies to Improve Listening

There are two ways in which a person can listen to something being said to them – active and passive. Passive listening is listening without giving the speaker your full attention. Passive listening is like not listening at all therefore one must always give the speaker their full attention and practice active listening in order to fully grasp the meaning of what the speaker wants to say.

Below are some ways in which one can improve their listening comprehension skills:

1. Listening to Podcasts and Audio Books

One can start listening to podcasts or audio books with comprehensible difficulty level, meaning the ones which one can already understand 60-80%. This is necessary as listening to material far above one’s skill level will only leave them dazed and confused.

2.     Listening to the Appropriate Material

Listening to what one enjoys is also important. It would build up motivation to continue exercising their listening skills. If you are interested in a particular genre of a book or a particular speaker then try listening to them first as they would be able to keep you more interested and engaged in the subject.

3.     Entertainment is a Good Source of Learning

One should start watching English content beginning with short clips and move on to full movies and shows in English along with subtitles. This will help them get familiar with native pronunciation and syntax of different kinds of sentences. While watching with subtitles one should always avoid reading the subtitles beforehand and should read them as the words are being spoken.

4.     Listen and Re-listen

Native English is fast spoken. Therefore, it is necessary to acquaint oneself with different speeds in spoken English. To do this, one should listen and re-listen the same material at different speeds while trying to focus on the different sounds, words and their meanings.

5.     Taking Notes

When listening to an audio, it is often helpful to take notes.

While practicing listening, the following steps will help to understand the content more clearly:

Step 1:Write down the topic of the audio

Step 2:If there are multiple speakers, their names are to be written down (e.g. Speaker 1, Speaker 2)

Step 3:Write down the crux of what each speaker is trying to convey.It is even better to use points for their central ideas.

Step 4:If you frequently hear a word you do not understand, try to write it down so you can look it up later

Step 5:If there's a word or sentence you find interesting, write it down so that you can practice using it in your own conversations.

6.     Conversing with Native Speakers

If possible, try talking to native speakers as they will have good pronunciation and intonation. At first it would be difficult to understand because of their accents and word stress but with more practice you will be able to successfully communicate with them. Conversing also has another additional advantage, it will not only help with your listening comprehension but will also help you learn how to speak the language with proper pronunciation.

4.5             Pronunciation, Intonation, Stress and Rhythm

Pronunciation

There is a great difference in how the words are spelled and the way they are pronounced in the English language. Therefore, it is difficult to ascertain the correct pronunciation of a word by just looking at it the way it is spelled. This often results in mispronunciation. Only by hearing the correct pronunciation from a native speaker one can truly understand how words are supposed to be articulated.

For example, consider the following words – through, cough, though, rough, bough. In these words, the pronunciation of the letters –ough varies with each word.

Similarly read, need, believe, machine, receive, we, people, key, quay contain nine different spellings for the same vowel sound in the word “need”.

Thus, it can be said that there is no one-to-one correspondence between the sounds as they are uttered and the letter or symbol which appears in the written word. Therefore, it is necessary to have some consistent representation of the language so that one can have a clearer understanding of the distinctive sounds which exist in the language. Discrepancies between the pronunciation and ordinary spelling confuse the learner and the result is mispronunciation. Such mispronunciations may be avoided by the use of Phonetic Transcription.

The phonetic alphabet given below is that of the International Phonetic Association (IPA):

Silent and Non-Silent Letters

Sometimes one may find that even though a letter appears in a word, it may not be pronounced. These are known as silent letters. For example, in the word Christmas, the letter “t” is never pronounced thus rendering the title of a silent letter. Another example would be the word “muscle” where the letter “c” is silent.

Some common silent letters include:

1. The silent “K”

The letter ‘k’ being a hard-sounding consonant is often pronounced wherever it is found, however, if it is succeeded by the letter ‘n’ it is often rendered silent.

For ex: Knife, Knack, Know, Knit

2.     The silent “G”

The letter ‘g’ is also a consonant which can be found to be silent in words such as malign, benign, foreign, design, sign. It is noteworthy that whenever the letter ‘g’ is silent in a word it is often followed by the letter ‘n’.

3.     The Silent “P”

The letter ‘p’, spoken with the lips, is usually found to be silent in a number of places. For example in words like Phycology, pseudo, receipt etc.

4.     The Silent “T”

The letter ‘t’ is probably the best example of silent letters as it can be found silent in a number of words like thistle, bustle, castle, whistle, hustle, Christmas.

Sometimes there are words in the English language where there is pronunciation of a letter which is nowhere to be found in the word. These letters are called as Non-Silent or invisible letters. This is the opposite of silent letters where a letter is pronounced even though it is not written.

For example, the word “one” is pronounced as ‘Wone’, where the sound of the letter ‘w’ can be clearly and distinctly heard.  Similarly, The Scottish word búrgh can be pronounced as the equivalent bòrough is in England. One can often find the English city of Edinburgh being pronounced as “Edinborogh” by native speakers.

One can also find the presence of an invisible ‘a’ in American names such as McDonalds, McEnroe, McElroy, McCarthy.

THE -ED SUFFIX ON REGULAR VERBS

The past tense of various verbs are formed by adding the suffix “-ed” to the base form of the verb. But Even though all regular verbs are formed the same way, they might be pronounced quite differently. Depending on the preceding syllable, the -ed suffix can be pronounced in three different ways: /id/, /d/, or /t/.

/ID/

This pronunciation is used when “-ed” is preceded by a “d” or a “t”.

Examples

Need   → needed

End      → ended

Start     → started

Want     → wanted

/T/

Regular verbs that end in a voiceless consonant sound have the /T/ pronunciation. Some common voiceless consonants include: /f/ /k/ /p/ /s/ /t/ /sh/ y /ch/.

Examples

/f/ laugh       → laughed

/p/ stop      → stopped

/sh/ wash       →washed

/k/ like       → liked

/s/ miss    → missed

/D/

Regular verbs having a voiced consonant sound have this pronunciation. Some common voiced consonants are: /b/ /g/ /v/ /z/ /m/ /n/ /l/ /th/ /r/.

Examples:

/b/ grab      → grabbed

/g/ beg      → begged

/n/ listen → listened

/l/ kill → killed

SILENT LETTERS

Silent letters are consonants that appear in a word but are not pronounced. It can be difficult for a non-native speaker to grasp which letters are silent in a word, therefore resulting in errors in pronunciation. For example, There are many English words where the “h” is not pronounced. The same applies to many other consonants. Let’s look at some examples.

Silent H

Although it should be kept in mind that the aspirated “h” in English is always pronounced. Here is a list of words that begin with a silent “h”.

Hour

Honour

Honest

Heir

Herbs

These words containing the silent 'h' usually have a vowel right after 'h' and the actual pronunciation begins from the said vowel.

Silent P

There are a number of words where the first 'p' is not pronounced leading to mispronunciation by non native speakers. Here are those words:

Psychology

Psychiatrist

Pseudo

Pneumonia

Pneumatics

Psalms

Another commonly mispronounced word 'receipt', where the “p” is not at the beginning of the word, is followed by a consonant, but is not pronounced.

There are many other silent letters in English and the only way to recognize them is by practicing their usage. By a general rule, they are consonants followed by other consonants. For example: doubt , subtle , assign , design , knife , knight .

THE STRESS ON DERIVED WORDS

Sometimes the stress passes from a later syllable to the first syllable in some derived forms of verbs. Their visual similarity can be misleading and therefore should be paid close attention to.

Examples

Implant (v) implant (n)

Project (v) project (n)

Upgrade (v) upgrade (n)

Intonation

Intonation is the ‘music’ of the language. It describes the pitch, pattern, or melody of the words in a given sentence. Intonation allows us to understand the underlying meaning of the sentence because of its varying pitch.  It is also an important factor in recognizing different emotions like surprise, confusion, and etc.

Types of Intonation

Falling intonation

A falling intonation is a type of tone where the voice falls on the last syllable of the last word. This intonation is typically employed in –wh questions- what, where, when, why, and how.

Examples:

     Why are you not busy today?

     How are you going to pass all of those papers on time?

In addition, falling intonation is also used if one wants to emphasize things or they want to be definite or clear with their words or intentions.

Examples:

     I think we locked the door properly.

     We are certain about this project proposal of ours.

Rising Intonation

The rising intonations can be placed at the end or at the last syllable of the word in a sentence. Yes- no questions use rising intonation.

Examples:

     Are you sure about that?

     Is this dress looks pretty on me?

Fall-rise Intonation

Fall-rise intonation is the combination of the two prior intonations- falling and rising intonations. The fall-rise intonation how the speaker’s voice falls and then rises at the same time in the same sentence. Fall-rise intonation is used if one is indefinite or not sure with their words or ideas presented.

Examples:

     I don’t like the idea of marriage right now.

     He thinks it would be okay to start planning next week.

We also utilize fall-rise intonation if we are doing questions that intend to ask permission, request, or an invitation to someone. Fall-rise intonation sounds politer than using falling intonation or rising intonation.

Examples:

     Would like another glass of wine?

     Do you want to join me for dinner? It will be fun.

Functions and Significance of Intonation

Here are some of the most important uses of intonation:

1. Grammatical Function: Intonation performs a grammatical function such as signalling the difference between a statement and a question, or distinguishing between an information question or a yes/no question.

2.     Accentual Function: Intonation carries an accentual function which means it can be used to emphasize or draw attention to certain words. This occurs when we introduce new information, contrast two ideas, or clarify our meaning.

3.     Attitudinal or Emotional Function: Intonation is useful for expressing attitudes and emotions, which means it conveys additional information about the speaker’s mood, feelings, emotions, or attitude. This type of information which is acquired from intonation could be about the speaker’s general attitude, their emotions about what they’re saying, or their feelings towards the listener. To interpret this type of intonation, it’s important to pay attention to other contextual clues.

4.     Discourse Function: Discourse function of intonation means it signals how ideas go together in speech. For instance, we use stress and intonation to signal thoughts, or how we break our speech into smaller, more digestible parts.

5.     Psychological Function: The psychological function of intonation makes ideas easier to understand, memorize, and say. You can hear this use of intonation in how we say lists and series, open- and closed-choice questions, large numbers, and phone numbers.

6.     Conversation Management: Intonation is used for conversation management, which means it helps facilitate the flow of conversation by signalling whose turn it is to speak.Some examples are how we use a steep drop to signal that a thought is complete, or how we maintain a slight or a steep rise in order to signal that we’re not done speaking yet.

7.     Indexical Function: Indexical function of intonation means it signals our personal or social identity. People from certain regions may use uptalk or more or less pitch variation to signal where they’re from. This use can also be heard among people of certain specific professions:

     Teachers and educators often use a “teacher” voice.

     Preachers or religious authorities often speak with a certain tone of voice.

     Transportation workers like conductors and bus drivers often recite stops or information with a certain voice.

Stress

The meaning of a word with a number of syllables can change with a shift of stress on different syllables. Although stress can emphasize meaning not all English words are affected by a change on stress.

There can be two ways in which a shift in stress can change the meaning of the word. First, the meaning of the word changes partially. And second, by changing the complete meaning of the word by shifting stress and transforming the word into a noun, verb or sometimes an adjective.

Below are few examples where the meaning of the word has changed partially with a shift in stress on the second syllable.

Insult – What they said felt like IN-sults.

Please don’t in-SULT me.

Perfect – This is a PER-fect record.

They need to per-FECT their strategy.

Produce – They bought a lot of bio-degradable PRO-duce.

How did they pro-DUCE so much corn in so little time.

Record – They always keep a RE-cord of their conversations.

It is important to re-CORD important data.

Suspect – The police interrogated the SU-spect for 2 hours.

I sus-PECT there will be no retaliation.

Below are examples where the meaning of the word changes completely by changing the noun into a verb or an adjective.

Address – I do not know his ADD-ress.

You should add-RESS the queen with utmost respect.

Conduct - The restaurant manager wasn’t happy about his CON-duct.

He was asked to con-DUCT the choir performance earlier.

Content- The CON-tent of you project is satisfactory.

She was not con-TENT with how the book ended.

Desert – The army marched through the DES-ert.

She said she would never des-ERT me.

Project – The PRO-ject should be completed within the given time.

We can pro-JECT the film on a white screen.

Patterns of Stress

There are eight following patterns of accent in English.

1. Single syllable- Stressed

2. Two Syllable - First Syllable Stressed

3. Two Syllable - Second Syllable Stressed

4. Three Syllables - First Syllable Stressed

5. Three syllable – Second Syllable Stressed

6. Three syllable- Third Syllable Stressed

7. Four syllable -Second Syllable Stressed

8. Four syllable – Third Syllable Stressed

Types of Stress

In English, stress is very important to pronounce words clearly in order to understand the dialogue. There are the following types of stress.
 

Emphatic Stress:
The emphasis that emphasizes the flow of tonic pressure from the final state of speech is to focus on the word content.

1. It was very exCIted. (unmarked)
2. It was a lot of fun. (emphasize / say firmly/ strongly)

1. I can't speak GREAT. (unchecked)
2. NEVER talk too much. (emphasize / say firmly)
    

Contrastive Stress:
This pattern is quite different from stress that is not limited to stress and discomfort. Speech has tonic pressure on any words. It is possible between content words and technical words to compare that world of speech.

• Consider the following examples:
  a) Do you want this or THAT one?

b) I want THAT one.

Some unfinished discussions are found in written documents researching contract involvement.

• Consider the following sentences:

Tonic Stress:
Tonic pressure is a stronghold of stress. If the syllables have tonic pressure call us tonic sillies. The tonic emphasis occurs in the name of the content of the last position of the pronoun.

• Consider listed under the tonic syllable.

Rhythm

The movement of music and rhythm involved in speech is called vocal rhythm. Communication is always rumoured to be more effective in speech, because the tone relates to thoughts, feelings, or feelings between people who speak.

The English language is a musical language. We use tone to express feelings or ask questions. In each conversation, it is important to remember the meaning of the tones. If the conversation is vague or incomprehensible, we use tones to look for discrepancies between the speaker and the listener. Gaining insight by pronouncing each word clearly, however, if the introduction is out of the ordinary, the meaning you speak will not be clear.

The English language is important in the meaning of words, they emphasize the repression of words. English does not have the same sounds of sentences. One syllabus is very emphasized while the others are soft. The native speakers do not care for the weak syllables; on the other hand, they care about the meaning of the words included.

Stress and body language are disorders of the mother tongue. Language learners who need the sound of a target language should see the phonetic difference between the target language and the mother tongue. In contrast, the student will not remember the exact sounds of another language. Therefore, they try to keep their hearing to match the sounds of their mother tongue. That allows them to improve their performance around the traditional platform.

Types of Rhythms:
 

The tone of the fall or the fall applies to the conviction of the content of the speech.
Examples:

1. Low pitch (rising tone) is used when the speaker has a question and demands. For example:

2. High pitch (rising tone) is used when the speaker asks for repetition or clarification, or to show disbelief. For example:

3. Fallout is a sign of dependency, continued financial volatility. It happens in the middle sentence non-final units.

Examples:
a) The bus for TURE will be safe.

b) STUdy at this school is really good.

In every language you are unique and have some aspects of it. To be fluent in a second language is required more than just vocabulary, grammar or structures. Information about the important differences between mother tongue and second language is also needed.

It is necessary to understand any language with an emphasis on other aspects because languages ​​depend on the pressure, rhythm and sounds that are part of it. Therefore, it is especially important for students who intend to communicate in any language other than the native one. Thus, students who want to understand another language have the intention to tolerate, test, and obtain research based on the key elements of the target language.

4.6             Common Everyday Situations: Conversations and Dialogues

Conversations are a tool and a vehicle for expressing ideas, feelings and experiences are very important. It's a great sight and a blessing and is one of the most important ways of preserving and expanding knowledge. One can better reveal one's mind, intentions, ideas, purpose and personality through word of mouth or speech. The man is known by his words and expressions. Speech expresses the inner man’s personality, thoughts and feelings.

Conversation is also participation, cooperation and communication. These are the best ways to communicate with a talk and the oldest and richest. Our oldest and most important religious and spiritual activities have been through oral communication, discussions and discussions. The promotion of information is vital to success, social interaction, business, learning and education. In a broad and general sense, the discussion is very comprehensive and includes speech, talk and public discourse. In conversation a talk is put on three-to-three people but in an interview or lecture it reaches a lot of people who make up a large audience.

In addition, talking is more or less an option. While conversation is about intimacy, education, equal participation, warmth, respect, etc. Good and pleasant conversation is an art in which the heart and mind are completely involved. It is respectful, fun, smart, endearing and intimate. Conversational art is crucial to influencing people to make friends, increase following and achieve success. It can be cultivated and developed. It is a great way to be caught by training, practice, patience and persistence.

The Four Types of Conversations: Debate, Dialogue, Discourse, and Diatribe:
 

When you talk to someone, it helps to know what kind of conversation you are having. You can do that depending on the direction of the communication (a one-way street or two) tone / purpose (competition or collaboration).

When you talk to one, you talk to somebody, rather than to somebody. When in a two-way conversation, participants listen and speak. In a competitive discussion, people are more concerned about their opinion, and in collaborative discussions participants are more inclined to view everyone involved.

Based on understanding and voice, I have organized the discussion into four types: debate, dialogue, speech and diatribe.

• Debate is a competitive, two-way conversation. The goal is to win an argument or to convince someone, such as a participant or a sidekick.
• Dialogue is a collaborative, two-way conversation. The role of the participants is to exchange information and build relationships with others.
• Discourse is a collaborative, harmonious conversation. The purpose is to bring information from the speaker / author to the audience / readers.
• Diatribe is a competitive and one-way conversation. The goal is to express feelings, to attack those who disagree with you, and / or to include those with the same opinion.
   

To highlight the differences between these types of conversations, let's use politics as an example:

Role Play Scenarios and Strategies:
 

Teaching a discussion section always sounds like a breeze. Why do you need to prepare for a discussion class? All you have to do is talk, right? Sure, but it's not as easy as it sounds. You might be able to complete the first few classes with random banter about family and the weather, but where do you go from here? To teach an effective discussion class you must do a little planning. That is why we have put together this list of fun and informative activities for the discussion class.

Have a Debate:
Conversations are about talking. It's about making positive points in a conversation. Teach your students how to do this in class debate. Choose a suitable topic and topic and divide the class into "sides". If you teach a single class of discussion, allow your student to choose his or her position and you can argue on the opposing side. Give your students time to prepare their opening arguments. After introducing and listening to the opposition, each side should give an answer.

Telephone Calls:
Telephone conversations can be more difficult than in-person conversations. On the phone, you can't read the person's body language or collect many leads in this situation. Instead, you should only rely on the spoken word. Get your students to practice “talking on the phone” by placing chairs in the back or by observing two learners' eyes. Teach them how to answer the phone, what to say during a conversation and how to end the call. You can hide it from another student and select another student to start speaking. A blinded student should guess who is "firing".

Celebrity Interviews:
Students of all ages love to “practice faith”. Help your learners expand their discussion skills by interviewing them. Get your learners in pairs. One student should be a reporter and the other should be an interviewer. After the first interview is done, allow your students to switch roles.

Favorite Scenes:
Tell your learners to form groups. Each group should select a scene from one of their favorite movies. Each team member should say who the other character is in the film. Now, the students have to re-rate the event, wrapping up the discussion. After the practice cycle, students can make a class for me.

Situational Learning

Conversations take place anywhere and everywhere; your students should be prepared to speak in many situations. Help your students by giving them new experiences. Create a new environment for your classroom. For example, Transform your class into an airport. Assign one student to work at the check-in counter, one to the immigration officer and the other to the traveler. Now, get your students to have a proper discussion about their situation. If you teach a discussion class, you can be a ticket taker and your student can be a traveler. After that, you can switch roles. You can create instances like: "bank", "school", "shopping", "day", and many more.

These are some of the fun activities to do with your discussion section. Almost all of these activities can be organized by either a whole class or a one-on-one session. When teaching a discussion class to your language students, you simply have to remember to participate and it is appropriate. While discussion classes do not take that arrangement, it is still a good idea to get to your classroom with an idea or two in mind.

Informal Situation 1:

Conversations about 2 people meeting and starting a conversation

Michael: That test was long! Four hours! I really don't understand why we should take this test. Are our grade point averages (GPAs) grade not good enough for college?

Charlotte: That test seemed a long way off, didn't it? But since the curriculum of one high school is slightly different from another high school, the SAT exam allows colleges to consider each student equally. Although one student may have taken different classes from another student, all high school students take the same SAT exam.

Michael: I think that's reasonable. Either way, I really hope I don't have to test that again!

Charlotte: It's the same here. Well, we'll just have to wait and see. Schools will be out in a few weeks. Anyway, have you received your letters of recommendation?

Michael: I've already asked Mrs. Smith, and I'm thinking about asking Mr. Johnson. I loved both of their classes and I think they know me better than my other teachers, so hopefully the letters will be well written. What about you?

Charlotte: I asked Mrs. Smith to write me a letter. You know Mr. Lawson? I would like to receive a letter of recommendation from him. I hope he remembers me as I haven't had a study with him since last year. I'm not sure who else I asked.

Michael: At least, we each have at least one book. Mrs. Smith is the best, isn't she? I wish I had another class with her, but this is our last polygamy, and after that we graduated!

Charlotte: I agree. Mrs. Smith really enjoys teaching, and that helps her students enjoy learning.

Michael: What colleges are you thinking of applying to? Have you visited other campuses?

Charlotte: I'm still wondering if I should stay close to home or go to adult school. I touched the Stanford campus and the people there were very kind. I visited Notre Dame, the University of Indiana. What about you? Have you learned any other campuses?

Michael: I want to live closer to home so I hope to attend California State University or the University of California.

Charlotte: Which one? There are probably one or the other in major cities.

Michael: Probably UCLA, University of California, Los Angeles or CSULB, California State University, Long Beach. But I'm not too worried about getting into college right now. I'm really worried about this SAT exam right now!

Charlotte: I understand how you feel. However, we will still consider what should be done next. It will be worse if we fall behind and can't make it to college next fall. Have you decided what you should read? I tend to think in English myself.

Michael: English is definitely possible. I was thinking of becoming an English teacher like Mrs. Smith. But I was also looking forward to Biological Science.

Charlotte: Why not? Science and Biological Science are two different fields of study. What can you do with a degree in Biological Science?

Michael: I also wonder if I should follow the drug. It may not be too early to decide, but if I want to become a doctor, the classes I will take as a student of Biological Science can fill many medical school needs. But like I said, it's still too early to find out what it is now. I just hope I get into college!

Charlotte: I don't think you have to worry about getting into college. Anyway, let's keep trying our best!

Situation 2:

A dialogue between the new comers on the college campus

Sujon: Hi, I think you're my new partner.

Salim: You're right. I am Salim. Pleased to meet you, may I know your name?

Sujon: I'm Sujon. I'm new here too.

Salim: Nice to meet you. How are you?

Sujon:I am fine what about you?

Salim: I'm fine too. May I talk to you about our news?

Sujon: Absolutely! Why not?

Isalima: Why did they choose this college?

Sujon: You know, so far, the college of commerce is concerned that this college should be the best college in our country.

Salim: You're right. In addition, the college program of study is very close, I think.

Sujon: Exactly! I have chosen to get approved for this college for this reason only.

Isalima: All right. Do I know why you chose commerce instead of science?

Sujon: My plan for the future is to study for an MBA. And what about you?

Salim: Good purpose in life. Anyway, I want to study CA. Can you help me find a class process?

Sujon: Well, let's go there.

Salim: Thank you

4.7             Communication at Workplace

Good communication is an important tool in achieving productivity and in maintaining strong working relationships at all levels of the organization. Employers who invest in the power and ability to establish clear lines of communication will build trust among employees, which will result in increased productivity, output and overall morale. In the meantime, well-connected employees and colleagues, managers and customers remain the assets of the organization and it is a skill that often separates people from their competitions when applying for jobs.
 

Poor communication at work will inevitably lead to uneducated employees who may begin to question their confidence in their skills and of course in the organization. The importance of strong communication runs within the business.

Below are the reasons why good communication is important in the workplace:

Team building – Creating/ Building effective teams actually means how those team members interact and interact with each other. By using effective strategies to increase communication you will go a long way in building effective teams. This, in turn, will improve the morale and satisfaction of employees.

Gives everyone a voice - As mentioned above, employees' satisfaction can depend a great deal on whether they have a voice and are listened to, whether it depends on the mood they have or about the complaint they need to make. Well-designed communication lines should be able to afford everyone, regardless of size, ability to communicate freely with their peers, colleagues, and managers.

Innovation - When employees are empowered to communicate publicly without fear of ridicule or refund, they are more likely to bring their own ideas to the table. Innovation relies heavily on this and for an organization that promotes communication to be innovative.

Growth - Communication can be viewed internally and externally. By being internally integrated and having strong lines of communication you make sure the message you send out is consistent. Any growth activity relies on strong communication with all stakeholders, whether internal or external, and at the same wavelength.

Strong Management - The more managers communicate, the better able they are to manage their teams. Assignment, conflict management, promotion and relationship building (all the responsibilities of any manager) are all very easy if you are a strong speaker. Strong communication is not just the ability to talk to people but to empower them to talk to one another - to make communication channels stronger.

How can we improve communication in the workplace?

1. Define goals and expectations - Managers need to provide clear and achievable goals for both teams and individuals, specify exactly what is required for any given project, and ensure that all employees are aware of the project, department and organization goals as fully as possible.

Ways to Have Effective Conversations in the Workplace:

1. Open Meeting:
   It's easy to communicate your interest and how you feel in your group through open meetings. In this kind of forum, they will not only hear what you have to say, they will see and hear. This approach remains one of the best ways to communicate effectively with a team.

Remember that the point of working as a team is to share ideas and grow the product. When effective communication at work is disrupted, it can disrupt all effort.

You have to work hard on these communication strategies and build some basic rules to keep everyone up to date, which helps to avoid confusion and to ensure project completion easily.

4.8             Interviews

A personal or face to face interview is one that employs a standard structured questionnaire (or interview schedule) to ensure that all respondents are asked the same set of questions in the same sequences.

It is a two-way conversation initiated by an interviewer to obtain information from a respondent. The questions, the wording, and their sequence define the structure of the interview, and the interview is conducted face-to-face.

Studies that obtain data by interviewing people are called surveys. If the people interviewed are a representative sample of a larger population, such studies are called sample surveys.

Types and Techniques of Interviews

Here are seven of the most popular interview types, as well as how to prepare for each of them.

1. Traditional Job Interview

A traditional interview is an in-person style of interview held with the hiring a manager of a company for a position within an organization. Be prepared to answer a wide range of questions about your experience and why you're right for the job. In addition to finding out if you have the right experience for the job, they want to see that you're well-prepared, enthusiastic and a good fit for the team.

Research the company and your potential boss so that when they ask why you want to work there, you'll be able to give a thoughtful, engaging answer. Knowing more about the specific types of work will prepare you when they say, "Do you have any questions for us?"

A traditional interview may be the first in a series of interviews. If the hiring manager is impressed by you, they might invite you back for a panel interview, or to meet one-on-one with other people on the team.

2. Behavioral Interviews

Behavioral interviews focus on getting to know who you are, how you think and how you'll act in certain situations. Behavioral interview questions might be broad ("Tell me about a time when you handled a stressful situation at work"), or they might be specific ("You received an email from a client asking an urgent question, but you're unsure of the answer and your boss is on a plane, away from email. What would you do?").

Before your first job interview, get used to talking through your answers to behavioral questions out loud. You'll be better able to stay calm and create a short and sweet scenario that gives the interviewer a peek into your mind and problem-solving abilities.

3. Video Interview

With the advent of technology, video interviews have become increasingly common (for ex. Skype Interviews). Presentation and preparation are vital for video interviews, as the combination of technology and distance means it's easy for issues to arise.

Before a video interview, you should:

     Ask who is going to be on the call.

     Confirm the time and date of the interview and make sure to adjust for different time zones for international interviews.

     Figure out where you'll do the interview. Choose a quiet place with a neutral backdrop and few distractions.

     Do a test-call to check your equipment.

     Print a copy of your resume and cover letter so you can refer to them easily.

While a range of traditional and behavioral interview questions might arise during a video interview, you might also have to answer more questions about location or work style.

Dress professionally, even if it's a phone interview. You don't want to be caught unprepared, and a sharp outfit can bolster your confidence. Dress as if you were walking into their office for an in-person interview. Check out our complete guide to video interviewing for more information.

4. Panel Interview

Panel interviews are the most common type of interviews. You should always ask with whom you'll be meeting. Therefore, if you're interviewing with a group of people (as in the case of a panel interview), you won't find yourself surprised upon arrival.

It is essential to address everyone in the room during a panel interview. Begin your answers by making eye contact with the person who asked the question and then pulling back your scope to make "soft eye contact" with other members of the group. (Learn more about that technique here.)

5. Case Interview

Prevalent in the fields of management consulting and marketing, a case interview presents a prospective employee with a series of questions or scenarios to answer or solve. Most of the time, these questions center on business cases or markets. It's vital to practice for these interviews, as succeeding in a case interview is all about mastering a way of thinking.

Successful case interview candidates are the ones who prepare in advance. If case interviews are common in your field, you'll know it. If you haven't started practicing yet, now's the time to start.

6. Informational Interview

Informational interviews are usually less formal than traditional interviews and most of the times are conducted before you've even applied. It's a chance for you to ask questions about what entry-level jobs are like in the field, learn about possible career trajectories and discuss other aspects of work life with someone in the profession. You can find opportunities for informational interviews through many informal channels such as your university's career office, a parent's friend or a former mentor.

Even though it's not a job interview, you should dress professionally, ask well-prepared questions and make eye contact while the person you're meeting with answers them. Consider asking them about their career trajectory, as well as advice they might have for someone starting in the field. Remember to be considerate of the person's time and not to ask for a job or a more formal interview. An informational interview is an educational and networking opportunity. If the meeting goes well, they may ask for your resume to pass along to a friend or another connection in the field. Bring a few copies with you, just in case.

7. Telephonic Interview

A telephonic interview is a 30-min interview which is usually conducted by a recruiter or the hiring manager. It's used to decide whether or not you are invited for an onsite interview.

You should have a copy of the job description as well as your resume and cover letter handy, in case you need to reference them during your conversation. You'll want to prepare to answer standard interview questions like "Tell me about yourself" and "Why are you interested in the position?" It is imperative that you prepare some questions to ask the interviewer, in case there's time for that kind of interaction.

If you get a call unexpectedly for a phone screen, it's best to let the interviewer know it's not a good time and set up one that gives you an opportunity to prepare and be in a quiet place where you can focus.

Guidelines for Preparing for Interviews

Preparing for an interview can be a difficult task, but it’s not impossible. With the help of a few basic interview techniques, it should be fairly simple to crack

Visualizing the Interview:

Visualizing the interview is an excellent way of working out what areas one needs to work on. One should imagine as if they were in a interview where the interviewer is looking at their resume for the first time. One should then imagine the most difficult questions that the interviewer could ask them, e.g. “Why weren’t you more proactive at university?” or “Why has it taken you a whole year to find your first graduate job?”

Then one should try answering these questions. It is also helpful to prepare a format for these answers to be used in an actual interview. Also, one should try to imagine the qualities that the interviewer might be looking for in an ideal candidate. And one should ask themselves, how many of those qualities are possessed by them and how can they be shown in an interview.

Self-Reflection and Selling Oneself:

It’s worth making a list of one's values, interests, strengths and weakness with accompanying examples or evidence to back up each one. One needs to sell these attributes to the interviewer and give examples of times when they have been shown in everyday life.

One also needs to think about why they want the job or position and what you have to offer the organization. What would one change or what ideas would one bring to the role? It might also be worth thinking about one's short-term and long-term career goals.

Asking Questions:

One should not be afraid to ask the interviewer to clarify a question. Questions should also be asked by the interviewee during the interview and not just at the end. The key here is to position oneself so it looks that, whilst they are interested and enthusiastic about the job, they have a sense of their own self-worth. However, it is important that this should not seem as arrogance to the interviewer.

Body Language:

Body language is very important. Slouching with one's arms crossed won’t exactly make them look like a model employee. The head should be straight up and the eyes should meet the interviewer’s line of sight at all times. Making eye contact with the interviewer while speaking to them is almost as important as saying the right words during an interview.

Paying attention:

It’s extremely important to keep one's concentration levels up during the interview and to make sure one listens attentively. Interviewers tend to go on long rants about their organizations but the interviewee must never lose focus and always show the interviewer that he is listening attentively by nodding and smiling.

Speaking correctly:

During an interview the most important thing is to choose one's words carefully. The pronunciation, intonation and syntax must all be appropriate and the words should be spoken as clearly as possible. One should be articulate in expressing one's thoughts and opinions but at the same time it is essential to be cautious of others opinion's and feelings and should try not to hurt them.

Whom to Speak to:

In many cases the interview is conducted by more than one person. One needs to make sure they pay attention to all of the different interviewers. So while answering a question, they should all be given proper attention, so as not to exclude anyone. Although, if an interviewer asks a direct question, it’s important to address the answer solely to them.

Frequently Asked Questions

Below are the ten most frequently asked questions in interviews:

1. Tell me a little about yourself.
2. What experiences have led you here?
3. Why are you a good fit for this position?
4. What will you bring to our team?
5. What are your strengths and weaknesses?
6. Where do you see yourself in five years?
7. How would your boss describe you?
8. Tell me about your work ethic.
9. Why do you want to work here?
10. What questions do you have for us?

Your answers should always come back to how your experiences and education prepared you to succeed in this job. If a potential boss says, "tell me a little about yourself," you can start with some personal details, but don't lose track of the goal.

Figuring out what you have to offer will help you prepare for most interviews. You need to be able to confidently and competently tell your story: Who you are, what you're about, how you got to where you are, what is important to you and how that aligns with that organization."

Some of these questions may seem to have obvious or simple answers, but it's still essential to practice answering them out loud. But don't overdo it. You shouldn't over-rehearse, which can lead to a robotic feel in an interview.

4.9             Formal Presentations

A presentation is a formal talk given on a specific set of topics to inform and educate. They may be short or long, include slides or other visual aids, and be done individually or in a group.

Planning and structuring a presentation is similar to the process of writing an essay, except the speaker needs to be conscious of a live audience and use spoken language instead of written.

Below are the four basic skills required to create a successful presentation:

Step 1: Planning:

While planning a presentation, the following questions should be kept in mind:

1. What is the aim of your research?
2. Why are you presenting it in oral form?
3. What is important about your findings?
4. What is the key focus of your presentation?
5. To whom are you presenting your findings?
6. Are they more or less knowledgeable on the topic than you?
7. What does your audience expect to gain from listening to you?

The presentation must be planned in such a way that it answers all these questions first before moving on to the structuring stage.

Step 2: Structuring the Presentation:

Like an essay, an presentation needs an introduction, body and a conclusion.The introduction may consist of an anecdote or provocative question to engage the audience right from the start. A question that includes your audience will make them want to follow through with you to find out the implications as they relate to them directly. The body will contain the main theme of the presentation where the ideas introduced earlier are explored thoroughly. The concluding statement should be a clear summary of what has been said in the main part of the presentation.It should also point toward further research or conclusive results if possible.

There are a lot of differences in speech and writing, and they must be kept in mind while preparing apresentation.

One of the most obvious ways in which to achieve natural speech is to speak sometimes in the first person - you can refer to yourself in a presentation, for example, "I'd like to start by..." or "Let me give you an example...", whereas in written projects it is best to keep the use of the first person to a minimum.

While preparing for a presentation, visual aids such as PowerPoint presentations could be very useful to illustrate one’s ideas more clearly. It can be very purposeful to employ such visual aids while discussing the central themes of the topic.

Step 3: Preparation:

Preparedness helps in easing nerves nous and boosts confidence. The following considerations should be kept in mind while preparing for presentations.

Time limits:

The presentation must be practiced a number of times to get the pacing right and to ensure the information can be contained in the time provided. Finishing too early might make the audience think that you lack proper material or understanding of the topic whereas finishing too late might make them feel boredom.

Speak from notes:

It's preferable to reduce the original paper to bullet points while presenting so as to not lose eye contact, intonation and good posture.

Body language:

Use of gestures and good posture combined with a smile keeps the audience engaged and interested.

Voice:

Loudness should be ample so that the audience can hear you clearly and the pace should be perfect so they can follow your arguments. Use silence and pauses effectively when making particular points, also speaking in monotone should be avoided.

Step 4: Presentation:

If all of the previous steps are followed carefully, one should be able to present easily and effectively. Questions should be welcomed and special attention should be given to the audience’s reactions and one’s own body language.

It should always be kept in mind what the purpose of the presentation is and all improvisations should be done in accordance to that purpose. The presentation should be ended with a polite “thank you” and all questions from the audience should be answered as clearly as possible.