UNIT- 3
INFRASTRUCTURE HABITATS
The infrastructure sector in India was after independence completely in the hands of the public sector and this hampered the growth of this sector. India’s less spending on real estate, power, telecommunications, construction and transportation prevented the country from sustaining very rates of growth. The amount the India was spending on infrastructure sector was 6% of GDP.
The contribution of the infrastructure sector in the India GDP
The infrastructure sector growth rate in India came to 3.5% in 1996-97 and the next year this figure was 4.6%. The infrastructure sector in India after the Indian government opened the sector to 100% foreign direct investment (FDI). This was in order to boost the infrastructure sector in the country. The result of opening the sector to private sector has been that infrastructure sector growth rate in India GDP has increased at the rate of 9%.
Economic infrastructure refers to the facilities, activities and services which support operation and development of other sectors of the economy. These facilities, activities and services help in increasing the overall productivity of the economy. They also play an essential role in facilitating the smooth running of all the sectors of the economy.
In addition infrastructures are such basic requirements like railways, roads, ships, airways, communication etc. they also include energy, banking, science, technology, health, education and other public utility concerns. Without the existence and presence of economic infrastructures, the growth and fast pace of the economy is impossible. Moreover, infrastructures of an economy are also termed as ‘social and economic overheads’.
Social infrastructure: social infrastructures are also termed as social overheads. These social overheads indirectly support the economic systems. They indirectly increase the productivity and the economy sees the impact after some time. They concern with the supply of services as to meet the basic needs of a society. In simple words, social infrastructures refer those basic services such as education and training. It also includes health and sanitation, drinking water, housing, sewerage, etc. social infrastructure lead to growth in the long run.
Physical infrastructure: physical infrastructures are those infrastructures which directly concern themselves with the need of such production sectors as agriculture, industry, trade, etc. physical infrastructures directly supports the economic production. They also directly support the process of production and distribution in the economy. A few such examples are energy, irrigation, transportation, telecommunication, banking, insurance, technology, finance etc.
The term ‘megacity’ refers to metropolitan areas with a total population of more than 10 million people. The definition of what constitutes a megacity generally refers to the population of an urban agglomeration that is, it includes people living in the immediate suburbs outside of the established border of the city. Megacities are a distinctly modern phenomenon, the proliferation of which has spread with the large-scale urbanisation that has occurred in many countries around the world. Whereas only 3% of the global population lived in cities in 1800, by the end of the 20th century that figure had risen to 47%. This figure is predicted to rise to more than 70% by the second half of the 21st century, a number made even more startling by the fact that the human population is expected to have increased by two billion by that point.
Historically, the growth of big cities first occurred during the industrial revolution, when large numbers of people moved to cities in order to find work - a trend broadly associated with developed nations. In contrast, contemporary megacity development is predominantly focused in areas of the world that are the least developed, such as Mumbai.
In 1950, the only megacities were New York-Newark and Tokyo. By 1995 the number had risen to 14. In 2020, there were 34 megacities.
Solution to the problems arising from development of these megacities
Reducing the carbon footprint, in other words, mitigating greenhouse gas emissions, through measures aimed at improving energy efficiency.
To create mechanisms aimed at listening to the inhabitants of these urban centres and thus promoting citizen participation and social cohesion.
To create fresh urban islands that minimise the effects of urban heat islands. In Chicago, 70,000 new trees have already been planted in the city centre to fight this phenomenon.
Install green roofs made with native vegetation in order to capture and store rainwater so that it can be reused.
Promote city agriculture, from vertical gardens aimed at purifying the air inside buildings through bio-filtration, to urban gardens.
Implement Internet of Things (IoT) applications to reduce environmental impact, maintain the citizens' safety and improve their quality of life.
Support the use of eco-efficient technologies in all areas, especially when designing new buildings — the big energy consumers in cities—.
Develop an intelligent public transport system, which is efficient respectful with the environment with a fleet of electric cars.
Tokyo (Japan) is currently the largest megacity in the world with 37.4 million inhabitants. In 2100 it will be Lagos (Nigeria) with 88 million. The numbers of these urban centres are astounding and in short period of time they will become a great challenge for humanity at a demographic, migratory, socio-economic, political and environmental level.
A smart city is an urban area that uses different types of electronic methods and sensors to collect data. Insights gained from that data are used to manage assets, resources and services efficiently; in return, that data is used to improve the operations across the city. This includes data collected from citizens, devices, buildings and assets that is then processed and analyzed to monitor and manage traffic and transportation systems, power plants, utilities, water supply networks, waste, crime detection, information systems, schools, libraries, hospitals, and other community services.
The smart city concept integrates information and communication technology (ICT), and various physical devices connected to the IoT network to optimize the efficiency of city operations and services and connect to citizens. Smart city technology allows city officials to interact directly with both community and city infrastructure and to monitor what is happening in the city and how the city is evolving. ICT is used to enhance quality, performance and interactivity of urban services, to reduce costs and resource consumption and to increase contact between citizens and government. Smart city applications are developed to manage urban flows and allow for real-time responses. A smart city may therefore be more prepared to respond to challenges than one with a simple “transactional” relationship with its citizens.
Core infrastructure elements of a smart city
Adequate water supply
Assured electricity supply
Sanitation including solid waste management
Efficient urban mobility and public transport
Affordable housing especially for the poor
Robust IT connectivity and digitalization
Good governance especially e-governance and citizen participation
Sustainable environment
Safety and security of citizens
Health and education
Road is a route or way on land between two places that has been paved or otherwise improves to allow travel by foot or by some form of conveyance. India has one of the largest road networks in the world, aggregating to about 56 lakh km.
In India, roads are classified in the following six classes according to their capacity.
• Golden Quadrilateral Super Highways: The government has launched a major road development project linking Delhi Kolkata-Chennai-Mumbai and Delhi by six-lane Super Highways. The North South corridors linking Srinagar (Jammu & Kashmir) and Kanyakumari (Tamil Nadu), and East-West Corridor connecting Silchar (Assam) and Porbander (Gujarat) are part of this project. The major objective of these Super Highways is to reduce the time and distance between the mega cities of India. These highway projects are being implemented by the National Highway Authority of India (NHAI).
• National Highways: National Highways link extreme parts of the country. These are the primary road systems and are laid and maintained by the Central Public Works Department (CPWD). A number of major National Highways run in North-South and East-West directions. The historical Sher-Shah Suri Marg is called National Highway No.1, between Delhi and Amritsar.
• State Highways: Roads linking a state capital with different district headquarters are known as State Highways. These roads are constructed and maintained by the State Public Works Department (PWD) in State and Union Territories.
• District Roads: These roads connect the district headquarters with other places of the district. These roads are maintained by the Zila Parishad.
• Other Roads: Rural roads, which link rural areas and villages with towns, are classified under this category. These roads received special impetus under the Pradhan Mantri Grameen Sadak Yojana. Under this scheme special provisions are made so that every village in the country is linked to a major town in the country by an all season motorable road.
• Border Roads: Apart from these, Border Roads Organisation a Government of India undertaking constructs and maintains roads in the bordering areas of the country. These roads have improved accessibility in areas of difficult terrain and have helped in the economic development of these areas.
Advantages of road transport
(a)Construction cost of roads is much lower than that of railway lines.
(b)Roads can traverse comparatively more dissected and undulating topography.
(c)Roads can negotiate higher gradients of slopes and as such can traverse mountains such as the Himalayas.
(d)Road transport is economical in transportation of few persons and relatively smaller amount of goods over short distances.
(e)It also provides door-to-door service, thus the cost of loading and unloading is much lower.
(f)Road transport is also used as a feeder to other modes of transport such as they provide a link between railway stations, air and sea ports.
Disadvantages of road transport
Frequent accidents: according to an estimate there are large number of deaths due to road accidents, thus it is not a safer mode.
Inadequate roads: most of the roads are in bad shape and are inadequate. There are only 34 km long roads per 100 sq km area in India while in Japan 270 km roads per 100 sq km.
Heavy taxes: there is heavy tax burden on motor transportation in India. Tax burden per motor vehicle in India is Rs 3500 while in America it is Rs 860.
Poor maintenance of roads:
Rising cost of petrol and diesel
Unsuitable for long distance and bulky roads.
Rail transport is also known as train transport. It is a means of transport, in which vehicles run on tracks. It is one of the most important, commonly used and very cost effective modes of commuting and goods carriage over long as well as short distances. Since this system runs on metal (usually steel) rails and wheels, it has an inherent benefit of lesser frictional resistance which helps attach more load in terms of wagon or carriages. This system is known as train. Rail transport is one of the fastest mode of land transport.
Advantages of rail transport
Dependable: it is the most dependable mode of transport as it is the least affected by the weather conditions such as rain etc compared to other modes of transport.
Better organised: it is better organised than other modes of transport. It has fixed routes and schedules. Its service is more certain, uniform and regular.
High speed over long distances: its speed over long distances is more than other modes of transport except airways.
Suitable for heavy and bulky goods: it is economical, quicker and best suited for carrying heavy goods over long distances.
Cheaper transport: it is a cheaper mode. most of the expenses of railways are in the nature of fixed cost. Every increase in the traffic is followed by the decrease in average cost.
Safety: it is the safest mode of transport. The chances of accidents and breakdowns are less as compared to other modes of transport.
Larger capacity: carrying capacity of railways is extremely large. Moreover, its capacity is elastic which can easily be increased by adding more wagons.
Public welfare: it is the largest public undertaking in the country. Railways perform many public utility services. Their charges are based on “charge what the traffic can bear’’ principle, which helps the poor.
Employment opportunities: the railway provides greater employment opportunities for both skilled and non skilled labour. Over 16 lakh people depend on railways for their livelihood.
Disadvantages of railway
Huge capital outlay: it requires large capital investment. The cost of construction, maintenance and overhead expenses are very high as compared to other modes of transport. Moreover, the investments are specific and immobile.
Lack of flexibility: its routes and timings cannot be adjusted to individual requirements.
No door to door service: it cannot provide door to door service as it is tied to a particular track. Intermediate loading or unloading involves greater cost more wear and tear and wastage of time.
Not suitable and uneconomical for short distances and small loads
Under-utilised capacity: railways must have full load for its ideal and economic operation, As it has a very large capacity. Under utilisation of its capacity is a great financial loss to economy.
Airport also called air terminal, aerodrome or airfield, site and installation for the takeoff and the landing of aircraft. An airport usually has paved runways and maintenance facilities and serves as a terminal for passengers and cargo.
Advantages of air transport
High speed: it is the fastest mode of transport.
Minimum cost: unlike railway and roadway, there is no need to spend money on the construction of any track or road, only airports have to be constructed.
Strategic importance: an airway has great strategic importance. It can be used for internal and external security.
Easy transport of costly and light goods: it is quite conventional to send costly, light and perishable goods through air transport.
Free from physical barriers: it is free from physical barriers like river, valley and mountains etc.
Useful for agriculture: it is useful for aerial spray on pests and insects of crops.
Useful for natural calamities: during earth quake, flood, accidents and famine air transport is used for rescue operations.
Disadvantages of air transport
High cost: it is a costly service. Its operational costs are too high.
More risks: it is prone to accidents. a small mistake can be very danger for passengers.
Huge investments: for creating aviation facilities, huge investments are required. The cost of aeroplanes, construction and maintenance of aerodromes and control mechanism needs a capital expenditure.
A port can be defined as a harbour or an area that is able to provide shelter to numerous boats and vessels and can also allow constant or periodic transaction of shipment.
Port is a place to facilitate loading and unloading of the vessels. Ports are the inhibitors which begin the social and economic growth of a region not only allowing trades but also by serving a hub for social activities.
These days most of the ports are well equipped with the specialized fixtures such as forklifts and gantry cranes to facilitate regular dealings of cargo.
Ports are of great significance to a nation, as it promotes the commercial welfare and the trade scenario. Ports can also be of military importance as they used to keep the warships before moving out to the battle scene.
Ports are also a major source of employment as a large number of workers are employed at the ports.
Port facilities
Special warehouse: this is available on all the ports for storing the shipment and for maintaining regular stock.
Port reception: Reception has details of all the shipments scheduled and moreover it is a guide for the port facilities.
Other facilities: Some other essential facilities are also available at seaports namely hotels, restaurants, restrooms and eateries for the port visitors. Some of the ports are provided with the medical facilities to the people present there.
Fishing facilities: Fishing ports allows its customers with fishing aids and amenities at the port.
Warm water facility: A greater revenue generating warm water port provides warm water even in frosting winters.
Loading and unloading facility: It is the mandatory part of every port to allow loading and unloading of freight as well as people in the ship.
Infrastructure and equipment: A port has piers, basins and stacking to store ferry equipments.
Workshop: All the bigger and significant ports provide the facility of vessel workshop. It is the place where one can get spare parts and accessories of a vessel.
A canal is a manmade waterway that allows boats and ships to pass from one body of water to another. Waterways are the navigable parts of a body of water, and can be located within a bay or open sea, can connect two or more water bodies, or may even form networks within a city.
Advantages of sea canal
Less maintenance cost: maintenance cost in rail and road transport is quite high but maintenance cost of waterway is quite less.
Cheapest mode: it is quite cheap as compared to rail and road transport.
Useful for bulky goods: heavy and bulky goods can be transported easily at little cost through water transport.
Helpful in defence: development of shipping is essential for the defence of country. It is also called second line of defence.
Important for foreign trade: India’s foreign trade mainly depends on water transport.
Disadvantages of water transport
Slow speed: it is a slow means of transport. Failure of monsoon results into fall in the water levels of river making navigation difficult.
More risky: water transport is more risky as compared to other means of transport because there is always danger of sinking ships or boats.
A tunnel is a underground passageway, dug through the surrounding soil/earth and enclosed except for entrance and exit, commonly at each end. A pipeline is not a tunnel, though some recent tunnels have used immersed tube construction techniques rather than traditional tunnel boring methods.
Advantages of tunnel
Tunnel allows rapid and unobstructed transport facilities in big congested cities.
Tunnel protect the system (railway track, highway, sewer line or oil line etc.) for which it is constructed from weather conditions such as rain, snow etc, thus reduces the cost of maintenance of the system.
Tunnels avoid troubling to surface life and traffic during construction.
In a certain place, tunnels have proved cheaper for crossing the mountain or river than open, cut or bridge.
In the most congested area, underground railways or highway is the best alternative to provide means of transport.
In a soft rocked hill, construction of the tunnel has proved cheaper than open cut due to a large number of the slips etc.
Disadvantages of tunnel
The initial cost of construction is high.
Its construction requires skilled labour and technical supervision of high order.
Construction duration of it is more than the open cut or bridge.
Its construction requires advanced and specialized equipments.
The Hyperloop is a proposed mode of passenger and freight transportation. Hyperloop is described as a sealed tube or system of tubes with low air pressure through which a pod may travel substantially free of air resistance or friction. The Hyperloop could potentially convey people or objects at airline or hypersonic speeds while being energy efficient compared with existing high speed rail systems. This, if implemented, may reduce travel times compared to train and airplane travel over distances of under approximately 1,500 kilometres (930 miles). It could see passengers travelling at over 700 miles in an hour in floating pod which races along inside giant low pressure tubes, either above or below ground.
It’s still not clear where hyperloops will be actually established but a number of companies have sketched out roots in the US, Europe and elsewhere. Potential routes include New York to Washington DC, Pune to Mumbai, Kansas city to st Louis, Bratislava to Brno, Vijaywada and Amrawati and many more.
Benefits of hyperloop
Hyperloop could be cheaper and faster than train or car travel and cheaper to build than traditional high speed rail. Hyperloop could therefore be used to take the pressure off gridlocked roads making travel between cities easier, and potentially unlocking major economic benefits as a result.
Electricity generation is the process of generating electric energy from sources of primary energy. Electricity is not freely available in nature so it must be produced (that is transforming other forms of energy to electricity). Production is carried out in power stations (also called power plants). Electricity is most often generated at a power plant by electromechanical generators, primarily driven by heat engines fuelled by combustion or nuclear fission but also by other means such as the kinetic energy of flowing water and wind. Other energy sources include solar photovoltaics and geothermal power.
Hydropower plants capture the energy of falling water to generate electricity. A turbine converts the kinetic energy of falling water into mechanical energy. Then a generator converts the mechanical energy from the turbine into electrical energy.
Hydro-plants range in size from “micro-hydro’’ that power only a few homes to giant dams like Hoover dam that provide electricity for millions of people.
Parts of a hydroelectric plant
Most conventional hydroelectric plants include four major components
Dam: raises the water level of the river to create falling water. Also controls the flow of water. The reservoir that is formed is, in effect, stored energy.
Turbine: the force of falling water pushing against the turbine’s blades causes the turbine to spin. A water turbine is much like a windmill, except the energy is provided by falling water instead of wind. The turbine converts the kinetic energy of falling water into mechanical energy.
Generator: connected to the turbine by shafts and possibly gears so when the turbine spins it causes the generator to spin also. Converts the mechanical energy from the turbine into electric energy. Generators in hydropower plants work just like the generators in other types of power plants.
Transmission lines: conduct electricity from the hydropower plant to homes and business.
How much electricity can a hydroelectric plant make?
The amount of electricity a hydropower plant produces depends on two factors
How far the water falls: the farther the water falls, the more power it has. Generally the distance that the water falls depends on the size of the dam. The higher the dam, the farther the water-falls and more power it has. Scientists would say that the power of falling water is directly proportional to the distance it falls. In other words, water falling twice far as much as energy.
Amount of water falling: more water falling through the turbine will produce more power. The amount of water available depends on the amount of water flowing down the river. Bigger rivers have more flowing water and can produce more energy. Power is also directly proportional to river flow. A river with twice the amount of flowing water as another river can produce twice as much energy.
Solar power is the conversion of sun radiation into electricity through the use of solar photovoltaic cells. This conversion takes place in the solar cell by photovoltaic effect. As said by many experts that the amount of solar energy reaching the earth is more than 10,000 times the current energy consumption by man.
Also the power created by solar is sufficient for one year for the entire planet, if we could convert the 100 percent of the solar energy into electricity in one hour.
There are two ways of converting sunlight into electricity.
In one method, solar energy is used simply as a source of heat. This heat is further used to produce the steam, which drives the steam turbine. This method of power generation is called solar thermal power generation.
In the second method, solar energy is directly converted into electricity using PV (or solar) cells as mentioned above. The PV cell is made with silicon semiconductor material.
Some of the factors for choosing the solar power generation are listed below
Solar energy is available freely and conveniently in nature and it needs no mains supply.
Solar generation plants can be installed in a few months while the conventional power plants take several years to build an electricity generation plant.
Solar power is clean energy as it produces no air or water pollution.also, there are no moving parts to create noise pollution. Unlike fossil fuels, no toxic emissions are released into the atmosphere during solar energy power generation. Solar power has less running cost that means once the capital investment is made there is no need for continuous purchase of fossil fuels as the solar energy is effectively free in nature.
Wind power is the energy obtained from the wind. It is one of the oldest exploited energy sources by humans and today is the most seasoned and efficient of all renewable energies.
How does wind power work?
Wind power consists of converting the energy produced by the movement of wind turbines blades driven by the wind into electrical energy.
Wind energy benefits
Renewable energy
Inexhaustible
Not pollutant
Reduces the use of fossil fuels
Reduces energy imports
Creates wealth and local employment
Contributes to sustainable development
Challenges of wind power
Wind power must still compete with conventional generation sources on a cost basis.
Good land based wind sites are often located in remote locations far from cities where the electricity is needed.
Wind resources development might not be the most profitable use of the land.
Turbines might cause noise and aesthetic pollution. Although wind power plants have wind plants can impact local wildlife.
Wave energy or wave power is the transport and capture of energy by ocean surface waves. The energy captured is then used for all different kinds of useful work, including electricity generation, water desalination and pumping of water. Wave energy is also a type of renewable energy and is the largest estimated global resource form of ocean energy.
Advantages of wave energy
Renewable
Environment friendly
Abundant and widely available
Easily predictable
No damage to land
Reliable
Huge amount of energy Suitable to certain locations can be produced.
Disadvantages of wave energy
Effect on marine ecosystem
Source of disturbance for private and commercial vessels
Weak performance in rough weather
Noise and visual pollution
The cost of production
Everyday movement of water level along the coast is known as tide. The energy derived from rising and falling of ocean tides is called tidal energy.
Advantages of tidal energy
Inexhaustible and renewable
Pollution free
Does not require large area of land.
Independent of uncertainty of rainfall.
Disadvantages of tidal energy
Due to variation in tidal range, the power output is variable.
Power generation is intermittent and is not very large.
There are very few suitable sites available for construction of dams.
Barrage construction in areas of high tidal flow and corrosion of barrage, sluiceway and turbines by salty sea water.
Large amount of fossil fuels are burnt every day in power stations to heat up water to produce steam which further runs the turbine to generate electricity. The transmission of electricity is more efficient than transporting coal or petroleum over the same distance. Therefore, many thermal power plants are set up near coal or oil fields. The term thermal power plant is used since fuel is burnt to produce heat energy which is converted into electrical energy.
Due to geological changes, molten rocks formed in the deeper hot regions of earth’s crust are pushed upward and trapped in certain regions called ‘hot spots’. When underground water comes in contact with the hot spot, steam is generated. Sometimes hot water from that region finds outlets at the surface. Such outlets are known as hot springs. The steam trapped in rocks is routed through a pipe to a turbine and used to generate electricity. The cost of production would not be much, but there are very few commercially viable sites where such energy can be exploited. There are number of power plants based on geothermal energy operational in New Zealand and United States of America.
3.21 Nuclear Energy
In a process called nuclear fission, the nucleus of a heavy atom (such as uranium, plutonium or thorium), when bombarded with low-energy neutrons, can be split apart into lighter nuclei. When this is done, a tremendous amount of energy is released if the mass of the original nucleus is just a little more than the sum of the masses of the individual products. The fission of an atom of uranium, for example, produces 10 million times the energy produced by the combustion of an atom of carbon from coal. In a nuclear reactor designed for electric power generation, such nuclear ‘fuel’ can be part of a self-sustaining fission chain reaction that releases energy at a controlled rate. The released energy can be used to produce steam and further generate electricity.
Telecommunication is science and practice of transmitting information by electromagnetic means. Modern telecommunication centres on the problems Involved in transmitting large volumes of information over long distances without damaging loss due to noise and interference. The basic components of a digital telecommunication system must be capable of transmitting voice, data, radio and television signals. Digital transmission is employed in order to achieve high reliability and because the cost of digital switching systems is much lower than Telecommunications are the means of electronic transmission of information over distances. The information may be in the form of voice telephone calls, data, text, images, or video.
The main feature of a medium is its potential transmission speed, also known as channel capacity, which for data transmission purposes is expressed in bits per second (bps).
Radio masts and towers
These are typically tall structures designed to support antennas for telecommunications and broadcasting including television.
They are among the tallest human made structures. Masts are often named after the broadcasting organizations that originally built them or currently use them. In the case of mast radiator or radiating tower, the whole mast or tower is itself the transmitting antenna.
Types of towers
Guyed tower: a guyed tower is a light to heavy weight communication tower constructed with straight rods aligned in a triangular form, but supported with wires at all angles. Guyed towers are especially tall, reaching heights as high as 2000 feet and are typically used to hold antennas high off the ground allowing for greater signal strength and cell reception. In addition to cellular use, they can also serve for radio and television purposes.
Monopole towers: a single tubular mast comprises this type of cell tower; because of the instability that comes with the use of a single pole, the height of these structures will not exceed 200 feet. A benefit of this tower type is that it requires little ground space to erect, and the antennae are simply mounted to the top exterior of the mast.
Lattice towers: also referred as self supporting towers, lattice towers are typically made from steel and constructed in a triangular or square shape. These towers often offer the most stability and flexibility as compared to other cell tower types.
Stealth towers: stealth towers are deployed to satisfy zoning regulations. They are more expensive than other towers because they require additional material to create a concealed appearance. They are designed in a way to ensure that they blend in with their surroundings. These towers can be in the shape of many other objects such as signs, flagpoles, and even cacti.
Cables
Underground cable
An underground cable is a cable that is buried below the ground. They distribute electric power or telecommunications. Such cables are an alternative to overhead cables, which are several meters above the ground. Overhead cables are often replaced by underground cables. Downtown areas with tall buildings usually have few or no cables above the ground, this is mainly for aesthetic purposes because underground cables cannot be seen. They are also less dangerous to people because they are out of the way. They cost more to install but lasts longer.
Overhead cable
An overhead cable is a cable for the transmission of information, laid on utility poles. Overhead telephone and cable TV lines are common in North America. These poles sometimes carry overhead power lines for the supply of electric power. Power supply companies may also use them for an in house communication network. Sometimes, these cables are integrated in the ground or power conductor otherwise an additional line is strung on the masts.
Benefits of underground cabling vs above ground
Requires less space.
Less visual impact
Less exposure to damage
Less dangerous
Building codes
A building code is a set of regulations that are enacted by either state or local governments regulating construction, renovation and repair of building and other structures that human may occupy. We use the term ordinance to describe a regulation passed by municipality, such as a city, village or a town. All the ordinance related to building and construction are collected together into a code.
Content and process
Building code addresses the minimum standards necessary for new construction, renovation and repair of buildings.
Most codes require a building permit to be obtained before new construction or a substantial renovation can commence. Applying for a building permit is known as pulling a permit. Typically, only the owner of the real estate or a licensed contractor can pull a permit.
Getting a permit is only half the battle. A code enforcement inspector will ensure that the work compiles with the building code by inspecting the work. If it doesn’t, the inspector will indicate why the projects doesn’t meet the code and the builder will have to remedy the issue to come within compliance.
Types of building codes
Building codes come in different varieties depending upon the type of construction and subject they are seeking to regulate. Many of the building codes adopted by government in the United States are based upon model building codes drafted by the international code council (ICC). The ICC has created the following model codes
International building code, which applies to construction of new buildings of nearly every type.
International residential code, which applies to new construction of one and two family dwellings as well has town homes that are no more than three stories high.
International existing building code, which regulates the renovation, alteration or repair of existing buildings.
Advantages of building codes
Building codes provide maximum standards for safety, health and general welfare including structural integrity, mechanical integrity (including sanitation, water supply, light and ventilation), fire prevention and control, and energy conservation.
Provides safety.
Ensures the economic well being of the community by reducing potential spread of fire and disease.
Conserves energy.
Protect future home purchasers who deserve reasonable assurance that the home they buy will be safe.
Innovations and methodologies for ensuring sustainability
Sustainable innovation has been defined as covering the spectrum of levels of innovation from incremental to radical. Whilst there are no absolute or quantifiable definitions and boundaries, four main level of innovation can be defined in the context of environmental improvement:
Level 1(incremental): incremental or small, progressive improvements to existing products.
Level 2(re-design or green limits): major re-design of existing product(but limited the level of improvement that is technically feasible).
Level 3(functional or product alternatives): new product or service concepts to satisfy the same functional need e.g. teleconferencing as an alternative to travel.
Level 4(systems): design for a sustainable society.
Top sustainable technologies in green construction
Green technology makes building more energy efficient and sustainable. They thus have a lower carbon footprint and a reduced impact on the environment. In new buildings, green building construction plays a role in every phase of development. Every aspect of the structure, including siting, design, construction materials and the systems used to run and maintain operations are chosen to be as sustainable and energy efficient as possible.
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