2.1 History of Civil engineering | unit 2 history of civil engineering

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Unit - 2

History of Civil engineering

2.1 History of Civil engineering:

Civil Engineering has been an aspect of life than the beginnings of the human being. The initial performances of Civil engineering commenced between 4000 and 2000 BC in Ancient Egypt and Mesopotamia (Ancient Iraq) when humans started to freeing a nomadic being, thus causing a need for the construction of shelter.

In anticipation of modern times, there was no strong distinction between civil engineering and architecture, and the period engineer and architect were typically geographical deviations.

In the 18th century, civil engineering was shaped to incorporate all belongings citizens as dissimilar to military engineering.

The first self-declared civil engineer was John Smeaton, who constructed the Eddy stone Lighthouse.

2.2 Early constructions and developments over time:

The history of construction overlays many other fields like structural engineering and trusts on subdivisions of science like archaeology, history, and architecture to detect how the builders existed and recorded their accomplishments.

Those fields permit the studies constructed buildings and other structures built subsequently prehistory, the tools used, and the altered uses of building materials.

History of the building is developing by altered developments in time, marked by key principles taking durability of the materials used, the increasing of height and span, the degree of control trained over the interior environment, and as a final point the energy nearby to the construction process.

A ration has changed since 1965 and the construction industry is no exclusion.

Probably the largest guidance of change in the industry.

Advanced equipment has developed how projects are executed and managed.

The use of computers has improved work conditions, construction costs, and completion with in the times.

We're able to build stronger, taller, and more energy well-organized structures.

Technology has complete construction sites safer and workers more efficiently. It has allowed us to increase productivity, improve collaboration, and tackle more composite projects

Smart devices and wearable construction technology, as well as sensors and on-site cameras, can be secured into construction management software and give a much stronger picture of building progress and real-time status reporting.

2.3 Ancient monuments:

Ancient Monument means any structure, erection or monument, or any tumulus or place of interment, or any cave, rock-sculpture, inscription or monolith which is of historical, archaeological or creative interest and which stayed in being for not less than 100 years

A "Monument of National Importance" is nominated by the Archaeological Survey of India and includes the following.

1) The remains of an ancient monument.

2) The site of an ancient monument.

3) The land on which there are barriers or protective casing structures for preserving the monument.

4) Land by means of which people freely admittance the monument.

It is UNESCO's World Heritage Site in India due to rocky and chariot structures.

It involves more than 500 monuments are a collection of beautiful temples, forts, aquatic structures, ancient market streets, royal pavilions, bastions, royal platforms, and investment buildings.

Most Famous Historical Monuments of India:

1) Taj Mahal, Agra.

2) Mysore Palace, Mysore.

3) Victoria Memorial, Kolkata.

2.4 Modern marvels:

Modern Engineering Marvels in the World:

As an acknowledgment of the greatest civil engineering achievements of the 20th century, the American Society of Civil Engineers (ASCE) has nominated the Wonders of the Modern World.

The international wonders have modern society's ability to achieve unattainable feats, inspiration inaccessible heights, and disdain the notion "it can't be done."

ASCE honored the following civil engineering marvels:

1) Channel Tunnel (England & France)

2) CN Tower (Toronto)

3) Empire State Building (New York)

4) Golden Gate Bridge (San Francisco)

5) Netherlands North Sea Protection Works (Netherlands)

6) Panama Canal (Panama)

The Society wanted nominations from civil engineering societies and distinguished engineering experts from the world.

From their harmony emerged the Seven Wonders, which were judged on factors such as pioneering of design and construction, which helps to humanity, and engineering contests that were astonished.

The list evokes the storied wonders of the ancient world, which first illustrated humanity's desirability with engineering works that seemingly defied the limits of nature.

While only a few of the original wonders remain, the modern wonders indicate civil engineering's legacy to the 20th century.

Modern Engineering Marvels in the World:

1) Millau Viaduct (Millau, France)

2) The Venice Tide Barrier Project (Venice, Italy)

3) National Stadium a.k.a. “Bird's Nest” (Beijing, China)

4) Palm Islands (Dubai)

5) The Large Hadron Collider (underground in Geneva, Switzerland)

6) Channel Tunnel.

2.5 Development of various materials of construction and methods of construction:

Various materials of construction:

Building material is slightly material used for construction purposes such as materials for house building.

Wood, cement, aggregates, metals, bricks, concrete, clay are the utmost common type of building material used in construction.

The choice of these is based on their cost efficiency for building projects.

Many naturally occurring substances, such as clay, sand, wood, and rocks, even branches and leaves used to construct buildings.

Apart from naturally happening materials, several man-made products are in use, some more and some less synthetic.

The manufacture of building materials is a recognized industry in many countries and the use of these materials is normally segmented into specific field trades, such as carpentry, plumbing, roofing, and insulation work.

1) Rock:

Rock structures have been for as long as history can recall.

It is the longest-lasting building material available and is typically readily available.

There are many types of rock throughout the world all with different features that make them improved or worse for particular uses.

2) Wood:

Wood is a product of trees, and occasionally other fibrous plants, used for construction purposes when cut or constrained into lumber and timber, such as boards, planks, and related materials.

It is a generic building material and is used in building just around any type of structure in most climates.

Wood can be very malleable under loads, keeping strength while bending, and is incredibly strong when flattened vertically.

3) Brick and Block:

A brick is a block made of kiln-fired material, regularly clay or shale, but also may be of lower quality mud, etc.

Clay bricks are designed in a moulding (the soft mud method), or commercial manufacture more often by extruding clay through a die and then wire-cutting them to the proper size (the stiff mud process).

Bricks were broadly used as a construction material in 1700, 1800 and 1900s.

This was probably because it was much more flame retardant than wood in the always crowding cities, and fairly cheap to produce.

Another type of block changed clay bricks in the late 20th century. It was the Cinder block. Made mostly with concrete.

4) Concrete:

Concrete is a complex building material made from the combination of aggregate (composite) and a binder such as cement.

The most common form of concrete is Portland cement concrete, which involves mineral aggregate (generally gravel and sand), Portland cement, and water.

After mixing, the cement hydrates and finally hardens into a stone-like material.

When used in the generic logic, this is the material referred to by the term concrete.

5) Metal:

Metal is used as a structural context for larger buildings such as skyscrapers, or as an external surface covering.

There are several types of metals used for building. Steel is a metal alloy major component is iron and is the normal choice for metal structural construction. It is strong, flexible, and if superior well and/or treated lasts a long time.

Corrosion is a metal’s prime opponent when it comes to longevity.

6) Glass:

Clear windows have stayed used since the invention of glass to cover small openings in a building.

They provided humans with the ability to both occupancy light into rooms while at the same time keeping inclement weather outside.

Glass is normally made from mixtures of sand and silicates and is very brittle.

7) Ceramics:

Ceramics are such things as tiles, fixtures, etc. Ceramics are typically used as fixtures or coverings in buildings.

Ceramic floors, walls, counter-tops, even ceilings. Many countries use ceramic roofing tiles to insurance many buildings.

Ceramics used a specialized form of clay-pottery firing in kilns, but it has changed into more technical areas.

8) Plastic:

Plastic pipes powerful a concrete floor in a Canadian high rise apartment building

The term plastics insurances a variety of synthetic or semi-synthetic organic condensation or polymerization products that can be molded or extruded into objects or films or fibers.

Their name is resulting from the element that in their semi-liquid state they are malleable or the property of plasticity.

Methods of construction:

An extensive variety of modern methods of construction (MMC) techniques and products have been developed that have completely different the behavior of the construction industry from what it was before.

This change is amazing and is in the way to transport more and more developments in this sector.

Modern construction methods (MMC) are methods that are developed in the construction industry with proper planning and design so that each project diminishes the construction time, cost, and maintain overall sustainability.

Types of Modern Methods of Construction:

1) Precast Flat Panel System

2) 3D Volumetric Modules

3) Flat Slab Construction

4) Precast Cladding Panels

5) Concrete Wall and Floors

6) Twin Wall Technology

7) Precast Concrete Foundation

8) Concrete Formwork Insulation

9) Precast Flat Panel System

This method of construction involves the procedure of creation floor and wall units off-site. For this, detached factory outlets and facilities are required.

Once the panel units are made as per the design specification and requirements, they are carried to the site and placed.

This method is best suited for tedious construction project activities.

1) Flat Slab Construction:

The flat slabs are structural elements that are extremely versatile in nature.

This is this versatility that it is used generally in construction.

The flat slab delivers minimum depth and faster construction.

The system also affords flexible column grids.

Wherever it is necessary to seal the partitions to the slab soffit as a reason for acoustic and fire apprehensions, the flat slabs are a desirable solution.

When related to other forms of construction, flat slabs are faster and more economic in nature.

The construction of flat slabs can be completed with a good surface appearance for the soffit, this allows to utilize he exposed soffits.

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2) Precast Concrete Foundations:

For the rapid construction of the foundation, the precast concrete system can be energetic. This method is more appropriate for an adapted design.

Here, the elements essential for the construction of the foundation are constructed separately in the factory (off-site) and taken to the site and assembled.

The manufactured product must have a secure quality as specified by the designer.

The foundation collected is mainly supported by concrete piles. During collecting, both the systems are connected together.

These foundation systems help in increasing productivity, increase quality, decrease the soil excavation measure.

This is best suited for extreme and adverse weather conditions.

When the construction is allocated on a highly contaminated ground, this system of construction is the best excellent.

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3) Precast Cladding Panels:

The cladding system is the connection of material over an alternative that finally acts as a skin or a layer.

This system of the layer is not only proposed for aesthetics, but it can help in controlling the infiltration of the weather elements.

No kind of waterproof condition is provided by the cladding. In its place, the cladding is a control measure against water penetration.

This carefully helps in directing the water or the wind so that there is control of the runoff. This benefits to prevent the infiltration of the building structure.

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2.6 Works of Eminent civil engineers:

Civil engineers are those who subsidize a major part of the extrinsic development of society.

They concentrate on building modern structures such as buildings, bridges, tunnels, flyovers, and roads.

Civil engineers create, improve, and protect the environment in which we conscious.

They plan, design and supervise construction and maintenance of building structures and infrastructure, such as roads, railways, airports, bridges, harbor, dams, irrigation projects, power plants, and water and sewerage systems. They also design and build tall buildings and large structures that can survive all weather conditions.

Generally, civil engineers fall into two types: consulting engineers and contracting engineers.

Consultants are accountable for the design work of projects and work predominantly in an office.

Contractors then take the designs and tool them during construction.

Contractors work on-site, managing the construction of the structure.

Depending on whether you are a contractor or a consultant, work activities can include:

1) Undertaking technical and feasibility studies with site investigations

2) Using a series of computer software for developing detailed designs

3) Undertaking composite calculations

4) Liaising with clients and a variety of professionals including architects and subcontractors

5) Compiling job specs and supervising tendering procedures

6) Resolving design and development problems

7) Handling budgets and project resources

8) Scheduling material and equipment purchases and deliveries

9) Assessing the sustainability and environmental impact of projects

10) Ensuring projects run smoothly and structures are completed within budget and on time.

Working hours for accessing civil engineers are normally normal office hours, with some extra hours and weekend work close to project deadlines.

Contractors, on the other hand, regularly work shifts and weekends and are outside in all weather.

References:

1. Patil, B.S. (1974), Legal Aspects of Building and Engineering Contract

2. The National Building Code, BIS, (2017)

3. RERA Act, (2017)

4. Meena Rao (2006), Fundamental concepts in Law of Contract, 3rd Edn. Professional Offset

5. Chandiramani, Neelima (2000), The Law of Contract: An Outline, 2nd Edn. Avinash Publications Mumbai

6. Avtarsingh (2002), Law of Contract, Eastern Book Co.

7. Dutt (1994), Indian Contract Act, Eastern Law House

8. Anson W.R. (1979), Law of Contract, Oxford University Press

9. Kwatra G.K. (2005), The Arbitration & Conciliation of Law in India with case law on UNCITRAL Model Law on Arbitration, Indian Council of Arbitration

10. Avtarsingh (2005), Law of Arbitration and Conciliation, Eastern Book Co.

11. Wadhera (2004), Intellectual Property Rights, Universal Law Publishing Co.

12. P. S. Narayan (2000), Intellectual Property Rights, Gogia Law Agency

13. T. Ramappa (2010), Intellectual Property Rights Law in India, Asia Law House

14. Bare text (2005), Right to Information Act

15. O.P. Malhotra, Law of Industrial Disputes, N.M. Tripathi Publishers

16. K.M. Desai (1946), The Industrial Employment (Standing Orders) Act

17. Rustamji R.F., Introduction to the Law of Industrial Disputes, Asia Publishing House 18. Vee, Charles & Skitmore, Martin (2003) Professional Ethics in the Construction Industry, Engineering Construction and Architectural Management, Vol.10, Iss. 2, pp 117-127, MCB UP Ltd

18. American Society of Civil Engineers (2011) ASCE Code of Ethics – Principles Study and Application

19. Ethics in Engineering- M.W.Martin & R.Schinzinger, McGraw-Hill

20. Engineering Ethics, National Institute for Engineering Ethics, USA

21. www.ieindia.org

22. Engineering ethics: concepts and cases – C. E. Harris, M.S. Pritchard, M.J.Rabins

23. Resisting Bureaucratic Corruption: Alacrity Housing Chennai (Teaching Case Study) -S. Ramakrishna Velamuri -CEIBS

24. CONSTRUCTION CONTRACTS, http://www.jnormanstark.com/contract.htm

25. Internet and Business Handbook, Chap 4, CONTRACTS LAW, http://www.laderapress.com/laderapress/contractslaw1.html

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