UNIT- 6
THE GROUPS
A group is defined as a number of individuals who come together to achieve a particular task or goal. In the broad sense, a group is any collection of individuals who have mutually dependent relationships. A formal definition of group is that it refers to a collection of two or more interacting individuals with a stable pattern of relationships between them, who share common goals and who perceive themselves as being a group.
According to David H. Smith, “A group is a set of two or more individuals who are jointly characterized by a network of relevant communications, a shared sense of collective identity and one or more shared dispositions with associated normative strength.”
Thus, a group is the aggregation of small number of persons who work for common goals, develop a shared attitude and are ware that they are a part of a group and perceive themselves as such.
Key Takeaway
- A group is defined as a number of individuals who come together to achieve a particular task or goal.
Factors of group formation are the interaction that a group offers to its members. Attraction is due to the following reasons:
- Similarity between the group members.
- Fulfillment of needs of the members.
- Goals of the group.
- Prestige of the group also attracts the members to become a part of the group.
- Need for affiliation among human beings is also a good and strong factor of group formation.
- Interaction among individuals helps in the proximity of the group.
- Good status achieved by a group member.
- Cooperative relationships and rewards received also increase the attractiveness of the group.
- Positive interaction within the group members also directs the attractiveness of the group because it increases the personal and social needs which are being met by the group.
- Size of the group also affects its attractiveness. It is easy to interact in small groups than in the big groups.
- Positive relations add to the prestige of the, group and make the group more attractive.
- Groups which are perceived as meeting goals effectively appear more attractive.
People join groups for a number of reasons. They might be looking for affiliation, a fulfillment of social needs. Groups also add to an individual’s sense of security, status or self-esteem. Or perhaps a goal is easier to accomplish if a group of people concentrate on achieving it, pooling their talents and knowledge. Or, the sheer size of the group might provide the power and influence needed to accomplish the goal.
Groups are inevitable in the workplace. Understanding how and why they come together is the first step in understanding how they function and how they can function well. However, there are plenty of arguments out there for individual work, and understanding the individual’s need to succeed in the workplace independent of others. They carry out specific tasks to attain organisational goals. They have clearly defined authority-responsibility relationships, communication channels, rules and regulations to govern the behaviour of members.
(A) From Members Point of View:
1. Companionship:
Relationships give an individual recognition. The need for relationship with other people is one of the strongest human drives.
2. Identity:
Workers get more identified in small groups and so small groups tend to enjoy high morale as compared to large groups.
3. Information:
The informal group to which a member belongs is a source of communication or information to him. A piece of information available to one member will nearly reach all the members in a short span of time. An individual comes to know about what is happening in an organization even if he has been on leave or is otherwise away.
4. Security:
By joining a group, a person feels stronger, has lesser self doubts and is more resistant to threats. A person always derives reassurance from interacting with others and being part of a group.
5. Esteem:
The members will feel good about themselves by virtue of the group’s power, prestige and social standing. They will get opportunities for recognition and praise that are not available outside the group.
(B) From Organization’s Point of View:
Informal group satisfies some of the social and psychological needs of its members. It is useful from the organization’s point of view. In fact, the findings of many social researchers suggest that informal groups are essential for the organizational stability.
1. Lightening of Responsibility:
A cooperate group can always be entrusted with some responsibility which will lighten the manager’s mental burden to some extent.
2. Filling the Gaps:
An enlightened group can also fill in gaps in management’s abilities. Sometimes, a subordinate can help the superior to grasp over the problem.
3. Restraining the Authority:
It helps to keep checks and balances on the manager’s excessive use of authority. A manager is not allowed to cross his limits.
4. Proper and Careful Planning:
A manager will be very careful in planning and other jobs for the fear of the presence of the group.
5. Information:
The informal group to which a member belongs is a source of communication or information to him. A piece of information available to one member will nearly reach all the members in a short span of time. An individual comes to know about what is happening in an organization even if he has been on leave or is otherwise away.
Key Takeaway
1. Factors of group formation are the interaction that a group offers to its members.
A group is defined as two or more individuals, interacting and interdependent, who have come together to achieve a particular objective. Groups are either formal or informal. A formal group is a designated work group, one that is defined by an organization based on its hierarchical structure, with designated tasks related to its function. In the workplace, that might be the finance group or the human resources group.
Formal Groups:
Formal groups are relatively permanent and usually work under a single supervisor, although the structure of the formal group may vary. For example, the finance group works under the chief financial officer at an organization. There may be groups within the finance group, like the accounts payable group and the treasury group, each with their own supervisor as well.
The formal groups may further be sub classified into the following groups:
i. Command group: these groups are determined by the organization’s hierarchal chart and composed of the individuals that report to a particular manager. For instance, the manager of training has a command group of his employees, the training group. Command groups are relatively permanent and are specified by the organization chart.
ii. Task forces and committees: These are also formal groups, because they have been created with formal authority within an organization. The term task force is used to describe those groups that have been brought together to complete a task. Task forces are usually temporary and set up for a particular purpose, while committees can be more permanent in nature, like a planning committee or a finance committee, and can be an integral part of an organization’s operation.
Informal Groups:
An informal group is one that is not organizationally determined or influenced and usually formed by the members themselves in response to the need for social contact. For instance, a workplace might have a group of people who get together during the lunch hour to knit and help each other with yarn projects, or a group that is drawn together by cultural similarities and wants to introduce the rest of the organization to their traditions. Informal groups are important in that they exist outside the formal hierarchy of an organization but are the structure of personal and social interactions that managers are wise to respect and understand. Employees motivate one another, informally (and formally) train one another and support one another in times of stress by providing guidance and sharing burdens. In fact, if one employee in an informal group is subject to an action by the organization that the others see as unfair, strikes can happen until that situation is corrected. These groups are not created by managers but spontaneously grow out of interaction amongst members of the formal groups. They are created by choice for promoting the group goals. The members even subordinate their individual goals to the group goals.
Informal organizations may be of different types as explained below:
i. Interest group: An interest group is usually informal, and is a group of people who band together to attain a specific objective with which each member is concerned. Within an organization, this might be a group of people who come together to demand better working conditions or a better employee evaluation process. Outside of an organization, this term is frequently used in political situations to describe groups that give a point of view a voice. This includes groups like the National Rifle Association, the AFL-CIO and the NAACP.
ii. Friendship group: These are groups of people who have come together because they share common ideals, common interests or other similarities, like age or ethnic background.
iii. Cliques: These groups consist of colleagues or those who commonly associate with each other and observe certain social norms and standards but the number of members tends to be smaller and only rarely exceeds five or six. The objective is to provide recognition to each other and exchange information of mutual interest.
There are few more classifications of groups, such as the following:
Primary and Secondary Groups:
- Primary groups are formed to promote common interests and goals. Members share common values and largely affect each other’s behaviours. Friendship and social needs are the basis for forming these groups.
- In Secondary groups members do not actively interact with each other. They have loose inter-personal relationships and no common goals to share. Professional bodies, business organisations etc. are some examples of secondary groups.
Small and Large Groups:
- Small groups are formed with few members. Members closely interact with each other.
- In Large groups, members have weak inter-personal interactions and do not actively communicate or interact with each other.
Key Takeaway
- A group is defined as two or more individuals, interacting and interdependent, who have come together to achieve a particular objective.
- Formal groups are relatively permanent and usually work under a single supervisor, although the structure of the formal group may vary.
- An informal group is one that is not organizationally determined or influenced and usually formed by the members themselves in response to the need for social contact.
This section throws light on the two major factors which affects group performance in an organization, i.e., (1) External Conditions, and (2) Group Structure.
Once the groups have been formed, it happens that some groups perform well whereas some groups do not perform well. This happens because there are several factors both within and outside the groups, what affect its performance.
1. External conditions:
A group is a part of large organizations. They are created by the organisation and as such they do not exist in isolation. A group has to rather work within the framework provided by the organisation. Every group is influenced by a number of external conditions imposed from outside it. These external conditions include: the organization’s strategy, its rules, regulations, its culture, physical work setting, employee selection process etc.
2. Group structure:
A group comprises of a number of individuals and has a well-defined structure. Groups have structures that shape the behaviour of its members and make it possible to predict and explain the individual behaviour within the group as well as the performance of the group as a whole.
Some of the structural components are:
(i) Group Size:
A minimum of two persons are required to form a group, as far as the maximum number is concerned, the group should have as many members as can interact meaningfully amongst one another. However, an ideal group size is said to comprise of 5-7 members over a smaller group in terms of idea generation. The evidence indicates that smaller groups are faster at completing tasks than the larger ones. The group size should be determined by taking in consideration factors such as nature of task to be performed, the maturity of the group members etc.
(ii) Group Composition:
A group comprises of a number of individuals with varied qualities and characteristics. In fact, most of the group activities require a variety of skill and knowledge. As far as group composition is concerned, a group may be homogeneous or heterogeneous. Homogeneous groups are those which are composed of similar individuals, similar in terms of personality, age, gender, experience, knowledge etc.
Heterogeneous groups on the other hand are the ones which comprise of dissimilar individuals i.e., the individual who differ from one another in one way or the other. In some types of tasks homogeneous groups could be more appropriate while in other types heterogeneous groups could be more appropriate.
(iii) Group Status:
The term status refers to the relative ranking that a person holds in a group. Status is determined in the context of comparison. Therefore, status defines the rank of an individual relative to others in the organisation and the group. Status is in-fact defined in terms of rights, privileges, duties and obligations the individual holds in an organisation.
It is an important factor in understanding human behaviour. When an individual perceives a disparity between his status with that of other group members, it creates a disequilibrium that results in interpersonal conflicts. So, what is important for the group members is to believe that the status hierarchy is equitable and just.
(iv) Group Norms:
Group norms are the “the ought’s” or “should be” of behaviour. They are prescriptions for acceptable behaviour determined by the group. “Group Norms are a set of beliefs, feelings, and attitudes commonly shared by group members. These are also referred to as rules or standards of behaviour that apply to group members”.
(v) Group Roles:
All members of group are expected to play specific roles. By this term, we mean a set of expected behaviour patterns attributed to someone occupying a given position in a social unit. Quite often, this role is a function of the individual’s job description. A role consists of a pattern of norms, it is a position that can be acted out by an individual. The content of a given role is prescribed by the prevailing norms. Role can best be defined as a position that has expectations evolving from established norms. The main issue is that a person is required to play a number of roles and the behaviour varies with the role he is playing. Different groups impose different role requirements on individuals.
(vi) Conformity:
Conformity means adjusting one’s behaviour to align with the norms of the group. There is considerable evidence that groups can place strong pressures on individuals to change their attitudes and behaviours to conform to the group’s standards. Sometimes, people belong to many groups at the same time and their norms vary in some cases, there may be even contradictory norms. The people, in such situations, conform to the norms of the important group to which they belong or hope to belong. The important groups have been referred to as Reference Groups.
These groups are those where the person is aware of the others, the person defines himself or herself as the member or would like to be a member and the person feels that the group members are significant to him or her. All this implies that all groups do not impose equal conformity pressures on their members.
The groups enforce conformity with norms in many ways. They can reward people who comply group norms by appreciating them, by listening to them in a respectful manner and by making them leaders of the group. Also, they can take negative action against those persons who deviate from group norms in the form of ridicule, or silent ‘treatment’ or by withdrawing privileges or by ultimate action of expelling them from the group. This explains why individuals generally conform to their group norms. They will not like to separate from the group which satisfies their social needs and helps in achieving their personal goals.
(vii) Group resources:
By the term group resources, we mean the resources that an individual member brings to the group. The Groups performance to a large extent depends upon the resources of its members.
These resources may be categorized into two types:
(i) Knowledge, skills, efficiency, capabilities and
(ii) Personality characteristics (such as openness, honesty, dominance, extrovertness etc.)
Both these resources strongly affect the group performance by influencing how an individual will interact with other group members.
(viii) Group Process:
Another component in our group performance model is the group process. A process can be simply defined as a systematic method of handling activities. Some of these processes that effect group performance include – the communication patterns, leader behaviour, group decision making, inter group behaviour, group cohesiveness etc. The group processes may have a positive or at times even a negative impact on the group performance.
The group process may at times lead to synergy whereby the groups can create output much greater than the sum of their inputs. The negative aspect is best depicted by social loafing, which represents negative synergy i.e., the output is much less than the sum of inputs. The impact of group process on the group’s performance to a great deal depends upon the tasks that the group is doing.
(ix) Group Performance:
Group performance is contingent upon a number of factors. For instance, the external conditions which include the rules, regulations, selection procedure of the organisation etc. highly affect groups performance. Similarly, the group is more likely to be productive when its members have requisite skills and personality characteristics. The group size, composition, norms, cohesiveness etc.
Key Takeaway
- Many internal and external factors influence performance of a group.
In 1965, a psychologist named Bruce Tuckman said that teams go through 5 stages of development: forming, storming, norming, performing and adjourning. The stages start from the time that a group first meets until the project ends. Tuckman didn’t just have a knack for rhyming, each is aptly named and plays a vital part in building a high-functioning team.
Stages of team development:
- Forming Stage (Testing and dependence):
The first stage of team development is forming, which is a lot like orientation day at college or a new job. You could even compare it to going out on a first date. The team has just been introduced and everyone is overly polite and pleasant. At the start, most are excited to start something new and to get to know the other team members. As the group starts to familiarize themselves, roles and responsibilities will begin to form. It is important for team members to develop relationships and understand what part each person plays. But, because this stage focuses more on the people than on the work, your team probably won’t be very productive yet.
2. Storming Stage (intra-group conflict and hostility):
In the storming stage, the reality and weight of completing the task at hand have now hit everyone. The initial feelings of excitement and the need to be polite have likely worn off. Personalities may clash. Members might disagree over how to complete a task or voice their concerns if they feel that someone isn’t pulling their weight. They may even question the authority or guidance of group leaders. But, it is important to remember that most teams experience conflict. If you are the leader, remind members that disagreements are normal.
3. Norming Stage (development of group cohesion):
During the norming stage, people start to notice and appreciate their team members’ strengths. Groups start to settle into a groove. Everyone is contributing and working as a cohesive unit. Storming sometimes overlaps with norming. As new tasks arise, groups may still experience a few conflicts. If one has already dealt with disagreement before, it will probably be easier to address this time.
4. Performing Stage (Functional role relations):
In the performing stage, members are confident, motivated and familiar enough with the project and their team that they can operate without supervision. Everyone is on the same page and driving full-speed ahead towards the final goal. The fourth stage is the one that all groups strive to reach. Yet, some do not make it. They usually fail to overcome conflict and can’t work together.
5. Adjourning Stage
In 1977, Tuckman added a fifth stage called adjourning. Once a project ends, the team disbands. This phase is sometimes known as mourning because members grow close as they reach this stage and feel a loss now that the experience is over.
The above steps do not occur as discrete steps with measurable starting and stopping points. However, they do reflect basic processes through which groups normally pass. Various models of group development have been proposed but the above-mentioned ones give a clear picture of how a group evolves.
Key Takeaway
- Bruce Tuckman said that teams go through 5 stages of development: forming, storming, norming, performing and adjourning.
A very comprehensive definition of group norms is given by The Handbook of Industrial and Organizational Psychology. According to this definition, “All groups have established norms, that is, acceptable standards of behaviour that are shared by the group members. Norms tell members what they ought and ought not to do under certain circumstances. From an individual’s stand point, they tell what is expected of them in certain situations. When agreed to and accepted by the group, norms act as a means of influencing the behavior of group members with a minimum of external controls. Norms differ among groups, communities and societies, but they all have them.”
We can observe the following characteristics of group norms:
1. Just as an individual’s characteristics are revealed through his personality, the characteristics of a group are revealed or represented through norms.
2. Norms are the basis of behaviour of members in the group. For example, it is an unwritten norm that employees do not criticize their bosses in public. Thus, this norm is related to the behaviour which is considered important by most group members.
3. The norms are the basis for predicting and controlling the behaviour of good members. For example, norms may include behavior in a particular manner both within and outside the group meetings.
4. The norms are applied to all members, though very stringent uniformity is not followed. In certain cases, some deviations may be allowed but not to the extent of jeopardizing group goals. For example, if a code of dress for the meetings or for the work place is there, it is to be followed by all the members.
5. Norms also identify the values and ethics of the group members. They are established on the basis of what is right and decent and expected of professionals.
6. Though formalized norms are written up in organizational manuals setting out rules and procedures for employees to follow, but by far the majority of norms in organizations are informal. For example, you don’t have to tell someone that it is unacceptable to gossip while the meeting is going on.
Types of Norms:
Every group has different established norms depending upon the nature of its members and location. For example, the norms of factory workers will be different from the norms of office workers. Moreover, the group norms may be strong or weak depending upon the status of the group, the importance of behaviour to the group and the relative stability of the group.
Yet there are some common classes of norms which are common to all groups:
1. Performance Norms:
The most common class of norms which is applicable to all the groups is performance norms. Work groups typically provide their members with explicit clues on how hard they should work, how to get the Job done, their level of output, appropriate level of tardiness and so on. Norms regulate the performance and productivity of the individual members.
Workers who are performing below the lower acceptable level are generally informally reprimanded and encouraged to produce more. On the other hand, an ambitious worker who produces more and performs above the upper acceptable limit set by group are also ostracized for encouraging the management to raise its expectations.
2. Appearance Norms:
The second types of norms are appearance norms. These include things like appropriate dress, loyalty to the work group or organisation etc. Some organizations have formal dress codes. However even in their absence norms frequently dictate the kind of clothing that should be worn to work.
Other appearance norms might involve loyalty or confidentiality on the part of members. Workers are not expected to report about fellow workers to supervisors. Similarly, confidentiality is a powerful group norm so that no matter how much tension may be between workers and management, the workers will not divulge company secrets to competing organizations.
3. Arrangement Norms:
These norms come from informal work groups and primarily regulate social interactions within the group. With whom group members eat lunch, friendship on and off the job, social games and the like are influenced by these norms.
4. Allocation of Resources Norms:
These norms can originate in the group or in the organisation and cover things like pay, assignment of difficult job and allocations of new tools and equipment.
5. Behaviour Norms:
These are rules and guidelines defining the day-to-day behaviour of people at work. This behaviour pattern may include punctuality as a habit, completing any given assignments within the required time framework, not losing temper, showing respect for other member’s opinions and so on. Certain professionalism is expected from all members and this professionalism is predictable form of behaviour.
Norms usually develop gradually and informally as members learn what behaviours are necessary for the group to function.
Most norms develop in one of the following four ways:
1. Explicit Statements Made by a Group Member:
Explicit statements made by the supervisors or a powerful member may become norms. Norm develops this way to prevent any threats to the status quo. For example, the supervisor may explicitly say that tea breaks are to be kept to ten minutes and this will become a norm.
2. Critical Events in the Group’s History:
Critical events in the group’s history set important precedents. For example, a person who was standing too close to a machine was injured in a work group. It became an established norm in that group that no person other than the operator gets within five feet of any machine.
3. Primary:
Primacy is another way of forming group norms. Primacy refers to the first behaviour pattern that emerges in a group. This behaviour pattern sets group expectations. For example, if the first group meeting is marked by very formal interaction between supervisors and subordinates then the group expects future meetings to be conducted in the same way.
4. Past Experiences:
Many norms develop because members bring their past experiences from other groups in other organizations. This can explain why work groups typically prefer to add new members who are similar to current ones in background experience.
Why are ‘Norms’ Enforced?
Once the norms are established, they are enforced on members. But groups do not establish or enforce norms for every conceivable situation. The norms which the group tends to strongly enforce are those which are important to it. Norms which help in achieving the twin aims of performing successfully and keeping morale high are considered to be important.
To be specific, the reasons why norms are enforced are the following:
1. If it facilitates the group’s survival:
Groups do not like to fail, so they strongly enforce those norms that increase their chances of success. This means that they will try to protect themselves from interference from other groups or individuals.
2. If it increases the predictability of group member’s behavior:
Norms that increase predictability enable group members to anticipate each other’s actions and to prepare appropriate responses.
3. If it reduces embarrassing interpersonal problems:
Norms are likely to be strongly enforced if they help the group in avoiding embarrassing interpersonal problems. Norms will be important if they ensure satisfaction to their members and prevent as much interpersonal discomfort as possible.
4. If it allows members to express the central value of the group and clarify what is distinctive about the group’s identity:
Norms that encourage expression of the group’s values and distinctive identity help to solidify and maintain the group.
5. If it reflects the preferences of the supervisor:
Norms are likely to be strongly enforced if these reflect the preferences of supervisor or other powerful group members.
Key Takeaway
- Norms tell members what they ought and ought not to do under certain circumstances.
- Norms which help in achieving the twin aims of performing successfully and keeping morale high are considered to be important.
The Hawthorne studies were conducted on workers at the Hawthorne plant of the Western Electric Company by Elton Mayo and Fritz Roethlisberger in the 1920s. The Hawthorne studies were part of a refocus on managerial strategy incorporating the socio-psychological aspects of human behavior in organizations. The electric company had commissioned research to determine if there was a relationship between productivity and work environments. The original purpose of the Hawthorne studies was to examine how different aspects of the work environment, such as lighting, the timing of breaks, and the length of the workday, had on worker productivity. The focus of the study was to determine if increasing or decreasing the amount of light that workers received would have an effect on how productive workers were during their shifts. In the original study, employee productivity seemed to increase due to the changes but then decreased once the experiment was over.
There were a number of other experiments conducted in the Hawthorne studies, including one in which two women were chosen as test subjects and were then asked to choose four other workers to join the test group. Together, the women worked assembling telephone relays in a separate room over the course of five years (1927–1932). Their output was measured during this time—at first, in secret. It started two weeks before moving the women to an experiment room and continued throughout the study. In the experiment room, they had a supervisor who discussed changes with them and, at times, used the women’s suggestions. The researchers then spent five years measuring how different variables impacted both the group’s and the individuals’ productivity. Some of the variables included giving two five-minute breaks (after a discussion with the group on the best length of time), and then changing to two 10-minute breaks (not the preference of the group).
What the researchers in the original studies found was that almost any change to the experimental conditions led to increases in productivity. The results were surprising: Mayo and Roethlisberger found that workers were more responsive to social factors—such as the people they worked with on a team and the amount of interest their manager had in their work—than the factors (lighting, etc.) the researchers had gone in to inspect. The Hawthorne studies discovered that workers were highly responsive to additional attention from their managers and the feeling that their managers actually cared about, and were interested in, their work. The studies also found that although financial motives are important, social issues are equally important factors in worker productivity.
The researchers concluded that workers were responding to the increased attention from supervisors. This suggested that productivity increased due to attention and not because of changes in the experimental variables.
The term Hawthorne effect remains widely in use to describe increases in productivity due to participation in a study, yet additional studies have often offered little support or have even failed to find the effect at all.
The Hawthorne studies showed that people’s work performance is dependent on social issues and job satisfaction, and that monetary incentives and good working conditions are generally less important in improving employee productivity than meeting individuals’ need and desire to belong to a group and be included in decision making and work.
Key Takeaway
- Hawthorne studies examine how different aspects of the work environment, such as lighting, the timing of breaks, and the length of the workday, had on worker productivity.
- The Hawthorne studies showed that people’s work performance is dependent on social issues and job satisfaction, and that monetary incentives and good working conditions are generally less important in improving employee productivity than meeting individuals’ need and desire to belong to a group and be included in decision making and work.
Group processes refer to how an organization’s members work together to get things done. Typically, organizations spend a great deal of time and energy setting and striving to reach goals but give little consideration to what is happening between and to the group’s greatest resource- its members. Group process includes the study of how group members’ characteristics interact with the behavior of group members to create effective or ineffective group performance. Group norms, group roles, group status, group identity and social interaction influence group task performance and decision making.
Group processes are influenced by certain factors which may be classified under two heads- External Factors and Internal Factors.
- External Factors
- Organization’s overall strategy
- Authority structures
- Formal regulations
- Resource constraints
- Selection process
- Performance and evaluation system
- Organization’s culture
- Physical work setting.
2. Internal Factors
- Interpersonal relationship of group members
- Coordination of group members
- Group structure
- Group norms
- Social loafing
- Group decision making
- Groupthink
The group process may at times lead to synergy whereby the groups can create output much greater than the sum of their inputs. The negative aspect is best depicted by social loafing, which represents negative synergy i.e. the output is much less than the sum of inputs.
Synergy
Synergy is a term used in biology that refers to an action of two or more substances that result in an effect that is different from the individual summation of the substances. We can use the concept to better understand group processes. Group synergy refers to the idea that two heads (or more) are better than one. Groups are often capable of performing higher quality work and making better decisions than an individual can make alone. Synergistic relationships are not easy to develop and maintain. As a result, most people are willing to invest what’s needed only if a significant positive upside can be gained and/or a negative downside avoided.
The synergistic process is distinguished by four skill sets:
Interacting
Synergistic communication occurs when diverse perspectives, ideas, meanings, attitudes, feelings, and values are expressed and received openly and honestly in a supportive environment.
Appreciative Understanding
This is a nurturing atmosphere characterized by people who recognize and value their distinct frames of reference regarding the task at hand.
Integrating
Only when appreciative understanding is established can individuals seek ways to merge or combine their separate views into mutually supportive patterns for thinking and acting. It is during this integration phase that individuals invent and experiment with creative ways to move beyond their current thinking.
Implementing
Merely finding innovative approaches to integrate various viewpoints is not enough. It is only -through active planning, goal setting, discipline, and consistent application of various change facilitating methods that a transition can be successfully achieved. Without a structured implementation plan, the likelihood is low that a synergistic advantage will occur.
Social loafing
Social Loafing represents negative synergy. It refers to the concept that people are prone to exert less effort on a task if they are in a group versus when they work alone. The whole is less than the sum of its parts. Social loafing has negative consequences for both the group and the individuals in the group. Larger the size of the group, greater is the chance of social loafing. Also lack of motivation and intention to contribute to the group efforts also increase the chances of social loafing.
The impact of group process on the group’s performance to a great deal depends upon the tasks that the group is doing.
Key Takeaway
- Group processes refer to how an organization’s members work together to get things done.
- The group process may at times lead to synergy whereby the groups can create output much greater than the sum of their inputs.
- The negative aspect is best depicted by social loafing, which represents negative synergy i.e. the output is much less than the sum of inputs.
- Group synergy refers to the idea that two heads (or more) are better than one.
- Social Loafing represents negative synergy. It refers to the concept that people are prone to exert less effort on a task if they are in a group versus when they work alone.
Group tasks are activities where a defined group of individuals need to perform a defined task and accomplish the goals assigned to them. A group task is effectively an evaluation of candidate on psychological parameters and it helps the examiner understand how the candidates behave and act in a group, how their behavior alters in a group. There are a number of social dimensions and values that come into the picture when we start to deal with a group and this is reflected in a group task. The leadership qualities of an individual also come to the fore in a group task. Group members are expected to pitch in a variety of ways. They need to identify the nature of the problem, the best ways of dealing with it, provide specific facts and inputs that might be helpful in solving the problem, and ensure that communication channels are always open. Group tasks provide an opportunity to check the interpersonal skills of candidates and to check their commitment levels. Group members’ nature and degree of participation will help establish the kind of role they play in a group. Overall, the behavior of a group is dictated by the members and this determines how the group acts. For example, in some groups, members go out of their way to help others whereas in other groups self-centered individuals dominate.
Organisation use Group Tasks/Group Exercises to test team work, interpersonal communication skills and the planning ability of the candidates. The panel needs to know if one can mix well with others. Sometimes business simulated exercises are also given to test candidate's performance in real managerial situations. In such exercises, a candidate's ability to work in a team is put to test, while testing his convincing power and reasoning ability. The task is assigned to the group by the panelists in such a way that all get equal opportunity to perform to the best of their abilities, express themselves and give suggestions when asked for. Leadership skills, good team working skills, strong reasoning and decision-making skills, negotiating skills, taking initiative, facilitating others to perform and speak, showing a positive attitude, staying motivated (Intensity, Direction and Perseverance) are some of the traits a Team player must possess in order to successfully accomplish the task and get selected.
The candidate may be given an indoor practical task, outdoor group exercise, case studies, presentations, creating a proposal, performing skits, role plays and so on.
Managing Task Groups:
The following basic guidelines may be suggested for designing task groups or teams for use especially in a matrix design.
These guidelines are as follows:
(1) Most of the group members should be line managers who will be ultimately responsible for implementing the group’s output.
(2) The group should have required access to all relevant information.
(3) Group members should have the power to command their departments to follow various courses of activities.
(4) The influence system in the group should be based on expert power.
(5) The task group should be integrated with relevant functional departments.
Key Takeaway
- Group tasks are activities where a defined group of individuals need to perform a defined task and accomplish the goals assigned to them.
In most progressive organisations today, important decisions are made by groups rather the individuals. Examples range from executive committees to design teams to marketing planning groups. All types of organizations, business and non-business, rely on group decision-making. And, in most cases, decisions are reached through some sort of consensus process rather than through the voting system.
In this context, it will be of interest to discuss the advantages and disadvantages of group decision-making as also techniques for such decision making.
Advantages and Disadvantages of Group Decision-Making:
Advantages
1. Availability of information: Perhaps the most important advantage of group decision-making over individual decision-making is that there is much more information available in a group setting. Since two brains are usually if not always better than one when a group is assembled, a variety of education, experience and perspective is represented.
If one manager is very familiar with television and video and another is an export on personal selling, their combined knowledge and experience in deriving an overall advertising campaign is substantially greater than that possessed by either working alone. Largely due to the availability of this increased information, groups can usually identify and evaluate more alternatives than one individual can.
2. Greater commitment: Secondly, as Griffin has argued, “People who are involved in making a decision are more likely to be genuinely committed to the final alternative selected than if someone else had made the decision and imposed it on them. The people involved in a group decision understand the logic and rationale behind it and are better equipped to communicate the decision to their work groups or departments”.
3. Better decisions: Finally, groups are normally found to make better decisions than individuals. This point has been proved by empirical results.
Disadvantages of Group Decision-Making:
There are a few major disadvantages of group decision-making such as the following:
1. Delay: Perhaps the most serious drawback of group decision making, compared with individual decision making, is the additional time and (hence) the greater expenses entailed. Largely, due to interaction and discussion among group members group decision making is both a time-consuming and cost-raising process.
If group decision is somewhat better than individual decision, then the additional expense may be justified, but group decision making is more costly and should be used only when the results are likely to justify the expense in cost-benefit terms.
2. Undesirable compromises: The second disadvantage of group decision making is that group decisions often represent undesirable compromises. For example, hiring a compromise top manager may be a bad decision in the long run because he may not be competent enough to respond adequately to any of the various special subunits in the organisation.
3. Dominance: The third disadvantage of group decision making is that at times one individual dominates the group process to the point where others cannot make a full contribution. This dominance is the result of a desire for power or a naturally dominant personality. The basic problem here is that what appears to emerge as a group decision may actually be the decision of one person.
4. Groupthink: Finally, a group may succumb to a problem, called group think, which occurs when the group’s desire for consensus and cohesiveness overwhelms its desire to reach the best possible decisions.
Techniques for Group Decision Making:
Various techniques have been developed to manage or structure the group decision making process. The Delphi technique and the Nominal Group Technique are the most widely used.
Few of the techniques for group decision making are discussed below:
1. The Delphi Technique: It is essentially a method for developing a consensus of expert opinion. The technique developed by the Rand Corporation. In this technique, several rounds of questionnaires are sent out to the group of experts and the anonymous responses are aggregated and shared with the group after each round. Experts are allowed to adjust their answers in subsequent rounds, based on how they interpret the “group response” that has been provided to them. It solicits input front a panel of experts who contribute individually. Their optimums are pooled and, in effect, averaged.
However, this method has much less appeal to practicing managers than it apparently seems. In truth, the time, expense and logistics of the Delphi technique rule out its use for routine, everyday decisions. Yet, it has been successfully used for forecasting technological breakthroughs, market potential for new products, research and development patterns and future economic conditions.
2. Nominal Group Technique: The second method for managing group decision making is the nominal group technique, or NGT. Unlike the Delphi method, wherein the members of a group do not see each other, or interact with one another, group members in an NGT session are in the same room. However, the members represent a group in name only; they do not interact in a fashion typical of most groups.
The basic point to note is that nominal groups are used most often to generate creative and innovative alternatives or ideas. The highest-ranking alternative represents the decision of the group. However, the manager in charge may retain the authority to accept or reject the group decision. The most important advantage to be secured from NGT is that it identifies a large number of alternatives while minimizing individual inhibitions about expressing unusual ideas.
The main disadvantage of this technique is that if the manager ultimately rejects the group decision, enthusiasm for participating in the future is likely to be dampened.
3. Brain Storming: Brain storming is a technique used to enhance creative responses to problem solving and opportunity finding. This technique involves a group of people, usually between five and ten, sitting around a table in a classroom like setting, generating ideas in the form of free association. The primary focus of group storming is on “generation of ideas” rather than on “evaluation of ideas”. The idea behind this is that when a large pool of ideas is generated, the probability of finding a unique and creative idea from among the pool will be very high. The leader of the group explains the nature of the problem to the group and rules to be followed.
4. Fish Bowling Technique: This is similar to brain storming but is more structured and to the point. In this technique, the decision-making group of experts is seated around a circle with a single chair in the center of the circle. One member of the group or the group leader is invited to sit in the center chair and give his views about the problem and the ideas about the solution of the problem. The other group members can ask him questions but there is no irrelevant discussion or cross talk. Once the member in the center chair has finished talking and his viewpoint is fully understood, he leaves the center and joins the group in the circle. Then the second member is called upon to sit in the center chair and offer his ideas and opinion in the light of the views expressed earlier. The members can ask him questions based upon the new ideas presented by the member in the center chair as well as the ideas discussed by the previous central member. The exchange will continue between the central person and the group members till the chair is vacated. This process will continue till all the members have expressed their views. Lastly, the entire group discusses the various alternatives suggested and picks the one with consensus.
Key Takeaways
- In most progressive organisations today, important decisions are made by groups rather the individuals.
- The Delphi technique and the Nominal Group Technique are the most widely used among all techniques of group decision making.
- The Delphi Technique is essentially a method of arriving at a group opinion or decision by surveying a panel of experts.
- In Nominal Group Technique each member is given an opportunity to place their vote and also give explanation as to why they feel it is the best choice.
- The primary focus of group storming is on “generation of ideas” rather than on “evaluation of ideas”.
References
- Gupta, S.K. & Joshi, R. Organizational Behavior. Kalyani Publishers, New Delhi (2002), pp. 255.
- Khanka, S.S. Organizational Behavior. S. Chand & Company Pvt. New Delhi (2000), pp. 560.
- https://toggl.com/track/stages-of-team-development/
courses.lumenlearning.com
4. www.theintactone.com
5. www.iedunote.com
6. www.oulgen.in
7. www.verywellmind.com
