UNIT - 5
MOTIVATION
The term motivation is derived from the word ‘motive”. The word ‘motive’ as a noun means an objective, as a verb this word means moving into action. Therefore, motives are forces which induce people to act in a way, so as to ensure the fulfillment of a particular human need at a time. Behind every human action there is a motive. Therefore, management must provide motives to people to make them work for the organization.
Motivation may be defined as a planned managerial process, which stimulates people to work to the best of their capabilities, by providing them with motives, which are based on their unfulfilled needs.
“Motivation means a process of stimulating people to action to accomplish desired goods.” —William G. Scott
“Motivation is the process of attempting to influence others to do your will through the possibility of gain or reward.” — Flippo
Motivation is, in fact, pressing the right button to get the desired human behaviour.
Motivation is no doubt an essential ingredient of any Organisation. It is the psychological technique which really executes the plans and policies through the efforts of others.
Following are the features of motivation:
1. Motivation is a psychological phenomenon which generates within an individual.
2. Motivation is need based. If there are no needs of an individual, the process of motivation fails. It is a behavioural concept that directs human behaviour towards certain goals.
3. Because human wants are unlimited, therefore motivation is an ongoing process.
4. A positive motivation promotes incentives to people while a negative motivation threatens the enforcement of disincentives.
5. People differ in their approach, to respond to the process of motivation; as no two individuals could be motivated in an exactly similar manner. Accordingly, motivation is a psychological concept and a complex process.
Key Takeaways
- Motivation is an important factor which encourages persons to give their best performance and help in reaching enterprise goals.
- Motivation causes goal-directed behavior.
Maslow’s Need Hierarchy Theory
It is probably safe to say that the most well-known theory of motivation is Maslow’s need hierarchy theory Maslow’s theory is based on the human needs. Drawing chiefly on his clinical experience, he classified all human needs into a hierarchical manner from the lower to the higher order.
In essence, he believed that once a given level of need is satisfied, it no longer serves to motivate man. Then, the next higher level of need has to be activated in order to motivate the man.
Maslow identified five levels in his need hierarchy as shown in figure below:
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1. Physiological Needs:
These needs are basic to human life and, hence, include food, clothing, shelter, air, water and necessities of life. These needs relate to the survival and maintenance of human life. They exert tremendous influence on human behaviour. These needs are to be met first at least partly before higher level needs emerge. Once physiological needs are satisfied, they no longer motivate the man.
2. Safety Needs:
After satisfying the physiological needs, the next needs felt are called safety and security needs. These needs find expression in such desires as economic security and protection from physical dangers. Meeting these needs requires more money and, hence, the individual is prompted to work more. Like physiological needs, these become inactive once they are satisfied.
3. Social Needs:
Man is a social being. He is, therefore, interested in social interaction, companionship, belongingness, etc. It is this socializing and the feeling of belongingness that drive individuals to work in groups, especially the older people.
4. Esteem Needs:
These needs refer to self-esteem and self-respect. They include such needs which indicate self-confidence, achievement, competence, knowledge and independence. The fulfillment of esteem needs leads to self-confidence, strength and capability of being useful in the organization. However, inability to fulfill these needs results in feelings like inferiority, weakness and helplessness.
5. Self-Actualization Needs:
This level represents the culmination of all the lower, intermediate, and higher needs of human beings. In other words, the final step under the need hierarchy model is the need for self-actualization, self- fulfillment.
The term self-actualization was coined by Kurt Goldstein and means to become actualized in what one is potentially good at. In effect, self- actualization is the person’s motivation to transform perception of self into reality.
According to Maslow, the human needs follow a definite sequence of domination. The second need does not arise until the first is reasonably satisfied, and the third need does not emerge until the first two needs have been reasonably satisfied and it goes on. The other side of the need hierarchy is that human needs are unlimited.
However, Maslow’s need hierarchy theory is not without criticisms.
The main criticisms of the theory include the following:
1. The needs may or may not follow a definite hierarchical order. So to say, there may be overlapping in need hierarchy. For example, even if safety need is not satisfied, the social need may emerge.
2. The need priority model may not apply at all times in all places.
3. Researches show that man’s behaviour at any time is mostly guided by multiplicity of behaviour. Hence, Maslow’s preposition that one need is satisfied at one time is also of doubtful validity.
4. In case of some people, the level of motivation may be permanently lower. For example, a person suffering from chronic unemployment may remain satisfied for the rest of his life if only he/she can get enough food.
Notwithstanding, Maslow’s need hierarchy theory has received wide recognition, particularly among practicing managers. This can be attributed to the theory’s intuitive logic and easy to understand. One researcher came to the conclusion that theories that are intuitively strong die hard.
Key Takeaway
- Maslow’s theory believes that human needs can be arranged in a particular order from the lowest level need to the highest-level need.
Mc. Gregor’s Participation Theory
Douglas McGregor formulated two distinct views of human being based on participation of workers. The first basically negative, labeled Theory X, and the other basically positive, labeled Theory Y.
Theory X is based on the following assumptions:
1. People are by nature indolent. That is, they like to work as little as possible.
2. People lack ambition, dislike responsibility, and prefer to be directed by others.
3. People are inherently self-centered and indifferent to organisational needs and goals.
4. People are generally gullible and not very sharp and bright.
On the contrary, Theory Y assumes that:
1. People are not by nature passive or resistant to organisational goals.
2. They want to assume responsibility.
3. They want their organisation to succeed.
4. People are capable of directing their own behaviour.
5. They have need for achievements.
McGregor tried to draw the fencing within which a person in the organization is usually seen to behave. The fact remains that no one would actually belong either to theory X or theory Y. In reality, he/she shares the traits of both. What actually happens is that man swings from one set or properties to the other with changes in his mood and motives in changing environment.
Key Takeaway
- Theory X and Y given by McGregor are based on intuitive deductions. Theory X emphasizes on management by direction and control whereas Theory Y emphasizes on cooperation between management and employees.
HERZBERG’S MOTIVATION HYGIENE THEORY
The psychologist Frederick Herzberg extended the work of Maslow and proposed a replacement motivation theory popularly referred to as Herzberg’s Motivation-Hygiene (Two-Factor) Theory. Herzberg conducted a widely reported motivational study on 200 accountants and engineers employed by firms in and around Western Pennsylvania. He asked these people to explain two important incidents at their jobs:
(1) When did you feel particularly good about your job, and
(2) When did you feel exceptionally bad about your job?
He used the critical incident method of obtaining data.
The responses, when analyzed, were found quite interesting and fairly consistent. The replies respondents gave once they felt good about their jobs were significantly different from the replies given once they felt bad. Reported good feelings were generally related to job satisfaction, whereas bad feeling with job dissatisfaction. Herzberg labeled the work satisfiers motivators, and he called job dissatisfies hygiene or maintenance factors. Taken together, the motivators and hygiene factors have become referred to as Herzberg’s two-factor theory of motivation.
According to Herzberg, the removal of dissatisfying characteristics from a job doesn't necessarily make the job satisfying. He believes in the existence of a dual continuum. The opposite of ‘satisfaction’ is ‘no satisfaction’ and therefore the opposite of ‘dissatisfaction’ is ‘no dissatisfaction’.
According to Herzberg, today’s motivators are tomorrow’s hygiene because the latter stop influencing the behaviour of persons once they get them. Accordingly, one’s hygiene could also be the motivator of another.
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However, Herzberg’s model is labeled with the subsequent criticism also:
1. People have a tendency to take credit themselves when things go well. They blame failure on the external environment.
2. The theory basically explains job satisfaction, not motivation.
3. Even job satisfaction isn't measured on an overall basis. It is not unlikely that an individual may dislike a part of his/ her job, still thinks the job acceptable.
4. This theory neglects situational variable to motivate an individual.
Because of its ubiquitous nature, salary commonly shows up as a motivator also as hygiene.
Key Takeaway
- Herzberg’s theory concludes that there are certain factors which are consistently related to job satisfaction and certain features which are related to job dissatisfaction.
David McClelland’s Three Need Theory
David McClelland was an American Psychologist who developed his theory of needs or Achievement Theory of Motivation which revolves around three important aspects, namely, Achievement, Power and Affiliation. This theory is also known as the Acquired Needs as McClelland put forth that the specific needs of an individual are acquired and shaped over time through the experiences he has had in life. This motivation theory states that the needs for achievement, power and affiliation significantly influence the behavior of an individual, which is useful to understand from a managerial context.
This theory can be considered an extension of Maslow’s Need Hierarchy Theory. As per McClelland, every individual has these three types of motivational needs irrespective of their demography, culture or wealth.
Need for Achievement
This is the drive to excel, to achieve in relation to a set of standard, and to strive to succeed. It is a behavior directed towards competition with a standard of excellence. According to McClelland, people with a high need for achievement perform better than those with a moderate or low need for achievement.
Need for Power
The need for power is concerned with making an impact on others, the desire to influence others, the urge to change people, and the desire to make a difference in life. People with a high need for power are people who like to be in control of people and events. This gives ultimate satisfaction to man.
Need for Affiliation
The need for affiliation is defined as a desire to establish and maintain friendly and warm relations with other people. The need for affiliation, in many ways, is similar to Maslow’s social needs.
McClelland’s theory can be applied to manage the corporate teams by being identifying and categorizing every team member amongst the three needs. Knowing their attributes may certainly help to manage their expectations and running the team smoothly.
Key Takeaway
- McClelland’s theory is also a need-based theory. As per McClelland, every individual has three types of motivational needs irrespective of their demography, culture or wealth- need for achievement, need for power and need for affiliation.
Vroom’s Expectancy Theory
Vroom’s model is based on the belief that motivation is determined by the nature of the reward people expect to get as a result of their job performance. People will be highly motivated if they are made to believe that if they behave in a particular way, they will receive a certain type of outcome according to their personal preference.
There are three variables in Vroom’s model given in the form of an equation. If any of the variables is zero, the probability of motivated performance tends to be zero.
MOTIVATION= VALENCE x EXPECTANCY x INSTRUMENTALITY
All these variables are explained below:
- Valence: Valence is the attraction (or repulsion) of an outcome to the individual. Whenever an individual has preference for a reward, valence is the strength of that preference. Valence is deemed to be positive for an individual if he prefers attaining the outcome to not attaining it. Valence is negative if the individual is indifferent towards the outcome. It is negative when the individual prefers not attaining the outcome to attaining it.
- Expectancy: Expectancy is the probability that a particular action will lead to the outcome. If the individual feels that the probability of achieving an outcome is zero, he will not even try. On the other hand, if probability is higher, he will put more efforts to achieve the desired outcome.
- Instrumentality (Performance – Reward Probability): Instrumentality refers the belief and expectation of person that his performance will lead to a particular desired reward.
Vroom’s theory became very popular and became an alternative to content theories. According to him, those were inadequate explanations of the complex process of work evaluation. This model, however, is a step in the right direction, but from practical point of view, it does not help managers in solving the complex motivational problem.
Key Takeaway
- According to Vroom, Motivation= Valence x Expectancy x Instrumentality
References
- Gupta, S.K. and Joshi, R. Human Resource Management. Kalyani Publishers, New Delhi (2009).
- Khanka, S.S. Organisational Behaviour. S. Chand & Company Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi (2000). Pp. 560
- https://expertprogrammanagement.com/2018/04/herzbergs-two-factor-theory/.
