Unit – 2

Basic writing skills

2.1 Sentence structure:

      Independent clause:

 An independent clause can stand alone and give complete meaning. It has a subject and a verb.

I like ice cream

He reads many stories.

      Dependent clause:

A dependent clause cannot stand alone and give complete meaning. It must be attached to an independent clause to give complete meaning. This is also called as subordinate clause.

Because I woke up late this morning… (What happened?)

When they came to meet me… (What occurred?)

If my friend does not pay his fees on time… (What will happen?)

      Subject:

A person, animal, place, thing, or idea that does an action. Decide the subject in a sentence by asking the question “Who or what?”

      Verb:

Expresses what the person, animal, place, thing, or idea does. Decide the verb in a sentence by asking the question “What was the action or what happened?”

The movie is good. (Be verb is also sometimes mentioned to as a copula or a linking verb. It connects the subject, in this case the movie, to the complement or the predicate of the sentence, in this case, good.)

      Object:

 A person, animal, place, thing, or idea that receives the action. Decide the object in a sentence by asking the question “The subject did what?” or “To whom? /For whom?”

      Prepositional Phrase:

A phrase that start with a preposition (i.e., at, for, in, behind, during, until, after, of,) and modifies a word in the sentence. The prepositional phrases answer for many questions. Here are a few examples: “Where? When?  In what way?”

      English Sentence Structure:

The following statements are true about sentences in English:

My father bought a car.

What a beautiful rose it is!

Smith joined in a college.

He got his degree.

He (subject) got (verb) his degree (object).

Teaching is a honest profession.

      Simple Sentences

A simple sentence contains a subject and a verb, and it may also have an object and modifiers. However, it has only one independent clause.

Here are a few examples:

      Compound Sentences:

A compound sentence has at least two independent clauses.  These two independent clauses can be combined with a comma and a coordinating conjunction or with a semicolon.

Here are a few illustrations:

She completed her higher studies, and she started to apply for job.

The traffic was heavy and so he was late. 

      Complex Sentences:

A complex sentence has at least one independent clause and at least one dependent clause. Dependent clauses can mention to the subject (who, which) the sequence/time (since, while), or the causal elements (because, if) of the independent clause.

If a sentence starts with a dependent clause, note the comma after this clause. If, on the other hand, the sentence starts with an independent clause, there is not a comma separating the two clauses.

Here are a few examples:

Although he was rich, he is not happy.

She returned the T.V after she noticed it was damaged.

      Compound-Complex Sentences:

Sentence types can also be combined. A compound-complex sentence has at least two independent clauses and at least one dependent clause.

Even though she was tired, Mehetha knew she had to finish the race and she ran to meet her team.

Usually I take a walk everyday while the sun sets but it was raining today.

2.2 Uses of Phrases and Clauses in sentences

      Clause:

A clause is a group of words containing a subject and verb. An independent clause is a simple sentence. It can stand alone.

Examples:

She is rich.

I am not feeling well today.

      Dependent clause:

A dependent clause cannot sand alone. It should have an independent clause to give complete meaning. Dependent clauses frequently start with such words as although, since, if, when, and because.

Examples:

Although she is rich …

Because I am not feeling well …

      Independent clause:

 An independent clause can stand alone and give complete meaning. It has a subject and a verb.

Dependent                   Independent

Although she is rich, she was not helping others.

Whatever they do, I am going to accept it.

Based on the function they perform in the sentence, there are three types of clauses:

      Noun Clause:

 Noun Clause is a group of words which has a Subject and Predicate of its own, and does the work of a noun. For instance, "I like what I see" as a way of saying "I like ice cream". The highlighted part is a clause that is performing as noun.

      Adjective Clause:

Adjective Clause generally comes after the noun it qualifies and is made up of numerous words which, like all clauses, will contain a subject and a verb. It answers the adjective questions 'What kind? How many? or Which one?" For instance, "The note book which has a picture of Sachin is mine. "The highlighted part is a clause that is performing as an adjective.

      Adverb Clause:

Adverb Clause is a group of words which has a Subject and Predicate of its own, and does the work of an adverb. It answers the adverb questions How? When? Where? Or Why? For instance, "You may stay wherever you want." The highlighted part is a clause that is performing as an adverb.

      Phrase:

A phrase is a group of words without a subject-verb element, used as a single part of speech.

Examples:

Best teacher (this phrase acts as a noun)

Needing support (this phrase acts as an adjective; see Adjectives and Adverbs)

With the red pant (this prepositional phrase acts as an adjective; see Prepositions)

For forty weeks (this prepositional phrase acts as an adverb)

      Noun Phrases:

These are the phrases have a noun- name, place or things and at least one modifier linked to the noun. The modifier can prefix or suffix the noun. The complete phrase will perform as a noun for that particular sentence. Here are some illustrations,

She was wearing a blue linen skirt.

They lived in a little, neat hut.

Alex rode her bike to their new school.

      Verb Phrases:

Each sentence will generally have a verb. But rarely the action being explained requires a more nuanced multi-words verb phrase. The phrase has the main verb/verbs and then helping verbs. Some such verb phrases are as given below.,

The children have been learning since the last three weeks.

They must call their parents at once.

      Prepositional Phrase:

Any phrase that has a preposition, and the object of the preposition, which will be a noun or a pronoun what we call a prepositional phrase. Such a phrase also at times consists of other modifiers describing the object of the prepositional phrase. Let us look at some examples,

Workers are instructed to be on time.

Kindly turn towards the left at the crossroads.

      Infinitive Phrases:

A phrase that includes an infinitive along with a simple verb is an infinitive phrase. There may also be modifiers added to the object in the phrase. It has a verb, so it plays the position of showing an action in the sentence. Infinitive phrases can act as a adjective or adverb, noun in a complete sentence.

Chris loves to read comics (functions as a noun here)

To be present at the evening lecture, I set my alarm for 6 pm. (noun form)

To maintain his puppies quiet, Sam turned on the music. (Functions as an adverb here)

      Participle Phrases:

A participle phrase will start with a participle, which can be a present participle (ending with -ing) or a past participle (ending with -ed). There may be a few modifiers and linked words included in the phrase. One thing to keep in mind is that a participle phrase for all time takes the form of an adjective in a sentence. Some illustrations of the participle phrase are,

We got a courier from my aunt today telling us the good news.

The place was relentlessly spoiled by the flood.

kindly write the notes down without making noise.

      Gerund Phrases:

Now a gerund is a word that always ends with “-ing”, without exemption. So a gerund phrase is a phrase that has an ‘ing” word, with some modifiers in some cases. But participle phrases as well have a parallel pattern (-ing words), so how do you tell the variation between the two?

Well whereas participle phrases function as adjectives, Gerund Phrases completely function as nouns. Let us look at some illustrations,

He is at present writing her exam.

Cleaning the hall is Raju’s task.

Reading News paper is my father’s every day habit.

      Absolute Phrase:

An absolute phrase will have a noun or a pronoun with a participle. Again it may also have extra linking words and modifiers. A complete participle will modify a complete clause, or even a complete sentence, not only one word. On the other hand, it does not form a whole sentence or a clause. Generally, a whole phrase is divided by commas. Let us take a look at a few illustrations,

She looked towards the poor man, his face showing pity.

We were glued to the competition, our eyes all the time following the ball.

She sat on the sofa, her clothes tidily folded by her side.

2.3 Importance of Proper Punctuation

Marks of punctuation play extremely significant role in giving anticipated meaning to the language. Use of incorrect mark of punctuation or even wrong position of mark of punctuation can change the meaning of the sentence totally and sometimes even change the sentence to absolute nonsense.

Czar Alexander the third had one time sentenced a man to certain death by writing on the warrant-Pardon not possible, to be sent to Siberia. His wife, Czarina Maria, rescued the life of this man, by shifting position of comma as given above. Authorities freed the man.

The comma is considered a real villain among marks of punctuation. Incorrect position of comma can give different meaning to sentence depending upon where it is positioned.

 Let us see the following sentences:

In the primary sentence daddy is being called for dinner. On the other hand, in the next sentence, daddy himself has become a thing to be eaten. Slip of comma in this case has changed the primary sentence to absolute non sense.

In above sentences, just changing comma by one place has entirely misrepresented the meaning of the sentence.

In 1872, incorrect placement of comma cost millions of dollars in import duties to US government. In a tariff act approved in 1872, list of duty free items added: “Fruit plants, tropical & semi tropical.”

A government officer put the mark of comma at wrong place, which made the sentence read: “Fruit, plants tropical & semi tropical.”

Importers productively contested in the courts that the course as written meant that all tropical & semitropical plants were free from expense of duty.

Next pairs of can also encourage anybody on the subject of right use of marks of punctuation sentences:

The primary sentence without comma is an absolute nonsense. It means that the murderer protested his innocence after he was hanged!

In the second sentence, addition of a question mark and full stop has transformed personal possessions to public possessions.

Changing the comma by just one place has entirely misrepresented the meaning of the sentence. In the next sentence, it is not the criminal but the judge who should be hanged.

& finally

The above given sentences are to show the significance of use of not only correct mark of punctuation, but their right position also.

      Main References:

1. Complete English Punctuation Rules, Perfect your Punctuation and Instantly Improve Your Writing, The Farlex grammar book, Volume 2.

2.  June Casagrande, The Best Punctuation Book, Period.

2.4 Kinds of Sentence

(form = structure / function = job)

1. Declarative Sentence (statement)

Declarative sentences create a statement. They give information about something and they usually end with a full-stop.

The common word order for the declarative sentence is:

Declarative sentences can be affirmative or negative.

Declarative sentences are the mostly ordinary type of sentence.

2. Interrogative Sentence (question)

Interrogative sentences ask a question. They enquire us something. They need information, and they always end with a question mark.

The common word order for the questioning sentence is:

Interrogative sentences can be affirmative or negative. Look at these examples:

3. Imperative Sentence (command)

Imperative sentences give a command. They are ordering us to do something, and they end with a full-stop (.) or exclamation mark/point (!).

The common word order for the imperative sentence is:

Note that there is regularly no subject—because the subject is understood, it is YOU.

Imperative sentences can be positive or negative. Look at these examples:

4. Exclamatory Sentence (exclamation)

Exclamatory sentences express strong emotion/surprise—an exclamation—and they always end with an exclamation mark (!).

The usual word order for the exclamatory sentence is:

Examples:

Bottom of Form

2.5 Use of Tense, Use in Context and Coherence of Tense in writing

Structure: Base verb (+ es/es for third person):

Example: 1) I play a game every day. 2) He studies in school.

Structure: is/am/are + present participle:

Example: 1) I am playing the game. 2) He is studying in Bishop Cotton P.U College.

Structure: Has/have + past participle:

Example: I have finished my homework.

Structure: Has/have + been + present participle:

Example: 1) I have been finishing my homework for the last two hours.

2) She has been learning Karate since his childhood.

Structure: Verb+ed or irregular verb:

Example: 1) You played the game. 2) He read the newspaper.

Structure: Was/were + present participle:

Example: 1) I was reading a newspaper. 2) He was going to Karachi.

View: Past Continuous Tense (Formula, Usage & Examples)

Structure: Had + past participle:

Example: 1) I had finished my homework. 2) She had finished her project.

Structure: Had + been + past participle:

Example: 1) I had been finishing my homework for 50 minutes.

2) He had been playing the game since morning.

Structure: Will/shall+verb

Example: 1) I shall go to my home town. 2) He will complete his task.

View: Simple Future Tense Formula, Usage & Examples

Structure: Will be + present participle

Am/is/are + going to be + present participle:

Example: He will be watching the film at 10 am. / He is going to be watching the film at 10 am.

Future Perfect Tense:

Structure: Will have + past participle

Am/is/are + going to have + past participle

Example: He will have completed his task. / He is going to have completed his task.

Structure: Will have been + present participle

Am/is/are + going to have been + present participle:

Example: She will have been watching the film for over five minutes before they join her. / She is going to have been watching the film for over five minutes before they join her.

The action that takes place once, never or several times

Actions that happen one after another

State

Progressive Form:

Action going on at that moment

Actions that are taking place at the same time

Action taking place before a certain moment in time; shows completion/result

Action taking place before a firm moment in time and beyond that time, emphasizes the duration

The order of tense implies when two clauses build up a sentence the tense of the subordinate verb is changed along with the tense of the main verb.
So, we have to find out the tense of the main clause and change the tense of subordinate clause consequently as there should be a relative consistency of time. If there is no consistency of time in the two clauses than the sentence will be wrong.

For Example:

To retain the order of tense, we should retain the following rules:

Rule: If the main clause is in present tense then the subordinate clause can be in present continuous, present perfect, future or past tense.

For example:

If the subordinate clause is in present continuous tense whereas the principal clause in present indefinite tense, next it means both actions are concurrent. If the subordinate clause is in present perfect tense whereas the main clause is in present indefinite tense, then it means the action described in subordinate clause took place at an indefinite time before that of the main clause. If the subordinate clause is in future indefinite tense whereas the main clause is in present indefinite tense, then it means the action explained in subordinate clause will take place after the action of the main clause. If the subordinate clause is in past indefinite tense whereas the main clause is in present indefinite tense, then it means the action explained in the subordinate clause took place before the deed of the main clause.

Rule: If the main clause is in past tense after that the subordinate clause can be in past indefinite, continuous or perfect tense.

For Example:

If the subordinate clause is in past indefinite or continuous tense then it means the actions were concurrent. If the subordinate clause is in past perfect tense then it means the action explained in the subordinate clause occurred before the action of the main clause.

Rule: Usually, no present form is permitted in the subordinate clause if the main clause is in past tense. But if the subordinate clause starts with “than”, then the subordinate clause can be in any tense.

For Example:

Rule: If the principal clause is in future tense then the subordinate clause is usually in present tense.

For example:

2.6 Uses of Voice – Active / Passive in sentences

      Voice:

Voice is the form of the verb takes to point out whether the subject of the verb does or receives the action.

Two Types of voice

      Active voice:

A verb that conveys the action done by the subject is said to be in the active voice.

Jack reads the newspaper.

Mary reads a book.

      Passive Voice:

A verb that conveys what is done to subject is said to be in the passive voice.

The subject becomes the passive receiver of the action.

The newspaper is read by Jack.

A book is read by Mary.

Active into passive voice:

     The Rules to Change the sentences from Active to Passive Form

1. The sentence should have objects (transitive verb). If there is no object then there should

be question word who asks the object.

2. Object of active sentence became the subject of passive sentences.

3. Subject of active sentences into passive sentences that preceded the object word

"By".

4. The verb used is verb III (past participle) which proceeded by to be.

5. The adjusted sentence construction by tenses.

      Fundamental Rules:

1. The position of subject and object are interchanged, object moves to the place of subject and subject moves to the place of object in passive voice.

Example:

• Active voice: I draw a picture

• Passive voice: A picture was drawn by me.

2. Sometimes subjects of sentence are not used in passive voice. Subject of sentence will not be there in passive voice, if exclusive of subject it can give adequate meaning in passive voice.

Example:

• Passive voice: vegetables are sold very reasonably.

3.  Verb III (past participle) is always used as main verb in sentences of passive voice

for all tenses.  Present participle or Base form of verb will be never used in passive voice.

Example:

• Active voice: He composed a song.

• Passive voice: A song is composed by him.

4. The word "by" is not always used, the words "with, to, etc" may also be used before subject in passive voice sometimes.

Examples:

• Active voice: The water fills the tub.

• Passive voice: The tub is filled with water.

• Active voice: He knows me.

     Only transitive verbs (verbs which take a direct object) can be made passive.

     If you are not sure if a verb is transitive or intransitive in English, try using an object after it.

      Transitive Verb Usage

Robin               started      the project

Subject           Verb             Object

What did Robin start?

Answer: The project  

The verb 'start' can take an object, the project   so it is transitive.

      Intransitive Verb Usage

Robin              laughed

Subject            Verb            Object

What did Robin laugh?

Answer: Nothing. You cannot laugh something.

The verb 'laugh' cannot take an object, so it is intransitive

      Active and Passive Voice for All Tenses

Learn passive vs active voice for different tenses in English, please note that:

 V1: Base Form of Verb

 V2: Past Simple

 V3: Past Participle

     Present Simple Tense

Active Voice:

Subject + Verb1

Passive voice:

Subject + am/ is/ are + Verb3

Example:

I prepared a tea. (Active)

A tea is prepared by me. (Passive)

     Present Continuous Tense

Active voice:

Subject + am/is/are + Verb-ing

Passive voice:

Subject + am/ is/ are + being + Verb3

Example:

They are playing a game. (Active)

A game is being played by them. (Passive)

     Present Perfect Tense

Active voice:

Subject + have/ has + Verb3

Passive voice:

Subject + have/ has + been + Verb3

Example:

She has eaten my burger. (Active)

My burger has been eaten by her. (Passive)

     Present Perfect Continuous:

Active Voice:

Subject + have/ has + been + Verb-ing

Passive voice: ---------

Subject + have/ has + been + being + Verb3

Example:

Lisa has not been learning Science. (Active)

     Future Tense:

Active voice:

Subject + will/ shall + Verb1

Passive voice:

Subject + will be + Verb3

Example:

My father will take us to the film theatre. (Active)

We will be taken to the film theatre by our father. (Passive)

     Future Continuous Tense:

Active Voice:

Subject + will/ shall + be + Verb-ing

The Passive: -----------------

Example:

The teacher will be taking care of the students at this time tomorrow. (Active)

     Future Perfect Tense:

Active voice:

Subject + will + have + Verb3

Passive voice:

Subject + will have been + Verb3

Example:

I will have finished my project by the end of this month. (Active)

My project will have been finished by me by the end of this month. (Passive)

     Future Perfect Continuous:

Active voice:

Subject + will + have + been + Verb-ing

The Passive: ----------------

Example:

She will have been teaching History for 5 years by next week. (Active)

     Past Simple Tense:

Active voice:

Subject + Verb2

Passive voice:

Subject + was/ were + Verb3

Example:

I visited my aunt last year. (Active)

My aunt was visited by me last year. (Passive)

     Past Continuous Tense:

Active voice:

Subject + was/ were + Verb-ing

Passive voice:

Subject + was/ were + being + Verb3

Example:

Cris was informing the news to the department. (Active)

The news was being informed to the department by Cris. (Passive)

     Past Perfect Tense:

Active voice:

Subject + had + Verb3

The Passive: 

 Subject + had been + Verb3

Example:

Sam had read the book before Paul came. (Active)

The book had been read by Sam before Paul came. (Passive)

     Past Perfect Continuous Tense:

Active voice:

Subject + had + been + Verb-ing

Passive voice: -----------------------

Example:

They had been typing the Question paper for 3 hours before she came yesterday. (Active)

     Future in the Past (Would)

Active voice:

S + would + V1

The Passive:

S + would + be + V3

Example:

She would complete the lesson. (Active)

The lesson would be completed by her. (Passive)

     Causative Form

Active voice:

Subject + have/ has somebody + Verb1 + something

Subject + get(s) somebody + to + Verb1 + something

Passive voice:

Subject + have/ has/ get(s) something + Verb3 + (by + someone).

Example:

My mother had Milan wash his car. (Active)

My mother had his car washed by Milan. (Passive)

     Modal Verbs (Present)

Active voice:

Subject + modal verb + Verb1

The Passive:

Subject + modal verb+ be + Verb3

Example:

We can resolve the difficulty. (Active)

The difficulty can be resolved. (Passive)

     Modal Verbs (Present Perfect)

Active voice:

Subject + modal verb + have + Verb3

The Passive:

Subject + modal verb + have + been + Verb3

Example:

The tiger might have killed her. (Active)

She might have been killed by the tiger. (Passive)

2.7 Use of Speech – Direct and Indirect Speech

Direct speech means what the people actually say. It consists of two parts, the introducing part and the reporting part.

Reporting part-is always placed with in either inverted commas or quotation marks. It is this reporting part we need to report.

      In order to report any kind of a sentence or clause, a few points are to be kept in mind.

1. The reporting part, whether it belongs to statement, interrogative imperative or exclamatory sentences, takes the s+ v+ o form when reported.

2. It is the introducing part which comes outside the quotation marks that decides to what kind of a sentence we have to report Hence should be specified whether somebody said/told/asked/wanted ordered/requested/exclaimed etc.

3. There should not be any quotation marks or inverted commas in the reported sentences.

4. Statements in the indirect speech are generally introduced by the conjunction that.

      Change of words in the reported speech.

      When the reporting or principal verb is in the past tense, all present tenses of the direct are changed into the corresponding past tenses.

A) simple present becomes a simple past Direct Indirect

He said, "I am unwell"

He said that he was unwell.

b) A present continuous becomes past continuous

He said, "My master is writing letters"

He said that his master was writing letter

c) A present perfect becomes a past perfect He said, "I have passed the examination"

He said that he had passed the examination

The still of the Future tense is changed into should

The will of the Future tense is changed into would or should

As a rule the simple past in the desert becomes the past perfect in the reported or indirect speech

He said, "The horse died in the night.”

He said that the horse had died in the night.

      In Direct speech, if the simple present is used as the report verb, to express universal truths, habitual actions and the things that do not change while reporting, the verb in reported speech does not change.

“The sun rises in the east, the teacher said The teacher said that the sun rises in the east

In this case we can often choose whether to keep the original tenses or change them

"I know her address", said Gopi.

Gopi said he knows/knew her address.

The teacher said, The earth goes round the sun".

The teacher said that the earth goes/went round the sun.

"German is easy to learn", she said.

She said German is/was easy to learn.

      If the reporting verb is in the present tense, the tense of the direct speech do not change.

He says "I have passed the examination"

He says he has passed the examination

      The pronouns of the Direct speech are changed, where necessary so that their relations with the reporter and his hearer rather than with the original speaker are indicated.

He said to me, "I don't believe you".

He said he didn't believe me.

      Usual Tense Changes in the Reported Speech.

Reporting verbs, generally use to record statements, are 'say' and tell.

Tell can be used in a statement when the speaker and the addresser are clearly mentioned. In the other cases if the addresser is not mentioned say' or 'said' can be used according to the situation Besides 'say and tell there are few other reporting verbs with which a statement may be reported as they are remark 6bserve, suggest, insist, add, reply, answer, declare, assure, warn, confess, protest, deny, pointout, plead, remind, repeat, explain, etc

II. Questions (Interrogative sentences):

1. The introduced verb is changed to asked, enquired, demanded, etc.

2. If or whether is used after such introductory verb whenever the direct question admits of one of two answers yes or no.

3. The pattern of an interrogative sentence is verb + Subject + Object

4.  The note of interrogation (?) which is placed after question in the direct form is not placed after questions in the indirect form.

Eg:

He said to me, "Do you know the way?

He inquired of me if I know the way.

5. When the question is introduced by an interrogative word the connecting word should be the same interrogative word.

The teacher said to me, "What are you doing?"

The teacher asked me what I was doing.

Auxiliary verb → connecting word →   if/whether

Interrogative word→ connecting word → Same Interrogative Word.

v+s+o →   s+v +o

Some examples:

He said, "Will you listen to such a man?"

He asked him whether he would listen to such a man.

Jack said, "May I have a cake?"

Jack asked if he might have a cake.

III. Commands and Requests:

The form of an imperative sentence is understood subject + Verb +ect.

Eg: Bring your suitcase,

Here, bring is the plain infinitive. So when it is reported we should change the plain infinitive verb into 'to' infinitive.

to' is the connecting word to report imperative sentences

The introductory verb is changed into request, beg, implore, entreat order, command, advise, threaten, shout, etc.

Eg Rama said to Arjun "Go away"

Rama ordered Arjun to go away.

He said to me "Give me your pencil".

He requested / asked me to give him my pencil

IV. Exclamations and Wishes:

1 The form of an exclamatory sentence is exclamatory sense + subject + verb + (Object)

2 To report such exclamations and wishes the connecting word should be that. It should be reported by words like exclaimed, applauded wished, declared, prayed, cried out, blessed with such phrases as with regret, with delight or joy, with sorrow, where necessary.

3. The Interjections and Exclamations such as oh, well, 'hurrah', alas bravo', 'curse it', 'how what should be omitted in the reporting form, and their sense is expressed by means of phrases.

4. The exclamation mark should be omitted in the reporting form.

Eg: "What a terrible storm it is!" he said

He exclaimed that it was a terrible storm.

Alice said, "How beautiful the night is!"

Alice exclaimed that the night was very beautiful.

Reporting an exclamation is usually best achieved by a circumlocution reflecting the spirit of the original exclamation.

Exclamations are not often reported in the spoken English. Some exclamatory forms are really questions or imperative.

Some examples:

He said, "Alas! How foolish I have been".

He confessed with regret that he had been very foolish.

He said, "Good-bye friends"

He bade goodbye to his friends.

They said, "Hurrah! We have won the match!"

He exclaimed with delight that they had won the match.

 He said to me, "May God bless you!"

He prayed that God might bless me.

2.8 Framing Questions – Direct, Using Modal Verbs

Modals (can, might, should, etc.)

Here is a list of modals:

can         /    can't
could      /    couldn't
may       /    may not
shall       /    shall not
will         /    won't
should    /    shouldn't ought to   /   ought not to
might      /    might not
used to    /    didn't use to
would      /    wouldn't
have to   /    don't have to
must      /    must not

Grammatical behavior of modal verbs:

Grammatically, modal verbs perform in a different way from normal verbs.

How to form questions using Modals:

References:

1. R.P. Bhatnagar and Rajul Bhargava; English for competitive Examinations, Revised Edition.

2. Dr. Evangelin Arulselvi, Teaching of Special English, 2009.

3. Krishna Mohan and Meera Banerji, Developing communication Skills, 1990.

Unit – 2

Basic writing skills

2.1 Sentence structure:

      Independent clause:

 An independent clause can stand alone and give complete meaning. It has a subject and a verb.

I like ice cream

He reads many stories.

      Dependent clause:

A dependent clause cannot stand alone and give complete meaning. It must be attached to an independent clause to give complete meaning. This is also called as subordinate clause.

Because I woke up late this morning… (What happened?)

When they came to meet me… (What occurred?)

If my friend does not pay his fees on time… (What will happen?)

      Subject:

A person, animal, place, thing, or idea that does an action. Decide the subject in a sentence by asking the question “Who or what?”

      Verb:

Expresses what the person, animal, place, thing, or idea does. Decide the verb in a sentence by asking the question “What was the action or what happened?”

The movie is good. (Be verb is also sometimes mentioned to as a copula or a linking verb. It connects the subject, in this case the movie, to the complement or the predicate of the sentence, in this case, good.)

      Object:

 A person, animal, place, thing, or idea that receives the action. Decide the object in a sentence by asking the question “The subject did what?” or “To whom? /For whom?”

      Prepositional Phrase:

A phrase that start with a preposition (i.e., at, for, in, behind, during, until, after, of,) and modifies a word in the sentence. The prepositional phrases answer for many questions. Here are a few examples: “Where? When?  In what way?”

      English Sentence Structure:

The following statements are true about sentences in English:

My father bought a car.

What a beautiful rose it is!

Smith joined in a college.

He got his degree.

He (subject) got (verb) his degree (object).

Teaching is a honest profession.

      Simple Sentences

A simple sentence contains a subject and a verb, and it may also have an object and modifiers. However, it has only one independent clause.

Here are a few examples:

      Compound Sentences:

A compound sentence has at least two independent clauses.  These two independent clauses can be combined with a comma and a coordinating conjunction or with a semicolon.

Here are a few illustrations:

She completed her higher studies, and she started to apply for job.

The traffic was heavy and so he was late. 

      Complex Sentences:

A complex sentence has at least one independent clause and at least one dependent clause. Dependent clauses can mention to the subject (who, which) the sequence/time (since, while), or the causal elements (because, if) of the independent clause.

If a sentence starts with a dependent clause, note the comma after this clause. If, on the other hand, the sentence starts with an independent clause, there is not a comma separating the two clauses.

Here are a few examples:

Although he was rich, he is not happy.

She returned the T.V after she noticed it was damaged.

      Compound-Complex Sentences:

Sentence types can also be combined. A compound-complex sentence has at least two independent clauses and at least one dependent clause.

Even though she was tired, Mehetha knew she had to finish the race and she ran to meet her team.

Usually I take a walk everyday while the sun sets but it was raining today.

2.2 Uses of Phrases and Clauses in sentences

      Clause:

A clause is a group of words containing a subject and verb. An independent clause is a simple sentence. It can stand alone.

Examples:

She is rich.

I am not feeling well today.

      Dependent clause:

A dependent clause cannot sand alone. It should have an independent clause to give complete meaning. Dependent clauses frequently start with such words as although, since, if, when, and because.

Examples:

Although she is rich …

Because I am not feeling well …

      Independent clause:

 An independent clause can stand alone and give complete meaning. It has a subject and a verb.

Dependent                   Independent

Although she is rich, she was not helping others.

Whatever they do, I am going to accept it.

Based on the function they perform in the sentence, there are three types of clauses:

      Noun Clause:

 Noun Clause is a group of words which has a Subject and Predicate of its own, and does the work of a noun. For instance, "I like what I see" as a way of saying "I like ice cream". The highlighted part is a clause that is performing as noun.

      Adjective Clause:

Adjective Clause generally comes after the noun it qualifies and is made up of numerous words which, like all clauses, will contain a subject and a verb. It answers the adjective questions 'What kind? How many? or Which one?" For instance, "The note book which has a picture of Sachin is mine. "The highlighted part is a clause that is performing as an adjective.

      Adverb Clause:

Adverb Clause is a group of words which has a Subject and Predicate of its own, and does the work of an adverb. It answers the adverb questions How? When? Where? Or Why? For instance, "You may stay wherever you want." The highlighted part is a clause that is performing as an adverb.

      Phrase:

A phrase is a group of words without a subject-verb element, used as a single part of speech.

Examples:

Best teacher (this phrase acts as a noun)

Needing support (this phrase acts as an adjective; see Adjectives and Adverbs)

With the red pant (this prepositional phrase acts as an adjective; see Prepositions)

For forty weeks (this prepositional phrase acts as an adverb)

      Noun Phrases:

These are the phrases have a noun- name, place or things and at least one modifier linked to the noun. The modifier can prefix or suffix the noun. The complete phrase will perform as a noun for that particular sentence. Here are some illustrations,

She was wearing a blue linen skirt.

They lived in a little, neat hut.

Alex rode her bike to their new school.

      Verb Phrases:

Each sentence will generally have a verb. But rarely the action being explained requires a more nuanced multi-words verb phrase. The phrase has the main verb/verbs and then helping verbs. Some such verb phrases are as given below.,

The children have been learning since the last three weeks.

They must call their parents at once.

      Prepositional Phrase:

Any phrase that has a preposition, and the object of the preposition, which will be a noun or a pronoun what we call a prepositional phrase. Such a phrase also at times consists of other modifiers describing the object of the prepositional phrase. Let us look at some examples,

Workers are instructed to be on time.

Kindly turn towards the left at the crossroads.

      Infinitive Phrases:

A phrase that includes an infinitive along with a simple verb is an infinitive phrase. There may also be modifiers added to the object in the phrase. It has a verb, so it plays the position of showing an action in the sentence. Infinitive phrases can act as a adjective or adverb, noun in a complete sentence.

Chris loves to read comics (functions as a noun here)

To be present at the evening lecture, I set my alarm for 6 pm. (noun form)

To maintain his puppies quiet, Sam turned on the music. (Functions as an adverb here)

      Participle Phrases:

A participle phrase will start with a participle, which can be a present participle (ending with -ing) or a past participle (ending with -ed). There may be a few modifiers and linked words included in the phrase. One thing to keep in mind is that a participle phrase for all time takes the form of an adjective in a sentence. Some illustrations of the participle phrase are,

We got a courier from my aunt today telling us the good news.

The place was relentlessly spoiled by the flood.

kindly write the notes down without making noise.

      Gerund Phrases:

Now a gerund is a word that always ends with “-ing”, without exemption. So a gerund phrase is a phrase that has an ‘ing” word, with some modifiers in some cases. But participle phrases as well have a parallel pattern (-ing words), so how do you tell the variation between the two?

Well whereas participle phrases function as adjectives, Gerund Phrases completely function as nouns. Let us look at some illustrations,

He is at present writing her exam.

Cleaning the hall is Raju’s task.

Reading News paper is my father’s every day habit.

      Absolute Phrase:

An absolute phrase will have a noun or a pronoun with a participle. Again it may also have extra linking words and modifiers. A complete participle will modify a complete clause, or even a complete sentence, not only one word. On the other hand, it does not form a whole sentence or a clause. Generally, a whole phrase is divided by commas. Let us take a look at a few illustrations,

She looked towards the poor man, his face showing pity.

We were glued to the competition, our eyes all the time following the ball.

She sat on the sofa, her clothes tidily folded by her side.

2.3 Importance of Proper Punctuation

Marks of punctuation play extremely significant role in giving anticipated meaning to the language. Use of incorrect mark of punctuation or even wrong position of mark of punctuation can change the meaning of the sentence totally and sometimes even change the sentence to absolute nonsense.

Czar Alexander the third had one time sentenced a man to certain death by writing on the warrant-Pardon not possible, to be sent to Siberia. His wife, Czarina Maria, rescued the life of this man, by shifting position of comma as given above. Authorities freed the man.

The comma is considered a real villain among marks of punctuation. Incorrect position of comma can give different meaning to sentence depending upon where it is positioned.

 Let us see the following sentences:

In the primary sentence daddy is being called for dinner. On the other hand, in the next sentence, daddy himself has become a thing to be eaten. Slip of comma in this case has changed the primary sentence to absolute non sense.

In above sentences, just changing comma by one place has entirely misrepresented the meaning of the sentence.

In 1872, incorrect placement of comma cost millions of dollars in import duties to US government. In a tariff act approved in 1872, list of duty free items added: “Fruit plants, tropical & semi tropical.”

A government officer put the mark of comma at wrong place, which made the sentence read: “Fruit, plants tropical & semi tropical.”

Importers productively contested in the courts that the course as written meant that all tropical & semitropical plants were free from expense of duty.

Next pairs of can also encourage anybody on the subject of right use of marks of punctuation sentences:

The primary sentence without comma is an absolute nonsense. It means that the murderer protested his innocence after he was hanged!

In the second sentence, addition of a question mark and full stop has transformed personal possessions to public possessions.

Changing the comma by just one place has entirely misrepresented the meaning of the sentence. In the next sentence, it is not the criminal but the judge who should be hanged.

& finally

The above given sentences are to show the significance of use of not only correct mark of punctuation, but their right position also.

      Main References:

1. Complete English Punctuation Rules, Perfect your Punctuation and Instantly Improve Your Writing, The Farlex grammar book, Volume 2.

2.  June Casagrande, The Best Punctuation Book, Period.

2.4 Kinds of Sentence

(form = structure / function = job)

1. Declarative Sentence (statement)

Declarative sentences create a statement. They give information about something and they usually end with a full-stop.

The common word order for the declarative sentence is:

Declarative sentences can be affirmative or negative.

Declarative sentences are the mostly ordinary type of sentence.

2. Interrogative Sentence (question)

Interrogative sentences ask a question. They enquire us something. They need information, and they always end with a question mark.

The common word order for the questioning sentence is:

Interrogative sentences can be affirmative or negative. Look at these examples:

3. Imperative Sentence (command)

Imperative sentences give a command. They are ordering us to do something, and they end with a full-stop (.) or exclamation mark/point (!).

The common word order for the imperative sentence is:

Note that there is regularly no subject—because the subject is understood, it is YOU.

Imperative sentences can be positive or negative. Look at these examples:

4. Exclamatory Sentence (exclamation)

Exclamatory sentences express strong emotion/surprise—an exclamation—and they always end with an exclamation mark (!).

The usual word order for the exclamatory sentence is:

Examples:

Bottom of Form

2.5 Use of Tense, Use in Context and Coherence of Tense in writing

Structure: Base verb (+ es/es for third person):

Example: 1) I play a game every day. 2) He studies in school.

Structure: is/am/are + present participle:

Example: 1) I am playing the game. 2) He is studying in Bishop Cotton P.U College.

Structure: Has/have + past participle:

Example: I have finished my homework.

Structure: Has/have + been + present participle:

Example: 1) I have been finishing my homework for the last two hours.

2) She has been learning Karate since his childhood.

Structure: Verb+ed or irregular verb:

Example: 1) You played the game. 2) He read the newspaper.

Structure: Was/were + present participle:

Example: 1) I was reading a newspaper. 2) He was going to Karachi.

View: Past Continuous Tense (Formula, Usage & Examples)

Structure: Had + past participle:

Example: 1) I had finished my homework. 2) She had finished her project.

Structure: Had + been + past participle:

Example: 1) I had been finishing my homework for 50 minutes.

2) He had been playing the game since morning.

Structure: Will/shall+verb

Example: 1) I shall go to my home town. 2) He will complete his task.

View: Simple Future Tense Formula, Usage & Examples

Structure: Will be + present participle

Am/is/are + going to be + present participle:

Example: He will be watching the film at 10 am. / He is going to be watching the film at 10 am.

Future Perfect Tense:

Structure: Will have + past participle

Am/is/are + going to have + past participle

Example: He will have completed his task. / He is going to have completed his task.

Structure: Will have been + present participle

Am/is/are + going to have been + present participle:

Example: She will have been watching the film for over five minutes before they join her. / She is going to have been watching the film for over five minutes before they join her.

The action that takes place once, never or several times

Actions that happen one after another

State

Progressive Form:

Action going on at that moment

Actions that are taking place at the same time

Action taking place before a certain moment in time; shows completion/result

Action taking place before a firm moment in time and beyond that time, emphasizes the duration

The order of tense implies when two clauses build up a sentence the tense of the subordinate verb is changed along with the tense of the main verb.
So, we have to find out the tense of the main clause and change the tense of subordinate clause consequently as there should be a relative consistency of time. If there is no consistency of time in the two clauses than the sentence will be wrong.

For Example:

To retain the order of tense, we should retain the following rules:

Rule: If the main clause is in present tense then the subordinate clause can be in present continuous, present perfect, future or past tense.

For example:

If the subordinate clause is in present continuous tense whereas the principal clause in present indefinite tense, next it means both actions are concurrent. If the subordinate clause is in present perfect tense whereas the main clause is in present indefinite tense, then it means the action described in subordinate clause took place at an indefinite time before that of the main clause. If the subordinate clause is in future indefinite tense whereas the main clause is in present indefinite tense, then it means the action explained in subordinate clause will take place after the action of the main clause. If the subordinate clause is in past indefinite tense whereas the main clause is in present indefinite tense, then it means the action explained in the subordinate clause took place before the deed of the main clause.

Rule: If the main clause is in past tense after that the subordinate clause can be in past indefinite, continuous or perfect tense.

For Example:

If the subordinate clause is in past indefinite or continuous tense then it means the actions were concurrent. If the subordinate clause is in past perfect tense then it means the action explained in the subordinate clause occurred before the action of the main clause.

Rule: Usually, no present form is permitted in the subordinate clause if the main clause is in past tense. But if the subordinate clause starts with “than”, then the subordinate clause can be in any tense.

For Example:

Rule: If the principal clause is in future tense then the subordinate clause is usually in present tense.

For example:

2.6 Uses of Voice – Active / Passive in sentences

      Voice:

Voice is the form of the verb takes to point out whether the subject of the verb does or receives the action.

Two Types of voice

      Active voice:

A verb that conveys the action done by the subject is said to be in the active voice.

Jack reads the newspaper.

Mary reads a book.

      Passive Voice:

A verb that conveys what is done to subject is said to be in the passive voice.

The subject becomes the passive receiver of the action.

The newspaper is read by Jack.

A book is read by Mary.

Active into passive voice:

     The Rules to Change the sentences from Active to Passive Form

1. The sentence should have objects (transitive verb). If there is no object then there should

be question word who asks the object.

2. Object of active sentence became the subject of passive sentences.

3. Subject of active sentences into passive sentences that preceded the object word

"By".

4. The verb used is verb III (past participle) which proceeded by to be.

5. The adjusted sentence construction by tenses.

      Fundamental Rules:

1. The position of subject and object are interchanged, object moves to the place of subject and subject moves to the place of object in passive voice.

Example:

• Active voice: I draw a picture

• Passive voice: A picture was drawn by me.

2. Sometimes subjects of sentence are not used in passive voice. Subject of sentence will not be there in passive voice, if exclusive of subject it can give adequate meaning in passive voice.

Example:

• Passive voice: vegetables are sold very reasonably.

3.  Verb III (past participle) is always used as main verb in sentences of passive voice

for all tenses.  Present participle or Base form of verb will be never used in passive voice.

Example:

• Active voice: He composed a song.

• Passive voice: A song is composed by him.

4. The word "by" is not always used, the words "with, to, etc" may also be used before subject in passive voice sometimes.

Examples:

• Active voice: The water fills the tub.

• Passive voice: The tub is filled with water.

• Active voice: He knows me.

     Only transitive verbs (verbs which take a direct object) can be made passive.

     If you are not sure if a verb is transitive or intransitive in English, try using an object after it.

      Transitive Verb Usage

Robin               started      the project

Subject           Verb             Object

What did Robin start?

Answer: The project  

The verb 'start' can take an object, the project   so it is transitive.

      Intransitive Verb Usage

Robin              laughed

Subject            Verb            Object

What did Robin laugh?

Answer: Nothing. You cannot laugh something.

The verb 'laugh' cannot take an object, so it is intransitive

      Active and Passive Voice for All Tenses

Learn passive vs active voice for different tenses in English, please note that:

 V1: Base Form of Verb

 V2: Past Simple

 V3: Past Participle

     Present Simple Tense

Active Voice:

Subject + Verb1

Passive voice:

Subject + am/ is/ are + Verb3

Example:

I prepared a tea. (Active)

A tea is prepared by me. (Passive)

     Present Continuous Tense

Active voice:

Subject + am/is/are + Verb-ing

Passive voice:

Subject + am/ is/ are + being + Verb3

Example:

They are playing a game. (Active)

A game is being played by them. (Passive)

     Present Perfect Tense

Active voice:

Subject + have/ has + Verb3

Passive voice:

Subject + have/ has + been + Verb3

Example:

She has eaten my burger. (Active)

My burger has been eaten by her. (Passive)

     Present Perfect Continuous:

Active Voice:

Subject + have/ has + been + Verb-ing

Passive voice: ---------

Subject + have/ has + been + being + Verb3

Example:

Lisa has not been learning Science. (Active)

     Future Tense:

Active voice:

Subject + will/ shall + Verb1

Passive voice:

Subject + will be + Verb3

Example:

My father will take us to the film theatre. (Active)

We will be taken to the film theatre by our father. (Passive)

     Future Continuous Tense:

Active Voice:

Subject + will/ shall + be + Verb-ing

The Passive: -----------------

Example:

The teacher will be taking care of the students at this time tomorrow. (Active)

     Future Perfect Tense:

Active voice:

Subject + will + have + Verb3

Passive voice:

Subject + will have been + Verb3

Example:

I will have finished my project by the end of this month. (Active)

My project will have been finished by me by the end of this month. (Passive)

     Future Perfect Continuous:

Active voice:

Subject + will + have + been + Verb-ing

The Passive: ----------------

Example:

She will have been teaching History for 5 years by next week. (Active)

     Past Simple Tense:

Active voice:

Subject + Verb2

Passive voice:

Subject + was/ were + Verb3

Example:

I visited my aunt last year. (Active)

My aunt was visited by me last year. (Passive)

     Past Continuous Tense:

Active voice:

Subject + was/ were + Verb-ing

Passive voice:

Subject + was/ were + being + Verb3

Example:

Cris was informing the news to the department. (Active)

The news was being informed to the department by Cris. (Passive)

     Past Perfect Tense:

Active voice:

Subject + had + Verb3

The Passive: 

 Subject + had been + Verb3

Example:

Sam had read the book before Paul came. (Active)

The book had been read by Sam before Paul came. (Passive)

     Past Perfect Continuous Tense:

Active voice:

Subject + had + been + Verb-ing

Passive voice: -----------------------

Example:

They had been typing the Question paper for 3 hours before she came yesterday. (Active)

     Future in the Past (Would)

Active voice:

S + would + V1

The Passive:

S + would + be + V3

Example:

She would complete the lesson. (Active)

The lesson would be completed by her. (Passive)

     Causative Form

Active voice:

Subject + have/ has somebody + Verb1 + something

Subject + get(s) somebody + to + Verb1 + something

Passive voice:

Subject + have/ has/ get(s) something + Verb3 + (by + someone).

Example:

My mother had Milan wash his car. (Active)

My mother had his car washed by Milan. (Passive)

     Modal Verbs (Present)

Active voice:

Subject + modal verb + Verb1

The Passive:

Subject + modal verb+ be + Verb3

Example:

We can resolve the difficulty. (Active)

The difficulty can be resolved. (Passive)

     Modal Verbs (Present Perfect)

Active voice:

Subject + modal verb + have + Verb3

The Passive:

Subject + modal verb + have + been + Verb3

Example:

The tiger might have killed her. (Active)

She might have been killed by the tiger. (Passive)

2.7 Use of Speech – Direct and Indirect Speech

Direct speech means what the people actually say. It consists of two parts, the introducing part and the reporting part.

Reporting part-is always placed with in either inverted commas or quotation marks. It is this reporting part we need to report.

      In order to report any kind of a sentence or clause, a few points are to be kept in mind.

1. The reporting part, whether it belongs to statement, interrogative imperative or exclamatory sentences, takes the s+ v+ o form when reported.

2. It is the introducing part which comes outside the quotation marks that decides to what kind of a sentence we have to report Hence should be specified whether somebody said/told/asked/wanted ordered/requested/exclaimed etc.

3. There should not be any quotation marks or inverted commas in the reported sentences.

4. Statements in the indirect speech are generally introduced by the conjunction that.

      Change of words in the reported speech.

      When the reporting or principal verb is in the past tense, all present tenses of the direct are changed into the corresponding past tenses.

A) simple present becomes a simple past Direct Indirect

He said, "I am unwell"

He said that he was unwell.

b) A present continuous becomes past continuous

He said, "My master is writing letters"

He said that his master was writing letter

c) A present perfect becomes a past perfect He said, "I have passed the examination"

He said that he had passed the examination

The still of the Future tense is changed into should

The will of the Future tense is changed into would or should

As a rule the simple past in the desert becomes the past perfect in the reported or indirect speech

He said, "The horse died in the night.”

He said that the horse had died in the night.

      In Direct speech, if the simple present is used as the report verb, to express universal truths, habitual actions and the things that do not change while reporting, the verb in reported speech does not change.

“The sun rises in the east, the teacher said The teacher said that the sun rises in the east

In this case we can often choose whether to keep the original tenses or change them

"I know her address", said Gopi.

Gopi said he knows/knew her address.

The teacher said, The earth goes round the sun".

The teacher said that the earth goes/went round the sun.

"German is easy to learn", she said.

She said German is/was easy to learn.

      If the reporting verb is in the present tense, the tense of the direct speech do not change.

He says "I have passed the examination"

He says he has passed the examination

      The pronouns of the Direct speech are changed, where necessary so that their relations with the reporter and his hearer rather than with the original speaker are indicated.

He said to me, "I don't believe you".

He said he didn't believe me.

      Usual Tense Changes in the Reported Speech.

Reporting verbs, generally use to record statements, are 'say' and tell.

Tell can be used in a statement when the speaker and the addresser are clearly mentioned. In the other cases if the addresser is not mentioned say' or 'said' can be used according to the situation Besides 'say and tell there are few other reporting verbs with which a statement may be reported as they are remark 6bserve, suggest, insist, add, reply, answer, declare, assure, warn, confess, protest, deny, pointout, plead, remind, repeat, explain, etc

II. Questions (Interrogative sentences):

1. The introduced verb is changed to asked, enquired, demanded, etc.

2. If or whether is used after such introductory verb whenever the direct question admits of one of two answers yes or no.

3. The pattern of an interrogative sentence is verb + Subject + Object

4.  The note of interrogation (?) which is placed after question in the direct form is not placed after questions in the indirect form.

Eg:

He said to me, "Do you know the way?

He inquired of me if I know the way.

5. When the question is introduced by an interrogative word the connecting word should be the same interrogative word.

The teacher said to me, "What are you doing?"

The teacher asked me what I was doing.

Auxiliary verb → connecting word →   if/whether

Interrogative word→ connecting word → Same Interrogative Word.

v+s+o →   s+v +o

Some examples:

He said, "Will you listen to such a man?"

He asked him whether he would listen to such a man.

Jack said, "May I have a cake?"

Jack asked if he might have a cake.

III. Commands and Requests:

The form of an imperative sentence is understood subject + Verb +ect.

Eg: Bring your suitcase,

Here, bring is the plain infinitive. So when it is reported we should change the plain infinitive verb into 'to' infinitive.

to' is the connecting word to report imperative sentences

The introductory verb is changed into request, beg, implore, entreat order, command, advise, threaten, shout, etc.

Eg Rama said to Arjun "Go away"

Rama ordered Arjun to go away.

He said to me "Give me your pencil".

He requested / asked me to give him my pencil

IV. Exclamations and Wishes:

1 The form of an exclamatory sentence is exclamatory sense + subject + verb + (Object)

2 To report such exclamations and wishes the connecting word should be that. It should be reported by words like exclaimed, applauded wished, declared, prayed, cried out, blessed with such phrases as with regret, with delight or joy, with sorrow, where necessary.

3. The Interjections and Exclamations such as oh, well, 'hurrah', alas bravo', 'curse it', 'how what should be omitted in the reporting form, and their sense is expressed by means of phrases.

4. The exclamation mark should be omitted in the reporting form.

Eg: "What a terrible storm it is!" he said

He exclaimed that it was a terrible storm.

Alice said, "How beautiful the night is!"

Alice exclaimed that the night was very beautiful.

Reporting an exclamation is usually best achieved by a circumlocution reflecting the spirit of the original exclamation.

Exclamations are not often reported in the spoken English. Some exclamatory forms are really questions or imperative.

Some examples:

He said, "Alas! How foolish I have been".

He confessed with regret that he had been very foolish.

He said, "Good-bye friends"

He bade goodbye to his friends.

They said, "Hurrah! We have won the match!"

He exclaimed with delight that they had won the match.

 He said to me, "May God bless you!"

He prayed that God might bless me.

2.8 Framing Questions – Direct, Using Modal Verbs

Modals (can, might, should, etc.)

Here is a list of modals:

can         /    can't
could      /    couldn't
may       /    may not
shall       /    shall not
will         /    won't
should    /    shouldn't ought to   /   ought not to
might      /    might not
used to    /    didn't use to
would      /    wouldn't
have to   /    don't have to
must      /    must not

Grammatical behavior of modal verbs:

Grammatically, modal verbs perform in a different way from normal verbs.

How to form questions using Modals:

References:

1. R.P. Bhatnagar and Rajul Bhargava; English for competitive Examinations, Revised Edition.

2. Dr. Evangelin Arulselvi, Teaching of Special English, 2009.

3. Krishna Mohan and Meera Banerji, Developing communication Skills, 1990.