Unit 2
Grammar
Voice:
Voice is the form of the verb takes to point out whether the subject of the verb does or receives the action.
Active voice:
A verb that conveys the action done by the subject is said to be in the active voice.
Jack reads the newspaper.
Mary reads a book.
Passive Voice:
A verb that conveys what is done to subject is said to be in the passive voice.The subject becomes the passive receiver of the action.
The newspaper is read by Jack.
A book is read by Mary.
The Rules to Change the sentences from Active to Passive Form
1. The sentence should have objects (transitive verb). If there is no object then there shouldbe question word who asks the object.
2. Object of active sentence became the subject of passive sentences.
3. Subject of active sentences into passive sentences that preceded the object word"By".
4. The verb used is verb III (past participle) which proceeded by to be.
5. The adjusted sentence construction by tenses.
Fundamental Rules:
1. The position of subject and object are interchanged, object moves to the place of subject and subject moves to the place of object in passive voice.
Example:
Active voice: I draw a picture
Passive voice: A picture was drawn by me.
2. Sometimes subjects of sentence are not used in passive voice. Subject of sentence will not be there in passive voice, if exclusive of subject it can give adequate meaning in passive voice.
Example: Passive voice: vegetables are sold very reasonably.
3. Verb III (past participle) is always used as main verb in sentences of passive voice
For all tenses. Present participle or Base form of verb will be never used in passive voice.
Example:
Active voice: He composed a song.
Passive voice: A song is composed by him.
4. The word "by" is not always used, the words "with, to, etc" may also be used before subject in passive voice sometimes.
Examples:
Active voice: The water fills the tub.
Passive voice: The tub is filled with water.
Active voice: He knows me.
Passive voice: I am known to him.
Only transitive verbs (verbs which take a direct object) can be made passive.
If you are not sure if a verb is transitive or intransitive in English, try using an object after it.
Transitive Verb Usage
Robin started the project
Subject Verb Object
What did Robin start?
Answer: The project
The verb 'start' can take an object, the project so it is transitive.
Intransitive Verb Usage
Robin laughed
Subject Verb Object
What did Robin laugh?
Answer: Nothing. You cannot laugh something.
The verb 'laugh' cannot take an object, so it is intransitive
Active and Passive Voice for All Tenses
Learn passive vs active voice for different tenses in English, please note that:
V1: Base Form of Verb
V2: Past Simple
V3: Past Participle
Present Simple Tense
Active Voice:
Subject + Verb1
Passive voice:
Subject + am/ is/ are + Verb3
Example:
I prepared a tea. (Active)
A tea is prepared by me. (Passive)
Present Continuous Tense
Active voice:
Subject + am/is/are + Verb-ing
Passive voice:
Subject + am/ is/ are + being + Verb3
Example:
They are playing a game. (Active)
A game is being played by them. (Passive)
Present Perfect Tense
Active voice:
Subject + have/ has + Verb3
Passive voice:
Subject + have/ has + been + Verb3
Example:
She has eaten my burger. (Active)
My burger has been eaten by her. (Passive)
Present Perfect Continuous:
Active Voice:
Subject + have/ has + been + Verb-ing
Passive voice: ---------
Subject + have/ has + been + being + Verb3
Example:
Lisa has not been learning Science. (Active)
Future Tense:
Active voice:
Subject + will/ shall + Verb1
Passive voice:
Subject + will be + Verb3
Example:
My father will take us to the film theatre. (Active)
We will be taken to the film theatre by our father. (Passive)
Future Continuous Tense:
Active Voice:
Subject + will/ shall + be + Verb-ing
The Passive: -----------------
Example:
The teacher will be taking care of the students at this time tomorrow. (Active)
Future Perfect Tense:
Active voice:
Subject + will + have + Verb3
Passive voice:
Subject + will have been + Verb3
Example:
I will have finished my project by the end of this month. (Active)
My project will have been finished by me by the end of this month. (Passive)
Future Perfect Continuous:
Active voice:
Subject + will + have + been + Verb-ing
The Passive: ----------------
Example:
She will have been teaching History for 5 years by next week. (Active)
Past Simple Tense:
Active voice:
Subject + Verb2
Passive voice:
Subject + was/ were + Verb3
Example:
I visited my aunt last year. (Active)
My aunt was visited by me last year. (Passive)
Past Continuous Tense:
Active voice:
Subject + was/ were + Verb-ing
Passive voice:
Subject + was/ were + being + Verb3
Example:
Cris was informing the news to the department. (Active)
The news was being informed to the department by Cris. (Passive)
Past Perfect Tense:
Active voice:
Subject + had + Verb3
The Passive:
Subject + had been + Verb3
Example:
Sam had read the book before Paul came. (Active)
The book had been read by Sam before Paul came. (Passive)
Past Perfect Continuous Tense:
Active voice:
Subject + had + been + Verb-ing
Passive voice: -----------------------
Example:
They had been typing the Question paper for 3 hours before she came yesterday. (Active)
Future in the Past (Would)
Active voice:
S + would + V1
The Passive:
S + would + be + V3
Example:
She would complete the lesson. (Active)
The lesson would be completed by her. (Passive)
Causative Form
Active voice:
Subject + have/ has somebody + Verb1 + something
Subject + get(s) somebody + to + Verb1 + something
Passive voice:
Subject + have/ has/ get(s) something + Verb3 + (by + someone).
Example:
My mother had Milan wash his car. (Active)
My mother had his car washed by Milan. (Passive)
Modal Verbs (Present)
Active voice:
Subject + modal verb + Verb1
The Passive:
Subject + modal verb+ be + Verb3
Example:
We can resolve the difficulty. (Active)
The difficulty can be resolved. (Passive)
Modal Verbs (Present Perfect)
Active voice:
Subject + modal verb + have + Verb3
The Passive:
Subject + modal verb + have + been + Verb3
Example:
The tiger might have killed her. (Active)
She might have been killed by the tiger. (Passive)
Direct speech means what the people actually say. It consists of two parts, the introducing part and the reporting part.
Reporting part-is always placed with in either inverted commas or quotation marks. It is this reporting part we need to report.
In order to report any kind of a sentence or clause, a few points are to be kept in mind.
1. The reporting part, whether it belongs to statement, interrogative imperative or exclamatory sentences, takes the s+ v+ o form when reported.
2. It is the introducing part which comes outside the quotation marks that decides to what kind of a sentence we have to report Hence should be specified whether somebody said/told/asked/wanted ordered/requested/exclaimed etc.
3. There should not be any quotation marks or inverted commas in the reported sentences.
4. Statements in the indirect speech are generally introduced by the conjunction that.
Change of words in the reported speech.
Direct
| Reported
|
Now
| Then
|
Thus
| That
|
Before | Ago |
These
| Those
|
Hither
| Thither
|
Here | There |
Hence | Thence
|
Today | That day
|
Tomorrow | The next day/the day after/the following day/the coming day
|
Yesterday | The last day/the day before/the previous day!
|
Day after tomorrow Day before yesterday | Two days after Two days before |
When the reporting or principal verb is in the past tense, all present tenses of the direct are changed into the corresponding past tenses.
A) simple present becomes a simple past Direct Indirect
He said, "I am unwell"
He said that he was unwell.
b) A present continuous becomes past continuous
He said, "My master is writing letters"
He said that his master was writing letter
c) A present perfect becomes a past perfect
He said, "I have passed the examination"
He said that he had passed the examination
The ‘still’ of the Future tense is changed into ‘should’
The ‘will’ of the Future tense is changed into would or ‘should’
As a rule, the simple past in the desert becomes the past perfect in the reported or indirect speech
He said, "The horse died in the night.”
He said that the horse had died in the night.
In Direct speech, if the simple present is used as the report verb, to express universal truths, habitual actions and the things that do not change while reporting, the verb in reported speech does not change.
“The sun rises in the east”, the teacher said.
The teacher said that the sun rises in the east
In this case we can often choose whether to keep the original tenses or change them
"I know her address", said Gopi.
Gopi said he knows/knew her address.
The teacher said, “The earth goes around the sun".
The teacher said that the earth goes/went around the sun.
"German is easy to learn", she said.
She said German is/was easy to learn.
If the reporting verb is in the present tense, the tense of the direct speech do not change.
He says "I have passed the examination"
He says he has passed the examination
The pronouns of the Direct speech are changed, where necessary so that their relations with the reporter and his hearer rather than with the original speaker are indicated.
He said to me, "I don't believe you".
He said that he didn't believe me.
Usual Tense Changes in the Reported Speech.
Direct | Indirect |
Does, do | Did
|
Is/am /are+ing form | Was/were+ing form |
Have/has+3rd form
| Had+3rd form
|
Did | Had+3rd form
|
Was+were+ing form | Had+been+ing form |
Had+3rd form
| Had+3rd form
|
Had+been+ing form | Had+been+ing form |
Will/shall+1st form (plural)
| Would +1st form (plural)
|
Will/shall+be
| Would+be+ing form |
Will/shall+have+3rd form
| Would+have+3d form
|
Will/shall+have+been +ing form
| Would+have+been +ing form
|
Can | Could |
May | Might |
Could/would/should/might
| Could/would/should/ might+have+3rd form |
Ought must
| Ought/must+ have +3rd form
|
Reporting verbs, generally use to record statements, are 'say' and tell.
‘Tell’ can be used in a statement when the speaker and the addresser are clearly mentioned. In the other cases if the addresser is not mentioned say' or 'said' can be used according to the situation Besides 'say and tell there are few other reporting verbs with which a statement may be reported as they are remark 6bserve, suggest, insist, add, reply, answer, declare, assure, warn, confess, protest, deny, point out, plead, remind, repeat,explain, etc
Questions (Interrogative sentences):
1. The introduced verb is changed to asked, enquired, demanded, etc.
2. If or whether is used after such introductory verb whenever the direct question admits of one of two answers yes or no.
3. The pattern of an interrogative sentence is verb + Subject + Object
4. The note of interrogation (?) which is placed after question in the direct form is not placed after questions in the indirect form.
E.g.:
He said to me, "Do you know the way?
He inquired of me if I know the way.
5. When the question is introduced by an interrogative word the connecting word should be the same interrogative word.
The teacher said to me, "What are you doing?"
The teacher asked me what I was doing.
Auxiliary verb →connecting word → if/whether
Interrogative word→ connecting word → Same Interrogative Word.
v+s+o→s+v +o
Some examples:
He said, "Will you listen to such a man?"
He asked him whether he would listen to such a man.
Jack said, "May I have a cake?"
Jack asked if he might have a cake.
Commands and Requests (Imperative Sentences):
The form of an imperative sentence is understood subject + Verb +ect.
E.g.: Bring your suitcase,
Here, bring is the plain infinitive. So, when it is reported we should change the plain infinitive verb into 'to' infinitive.
To' is the connecting word to report imperative sentences
The introductory verb is changed into request, beg, implore, entreat order, command, advise, threaten, shout, etc.
E.g. Rama said to Arjun "Go away"
Rama ordered Arjun to go away.
He said to me "Give me your pencil".
He requested / asked me to give him my pencil
Exclamations and Wishes (Exclamatory Sentences):
1 The form of an exclamatory sentence is exclamatory sense + subject + verb + (Object)
2 To report such exclamations and wishes the connecting word should be that. It should be reported by words like exclaimed, applauded wished, declared, prayed, cried out, blessed with such phrases as with regret, with delight or joy, with sorrow, where necessary.
3. The Interjections and Exclamations such as oh, well, 'hurrah', alas bravo', 'curse it', 'how what should be omitted in the reporting form, and their sense is expressed by means of phrases.
4. The exclamation mark should be omitted in the reporting form.
Eg: "What a terrible storm it is!" he said
He exclaimed that it was a terrible storm.
Alice said, "How beautiful the night is!"
Alice exclaimed that the night was very beautiful.
Reporting an exclamation is usually best achieved by a circumlocution reflecting the spirit of the original exclamation.
Exclamations are not often reported in the spoken English. Some exclamatory forms are really questioning or imperative.
Some examples:
He said, "Alas! How foolish I have been".
He confessed with regret that he had been very foolish.
He said, "Good-bye friends"
He bade goodbye to his friends.
They said, "Hurrah! We have won the match!"
He exclaimed with delight that they had won the match.
Conditional sentences are statements that describe known factors or hypothetical situations and their consequences. Complete conditional sentences contain a conditional clause (often stated as the if-clause) and the supporting consequence. They are employed to express that the action within the independent clause (without if) can only occur if a particular condition (in the clause with if) is fulfilled. Conditional Sentences also are referred to as Conditional Clauses or If Clauses. Consider the following sentences:
- If a particular condition is met, then a specific result occurs.
- I would like to go on a backpacking trip to Europe if I won the lottery.
- When metal reaches a particular temperature, it melts.
There are four classifications of conditional sentences in English. Each expresses a distinct degree of probability that a situation will occur or would have occurred under certain circumstances.
Zero Conditional Sentences
Zero conditional sentences express general truths—situations within which one thing always causes another. When you use a zero conditional, you’re talking about a general truth instead of a particular instance of something. When using the zero conditional, the proper tense to use in both clauses is the simple present tense. Consider the following examples:
- If you don’t brush your teeth, you get cavities.
- When people smoke cigarettes, their health suffers.
'If' and 'when' can be used interchangeably in zero conditional sentences
First Conditional Sentences
First conditional sentences are employed to express situations within which the result is probably going (but not guaranteed) to happen in the future. Simple present tense is used in the if-clause and simple future tense is used in the main clause—that is, the clause that expresses the outcome. First Conditional indicates that under a certain condition (as expressed in the if-clause) a result will likely happen in the future. Consider the following example:
- If you rest, you will feel better.
- If you set your mind to a goal, you’ll eventually achieve it.
Second Conditional Sentences
Second conditional sentences are useful for expressing outcomes that are completely unrealistic or won't likely the proper method to structure second conditional sentences is to utilize the simple past tense in the if-clause and an auxiliary modal verb (e.g., could, should, would, might) in the independent or main clause that may happen in the future. Consider the following instances:
- If I inherited a billion dollars, i might visit the moon.
- If I owned a zoo, i'd let people interact with the animals more.
Third Conditional Sentences
Third conditional sentences are utilized to describe that present circumstances would differ if something different had happened in the past. These sentences express a condition that was likely enough, but failed to actually happen in the past. When using the third conditional the past perfect (i.e., had + past participle) must be used in the if-clause. The modal auxiliary (would, could, should, etc.) + have + past participle in the main clause expresses the theoretical situation that could have taken place. Below are some examples:
- If you had told me you needed a ride, I would have left earlier.
- If I had cleaned the house, I could have gone to the theatre.
A verb is a word that expresses the state of being or work being done by the subject. There are main verbs and there are also helping verbs known as auxiliary verbs. Verbs can also be used to express tense.
Ex – She vanished in the darkness.
Auxiliary Verbs
Auxiliary verbs, also known as helping verbs because they help in the formation of tenses, mood and voices of other verbs. Auxiliary verbs therefore, add functional or grammatical meaning to the clause in which they appear. 'To be', 'to do' and 'to have' are the most commonly used auxiliary verbs. For example: the auxiliary 'to do' is needed to ask questions in the present and past simple tenses.. The auxiliary 'to have' is used in the present and past perfect tenses. Some tenses such as the present perfect continuous, consist of more than one auxiliary verbs.
Below are examples of some commonly used auxiliary verbs:
Do you like German food?
Does your mother speak English?
Did you come to school yesterday?
Why are you talking? You should be listening to me!
I was having a bath when you called!
A new annex is being built behind the school.
Have you done your homework?
My father has never visited the USA.
How long have you been living in Germany?
By this time next year, I willhavebeen learning French for 15 years!
Using Primary Auxiliaries
1. Be
The forms of “be” are:
- Present tense: is, am, are
- Past tense: was, were
- Past participle: been
i) To form continuous tense:
He is reading a book.
we were reading a book.
He has been reading a book.
Ii) For passive voice:
The work is done.
The work is being done.
Iii) To express a previous plan or agreement:
You were to visit the doctor.
I am to go to Meerut.
Iv) To express a command:
You are to get the work done by tonight.
The plumber is to repair the pipeline tomorrow.
v) To express feelings, age, size, weight, price, time etc.:
Today is a warm day.
I am not happy.
My weight is 50 kgs.
2. Have
The forms of “have” are:
- Present tense: has, have
- Past tense: had
- Past participle: had
i) To form perfect tense:
He has read the book.
We had done our household chores.
Ii) To form passive voice:
The work has been done.
The room had been cleaned.
Iii) To express a compulsion:
He had to go.
You have to obey the law.
Iv) To express a job got to be done:
I have my room cleaned every week.
She has bread and butter for breakfast.
v) To express the consumption of food, drinks, events etc.
I have tea in the morning.
He had the party at his house.
You have a test tomorrow.
3. Do
The forms of “do” are:
- Present tense: do
- Past tense: did
- Past participle: done
i) In additions to avoid repetition of verbs:
He likes to read and so do I.
You liked to dance and so did she.
Ii) In question tags and short answers:
You liked the film; didn’t you?
Yes, I did.
Iii) To form interrogative and negative forms of present and past indefinite tenses and imperatives:
Do not lean over the fence.
He does not work. Does he?
Iv) To stress some action in the present and past indefinite tenses and in imperatives:
I do go to the class every day.
I did the work daily.
Do finish the work for me.
Modal Auxiliary Verbs
Auxiliary verbs also consist of another set of verbs called modal verbs or modal auxiliary verbs. These verbs combine with other verbs to describe necessity, possibility, intention, or ability. Modal auxiliary verbs include - must, shall, will, should, would, ought (to), can, could, may, and might.
You must act promptly.
Can you speak Spanish?
I would go if I could afford it.
He said he might reconsider his decision.
I ought to visit my family.
We should get to London before midday.
May I come in?
Use of Modal Verbs
Below are some commonly used modal verbs
1. Can and Could
‘Can’ defines ability: I can run to the hotel.
It also indicates permission: You can go to the party tonight.
‘Could’ is used for a request: Could I go to the party tonight?
It is used as the past tense of can in indirect speech: You said you could help me.
Could is also utilised to indicate an ability in the past; He could dance well when I last met him.
2. May and Might
May is typically used to acquire permission: May I come in?
It may also be employed to express a wish: May you have a good life ahead.
'May' can also be used to express possibility: There may be some hope.
‘May’ points out a weak possibility whereas ‘might’ points out an even weaker possibility: I may come today. OR She might come tomorrow.
3. Shall, Should, Will, Would
i) Shall is used in the first person and will in the second and third person:
I shall not come today.
You will work for me.
He will not listen to you.
Ii) We can also use shall in second or third person to express a threat, command or a promise:
You shall be awarded suitably.
He shall never show up here again.
Iii) Shall can also be used in the first person to indicate an offer or suggestion:
Shall I accompany you?
Iv) Will is used to express a decision:
I will not come today.
v) It may also be used to indicate a habit:
He will drink a cup of coffee as usual.
Vi) We can also use will for an invitation:
Will you attend my cousin’s wedding?
Vii) In clauses that start with if, ‘should’ is used to express a probable event:
If it should rain, the match will be called off.
4. Must and Ought
‘Must’ is a modal verb that is typically used to express necessity: You must come tonight.
It may also be used to express fixed determination: I must have an opportunity to do what I wish.
Ought can express certainty: We ought to win this.
5. Used
The modal verb 'used' can indicate a discontinued habit: I used to go to the gym every evening.
6. Need
‘Need’ can be used to denote certainty: We need to win this.
We can also use need to denote requirement: I need you to stay.
7. Dare
Dare is a modal verb that generally indicates strong ability or being bold enough: How dare you argue with me?
We can also use dare to strike a challenge: I dare you to cross the bridge in 30 seconds.
Conjunctions are known as connective or linking words. They join thoughts, actions and ideas, as well as clauses and phrases. Each of the three different types of conjunctions joins different parts of a sentence together.In simple terms, linking words or conjunctions are used to link words, phrases or sentences. They help the reader to progress from one idea expressed by the writer, to another idea in the same vein. Therefore, transition words and linkers are important as they help the reader to establish coherent relationships within the text.
Linking words can typically be found at the start of a new sentence or clause followed by a comma, thereby defining how the clause or sentence relates to the previous one. Linguists often emphasize that there is a lack of reliable data to establish a clear correlation between these variables. However, it has been debated that a relationship does exist. Linking words may also be found in the middle of a clause or sentence. To convey the intended meaning, it’s important to place them correctly in a passage.
Transition words and linkers perform a vital function in writing. They act as signals which allow the reader to understand the direction the writer is taking. They facilitate this by connecting or linking ideas or concepts within a paragraph and providing a bridge between passages. While reading, it is essential to remember to proofread the text in order to make sure transitions are used effectively.
Conjunctions can be divided into 3 main types. They are as follows:
Coordinating Conjunctions
Coordinating conjunctions like "and," "nor," or "so" link equal parts of a sentence, be it words, phrases, or independent clauses. For example:
- He was late for school, so he took a shortcut.
- Her favourite colours were purple and red.
- She doesn't like coffee, nor does she like tea.
Subordinating Conjunctions
Subordinating conjunctions such as "because", "since" and "after" link a dependent clause to an independent clause, helping to show the relationship between the two clauses and emphasize the main idea of the freestanding/independent clause. For example:
- Because it was raining, we had to cancel the class picnic.
- The house was a mess after the crazy party we had last night.
- He doesn't go skiing any more, since he had the accident.
Correlative Conjunctions
Correlative conjunctions work in pairs to join together words or phrases that have equal importance within a sentence, like "either/or", "such/that" and "not only/but also". For example:
- You can have either chocolate or vanilla ice cream.
- He not only plays the guitar but also the drums.
- Such was his strength that he was easily able to move the fallen tree.
Below are examples of commonly used linking words and their functions:
To show addition:
Additionally
Again
Also
And,
Another
Besides
Finally
First, second, etc.
Further
Furthermore
Incidentally
Lastly
Likewise
Moreover
Next
Nor
Too
Along with
As well
Equally important
For example
For instance
In addition
What’s more
To show temporality:
About
After
Afterward
At
Before
Currently
During
Eventually
Finally
First, etc.
Following
Formerly
Immediately
Later
Meanwhile
Next
Next week
Previously
Soon
Subsequently
Then
Thereafter
Till
Today, etc.
Until
When
After a few hours
As soon as
In the future
Soon after
To show location:
Above
Across
Adjacent
Against
Along
Among
Along
Among
Around
Behind
Below
Beneath
Beside
Between
Beyond
By
Down
Inside
Into
Here
Near
Nearby
Off
Onto
Outside
Over
There
Throughout
Under
Away from
At the side
In the back
In back of
In the background,
In the distance
In the front
In the foreground
On top of
To the right
To show comparison:
Also
As
Like
Likewise
Meanwhile
Similarly
Simultaneously
After all
At the same time
By and large
In comparison
In the same way
In the same manner
In the same way
To show contrast:
Although
But
Conversely
However
Nevertheless
Nonetheless
Notwithstanding
Otherwise
Still
True
Yet
Although this is
And yet
Even though
For all that
In contrast
On the contrary
On the other hand
While this is true
To emphasize a point:
Again
Obviously
Truly
Undoubtedly
As a matter of
Fact
For this reason
In fact
To emphasize
To repeat
To give examples:
Namely
Specifically
As an illustration
For example
For instance
To demonstrate
To illustrate
To introduce as a result:
Accordingly
Consequently
So
Therefore
Thus
As a result
Due to this
To introduce conclusions:
Accordingly
Consequently
Finally
Hence
So
Therefore
Thus
As a result
In brief
In conclusion
In short
In summary
On the whole
To conclude
To summarize:
Finally, by and large
In brief
In conclusion
In summary
On the whole
Summing up
To conclude
