Unit – 1

Vocabulary Building

1.1.       Root Words from Foreign Languages and Their Use in English

English is part of the German branch of the family of Indo-European language, so why is it so influenced in Latin and Greek? Although the origin of the English languages ​​was introduced in England at the beginning of the 5th century by people from Denmark and Germany, the language was not entirely different from what we speak today.

When the Normans, a number of French Catholics, invaded the British islands in 1066, they came with their two languages: Latin and French. Because they were a ruling party long after the invasion, English became the language of the weak, effectively forcing English speakers to accept Latin and French words in their own language to match. Since the Renaissance began, nearly 500 years later, many Latin words, as well as those of the Greeks, were included to make English a more '' learned 'language because of the Renaissance's emphasis on classics.

• Abacus:
  Abacus is derived from the Greek word - abax, meaning "sand tray."
   
• Allegory:
  Allegory is derived from Greek - allos meaning "other" and agora meaning gathering place (especially the market). Eventually words join and are linked to the verb to speak of one thing and another to mean another.
   
• Apricot:
  The term comes from the French -  abricot - and it was a bit confusing until the fifteenth century - it does not have a single simple etymology, but rather a mixture of many theories under consideration. But all these roads lead to Rome, from where that name - and fruit - began to spread throughout Europe.
   
• Addictive:
  Slaves agreed to allow Roman soldiers to pay for a concert in battle they were considered addicted to. Finally, a person who was addicted to anything called addiction.
   
• Alarm:
  From Italian, "All'arme" - "To arms!"
   
• Alcohol:
  Alcohol is taken from an Arabic al-kuhl, which has meant that there is a very good antimony powder used for eye makeup. It voiced the idea of ​​something so elegant and smooth, so the Arabic alchemists give the name of al-khul which brings in any insubstantial powder obtained by slow release (a direct conversion of a solid base into a vapor, or process of return), and thus for all computers available through the sanitization process.
   
• Algebra:
  The name means "the science of equations" in English comes from an article by one of al-Khowarizmi's (see "algorithm"), "Ab his AL-JAHR w'almuqaBAlah", meaning, "The Science of Transportation and Sanitation/ Cancellation."
   
• Algorithm:
  The name means "rules of computing" in English, which is based on al-Khowarizmi (Try saying it soon), an Arabic mathematician who lives around A.D. 825 who completed the best known numerical work using Arabic numerals.
   
• Appendix:
  In Latin it means "the hanging part." The human supplement hangs at the end of a large stomach; appendices given at the end of the book.
   
• Assassin:
  Assassin from the old Arabic word "hashshshin," means "person who loves hash," that is, marijuana. Earlier it was referring to a group of heroes who would smoke before the war.
   
• Asthma:
  Latin for asthma, "asthma," meaning "asthma" and "hypertension." The Latin word is derived from the Greek that feels the same.
   
• Avocado:
  Avocado from "awaguatl," the original American testicle name. The Spaniards got the word and used to refer to what we now call avocado.
   
• Ballot:
  Ballot, an Italian word meaning "small ball or pebble or stone." Italian citizens voted by placing a small stone or ball in one of the many boxes.
   
• Barbarian:
  Barbarian from "barbaroi" in Greek, meaning "babblers”.
   
• Bead:
  Bead from the Old English "gebed," which means, "prayer."
   
• Beserk:
  Beserk mainly comes from the Old Icelandic "berserkr," meaning "bear shirt."
   
• Biscuit:
  Biscuit from mediaeval French 'Bis + cuit' which means 'double cooked'
   
• Boulevard:
  Boulevard from (French) Boulevard; and Bulwark
   
• Bucolic:
  From the Greek "boukolos," meaning "shepherd," from "bous," meaning "ox."
   
• Bulimia:
  Bulimia comes from the Greek "bous" meaning "ox" and "limos," which means "starvation," probably because a person with Bulimia is hungry for beef.
   
• Cab:
  Old Italian terminology for goat (cabra in Spanish).
   
• Calculate:
  The calculation comes from calculus, the Latin word pebble.
   
• Canter: (Spanish) Singing
  From the Latin "Cantare," which means, "to sing often." Latin "Canere" simply means "to sing."
   
• Carnival:
  Literal meaning: "Flesh, farewell." The end of "val" does not appear in the Latin "Vale." The modern Italian carnevale comes from the Old Italian "carnelevare"; levare = raise, place, remove. ) where people used to fast.
   
• Catharsis:
  In Early Modern English, it is used in the sense of "cleaning." The concept of this name was still used as recently as 1803.
   
• Candidate:
  From the Latin Candidus a word that means, "bright, shining, white, white." The ancient Roman members who were elected to this position wore bright white hats. The same name also spelled out the "firm", who are often not elected.
   
• Casarse: (Spanish, to marry)
  From "casa," which means "house"; so is the English phrase, "to wrap."
   
• Cell:
  Originally meant a monastery. It was Robert Hooke, who invented the first telescope. His first guess was the cork stem, which was made up of small columns. To him, the tiny fractions were like the little monasteries in which they lived, known as cells. Therefore, he called these microscopic building blocks "cells".
   
• Chapel:
  From the Cape "Italian" Capella, since the original Chapel was where the cape ("capella") of the St. Martin of Tour was kept.
   
• Vulture and Chasm:
  From the Greek "chainein," which means, "to soften"; So chaos was "just the beginning of the abyss" without the known universe we know.
   
• Champion; and Campus:
  Check out Kampf
   
• Charlatan: 
  From the Spanish "charlar” for discussion /to chat.
   
• Cheers:
  From the Greek "Kara" for "face," with Latin "Cara," and the French French "Chiere". So "Take courage," it means, "Put on a happy face."
   
• Chocolate:
  It comes from the Spanish word for the same name, which came from the Nahuatl word (Aztecs language) "tchocoatl."
   
• Cider:
  It comes from the Greek Greek sycamore, which came from an ancient Hebrew shekel, which means "any alcoholic beverage other than wine made to ferment fruit juice."
   
• Claim:
  From the Latin "clamor", which is a judicial or public appeal raised on the discovery of sin.
   
• Conejo: (Spain) Rabbit
  This Spanish word, meaning "rabbit," comes from the Latin word cuniculus, itself, which was taken in a letter from a previous Iberian name - according to Pliny the Elder - referring to both the animal and the scroll - and, by extension, any basement or trench. For its part, the name rabbit is a Flemish origin, and was originally used for small animals. The word used to refer to an old animal - in Flemish and Old English - was "cony" or "coney," which is derived from the cuniculus.
   
• Coward:
  From Old French "coe" which means "tail." The OED adds, "The exact indication of the tail is uncertain: it may be an animal that 'turns tail' on a plane, or a practice in frightened animals to draw the tail between the hind legs: cf. The use of Heraldic in theory B 2. It is noteworthy that in the Old French version of Reynard the Fox , Coart is the name of a hare: this may be a descriptive adjective with regard to its zeal; it is closed, and that the word is then transferred to 'the heart of a hare.'
   
• Companion: Compañero (Spanish); Copain (French) Partner
  From the Latin "Companionem," which was, "breadwinner" - "Con" (also) and "Pan" (bread) - your "partner" may have been someone to break bread with. "Look again to the Lord and take care of it.
   
• Cravate (French); Krawatte (German); Corbata (Spanish) Tie:
  The names "Krawatte" (German), "cravate" (French) and "corbata" (Spanish), which all mean "human" tie, first appeared in the Napoleonic Wars when French troops entered the Crotia region, which, at that time, were part of the Holy Roman Empire. Evidently the Croatians were so capable of removing the German Habsburg yoke that they showed the victorious French troops a bouquet of flowers and ran to them and bound the scarlet threads in their uniforms as a gesture of goodwill. From them the name "Croat" or its variants appear to be attached to certain parts of Continental Europe.
   
• Cretin:
  From the French "Crétin", which originally meant "Christian."
   
• The cup:
  See Kopf
   
• Currant:
  From the Corinthians
   
• Curfew:
  From the French "couvrir feu," literally, "Cover the Fire."
   
• Daisy:
  From "Eye of the Day." George Eddington writes, "Not special in itself, but Mata Hari also means" Eye of the day, "the young woman took the name because she lived in the Dutch East Indies and heard the natives so much in the sun. "
   
• Debonair:
  French "good spirit." In the Middle Ages, people's lives were judged in part by the way they smiled. The person giving out “a good spirit” was viewed as a healthier and happier person.
   
• Deer:
  From the Old English "deor," which means "animal."
   
• Demon: (German and English)
  From the Greek "Daimon" this supernatural force is somewhere between humans and gods, without undesirable touch. An example would be the daimon of Socrates. The daimonans had a genius that did not conform to our modern ideas of good or evil: it was a natural force that could give clues about the circumstances and the critical actions.
   
• Denim:
  The heavy cloth used for jeans was originally made in Nimes, France, as well as in Genoa, Italy (see jean). It was renamed Serge di Nimes - later reduced to di Nimes, which became denim.
   
• Derive:
  From the Latin "De Rivus," "From the broadcast."
   
• Deutsch: (German by German)
  "Deutsch" comes from the Old German word "diutisc" which means "human language" (as opposed to Latin). There are uncertain hints of the "Germanic" origins as the Celtic "Angry Men" or Old High German "Greedy Men"!
   
• Dexterity:
  From the Latin "dexter," meaning "right" (in the left sense).
   
• Dibbs:
  It is suggested that this phrase is based on an old children's play called dibstones. The game, which was played with sheep knuckle-bones or gemstones, dates back to at least the 17th century (that's right, that's when the name started being written). The goal was to catch his opponent's stones, and when a stone was hit, the winner would call "Dibbs!" with the meaning "I want [stone]". It was recently used out of the game but with the same meaning, and there you have it. Interestingly, the use of this outside of the game was not recorded until 1932 in the US. (Lee Quinn)
   
• Elite:
  From the Latin Latin, which means "to choose," from which we find a modern Spanish word that means the same, elegir.
   
• Escape:
  In Latin, escape means "out of the cape." The ancient Romans often avoided arresting the runaway population.
   
• Essay:
  The English noun phrase comes from the French verb "story", to try. The earliest scholars believed that their papers were a modest attempt to present their papers.
   
• Exchequer:
  The Moors introduced Abacus in Europe to expand the Europeans, and monks distributed the device throughout Europe. In Britain, it was used but in its simplicity: they used a checkbox and letters such as checks (instead of using standard rods and beads) - and this gave the British version an "exchequer" to the "Chancellor" of the Exchequer.
   
• Faro: (Spanish) Lighthouse
  An ancient island from Egypt, the Paroah Island, had a lighthouse.
   
• Feo: (Spanish) Ugly
  From the Latin "Foedus," "disgusting."
   
• Forest:
  From the same French meaning, Forest comes directly from the Latin realm, meaning "outdoors," and took the concept of a place restricted or protected by an obstacle. The concept will later outline the legal barriers around areas reserved for royal hunting (as well as logging). Unfortunately, the English foreign word is taken in parallel, indicating a foreigner outside the royal realm, beyond the borders.
   
• Fowl:
  From the English "fugol," which means "bird."
   
• Freedom:
  This comes in German (a literal, modern translation, "Freiheit"), but is actually very close to taking the German word "Friede", which means "quiet"
   
• Fromage (French); Status (Medieval French); Formaggio cheese (Italian)
  From the Latin word for basket or wooden box where curds were cut to form cheese, forma, itself derived from the Greek word phormos (This is where the English word "form" comes from). According to them, the English word cheese, the Spanish word queso and the German word Kaese all come from the Latin word cortus, food too.
   
• Gohen :(Germany) To go
  From the beginning it means, "emptiness"
   
• Genuine:
  It originally meant "put on his knees." In Old Rome, a father formally admitted that his new child by sitting in front of his family put his son on his knees.
   
• Gewissen:  (German) Conscience
  From "wissen" (to know), where we get the word, "wissenschaft" - science.
   
• Gift:
  From the Old English as "gift," which means, "to pay one's wife" for one meaning "marriage" in the plural. The Middle Dutch "gift", now labeled "gif," meant the same, but today it means "poison." Old High German "gift" turned into "poison". From the root "geb-", from which the English word "give." There is another German word, however, which includes the word "gift", but which retains the old meaning of "paying a wife". The name "Mitgift", which is a modern German word for "dowry".
   
• Gin; Ginebra (Spanish); Genievre (French):
  The English word "gin" comes from the French word genievre, meaning "juniper," a berry name that gives gin its unique, spicy flavor. Unfortunately, the word "juniper" comes from the Celtic word jenupus, which means "spicy." One final note: the name of the western city of Geneva and comes from the same source. Evidently, the countryside around Geneva was initially littered with juniper forests.
   
• Gorilla:
  New Latin from the Greek Gorillai, a tribe of hairy women, probably of African descent.
   
• Groggy:
  It comes from the description that many British sailors face when they are going to drink a lot of "grog", a mixture of rum and water. Grog is said to have taken the nickname "Old Grog" given to British Admiral Vernon by his sailors; much like Lord Mountbatten later, he was in the process of wearing a sort of heavy grogram coat, a soft weather cloth (the name comes from French gros-grain). Sailors began to use his nickname in an amusing way in their rum fragments, after he ordered in 1740 to be purified by water.
   
• Guapo :(Spanish) Handsome
  Guapo, and Chulo ("cool"), both originally had the meaning of "scoundrel", claiming to be "good-looking" perhaps in the form of "heroes." The despicable "Wop" comes from "guapo", in the form of the Italian language "guappo".
   
• Gymnasium:
  The Greek of the place where you train is naked.
   
• Hablar :(Spanish) To Speak
  From the Latin "Fabulare," which means, "to speak fairy tales."
   
• Hazard:
  The word came from Arabic "al zahr", which means "dice" and was used by people in Western Europe to name each of the various dice games they learned while in the Holy of Holies during the Crusades. The name eventually caught the attention of the danger, because from the very beginning, dice games were associated with gambling and cartoonists using corrupted dice.
   
• Heresy:
  The Greek is "Choice."
   
• Hierarchy:
  Previously it was the separation of angels from different periods into different stages.
   
• Home:
  From the old English "hum," which also comes with the words, such as Nottingham.
   
• Host, Hospital, Hostel, Hospitality, hospice:
  From the Latin for "nurses, patients," which means, "one who receives stacks in his home." In English, "Host" also means "edible bread eaten at the Hospital"; so the link between friendship and bread is also noteworthy; see Partner with the King.
   
• Husband:
  It comes from the old German words hus and bunda, meaning "house" and "owner," respectively. The word originally had little to do with marital status, except that the fact that home ownership made husbands more desirable to date.
   
• Idea, ideal, Idol:
  Everything from the Greek word "idein" to "seeing"; you see Sanskrit "vid" (knowing) and Latin "videre" (seeing) and English "intelligent." The W / V sound from the Indo-European root is lost in ancient Greek.
   
• Incentive:
  From the Latin word "delicate," meaning "to sing." The idea is "When playing music, one has to = dance."
   
• Jeans:
  Genoa - called "Gene" by the sixteenth-century Europeans - was the first city to make denim cloth (see Denim) used for jeans. The pants were named after the city.
   
• Kampf (German) Struggle:
  From the Latin "company" - of its fortress type, where Roman soldiers were driving soldiers - where we also call the English words, "camp," "compass" and "champion." So, when we talk about "college campus," there are subtle ways of fighting.
   
• Ketchup:
  The Chinese invented the ke-tsiap - a drawing of spiced fish and spices (but no tomatoes) - in the 1690s. By the early 1700's its popularity had spread to Malaysia, where British explorers first encountered it. By 1740 the sausage - called ketchup - was a peculiar English phenomenon, and was beginning to become popular in American colonies. Tomato ketchup was not invented until the 1790s, when colonies in New England began mixing tomatoes in sauces. It took a long time to add tomatoes to the sauces because, most 18. For a century, people thought they were poisonous, because tomatoes are a close relative of belladonna poisonous plants and nearby plants.
   
• Kike - a shameful, offensive name for a Jew:
  Initially it was developed by German Jews to use against Russian Jews. It comes from the "k" sound at the end of many Russian Jewish words, such as "Lewinsky" or "Lemcoff."
   
• Knave:
  Dropped from the old English word "cnafa" which simply means, "youth."
   
• Knight:
  From the Old English "cniht," which means "boy, servant."
   
• Kopf (in German) Head:
  From the Latin "cup", meaning "cup"; The Romans used the cup as a metaphor for the upper part of the head. Similarly, another Latin word meaning "cup," "testa," has now become the French word "Tête," meaning "head,". Note that the Germans and Celts use "skullcap" "on top of one's head") as a drinking container; this has been part of the recognition of enemy culture. So it has to do with "chief" and "capital" (and "testicle").
   
• Lettuce; and Leche (Spanish) Milk:
  Latin lettuce was "lactuca sativa," which means "milky sap"; so it has to do with the Spanish "leche" of milk and "lactic" and other derivatives.
   
• Liberty:
  The Latin words "Liber," "Libera," and "Liberum" - by Long I - came from a source meaning, "to pour." In this case, we get the word "Freedom" (which is why it's pronounced I) short, from the freedom we feel when we get drunk. See Library (unrelated).
   
• Library:
  From the Latin word, Liber - whose name is I - meaning "divination," which would call for the inner sound of a tree. The earliest manuscripts were written on these bins, and from this bark we find the modern name "Library." See Liberals (unrelated).
   
• Liebe (German) Love:
  From the Latin for the word "Libido," from the Latin "Libere" (for free, as in "Liberals").
   
• Light; and Licht (German) Light:
  It is related to the Latin "Luna," which means, "the moon." "Moonlight" is therefore something like tautology.
   
• Lindo (Spanish) Beautiful:
  Related to "limpid" and "legal."
   
• Lobster:
  From the Latin "locusta," which means "locusts." The OED adds, "The Latin word for origin. It means the same lobster or crustacean, the locust application is suggested by a similarity of position."
   
• Lord:
  It comes from the Anglo-Saxon "hlaford," named after "hlaf" and "weard," and then, "loaf-ward"; likewise, "Lady" comes from the Anglo-Saxon "hlaefdige," or "bread-maid." See also partner and host.
   
• Lucifer:
  Lucifer is Latin for "Light Bringer". The same Hebrew, Haleal, means "antagonist." The passage in Isaiah (the only place in the Old Testament that mentions Lucifer) uses the Hebrew word for the Morning Star (ie planet Venus). The verse refers to the Babylonian king excessively, saying that he regarded himself as God, just as the Morning Star is a shining light in the sky, but pearls in comparison to the sun.
   
• Lukewarm:
  Tautology; "luke" Means warm or lukewarm [from ME lew, yes, luke, lewk and OE hleowand h hrr = lukvuarm]
   
• Madera (Spanish) Wood:
  From Latin materia, from PIE * mater-, meaning "mother"
   
• Malaria:
  From the medieval Italy "mal" "(bad) and" aria "(wind), which describes miasma from areas around Rome during the summer months, which are believed to be the cause of the downfall.
   
• Mayonnaise:
  The suffix spoken is French for "native" or "from within." Mahonnaise is said to have been created to celebrate the victory of the French war of 1756 by defeating the British on the Spanish island of Port Mahon.
   
• Marcher (French) To Walk:
  The OED states, "The etymology of Fr. March is obscure; the passing idea is that the ancient engraving concept of 'tread' was based on the concept of hammer ', and that the name stands for Gaulish Latin * marcare, f. L. Marcus hammer. "
   
• Mark (German) The German unit of currency (pre-Euro):
  Originally meant "Borderland," from medieval German border towns - that's why the English word "Mark," as it stands, "mark the border." So, the German place names, Finland, Dänemark, Ostmark, etc. From Mark German, we also find the "marshal" of French as well as Spanish, Portuguese, Italian, and Catalan, "marca."
   
• Mistress:
  From the French "Maîtresse," which means "bride".
   
• Money:
  From the Latin word "moneta" which means "warning"
   
• Mound; and Monde (French),  Mundo (Spanish) World:
  From pre-Christian, the German word "mund" or protection, such as that given by a family or tribal leader to group members. This was also the name of the small garbage hills or "protection" used to bury deceased members of the nation. It is interesting to note that the name was introduced by the Germanic tribes (ie, Goths, Visigoths, Vandals, Alemani, Suevi) who invaded the Roman province of the late fifth century AD and where they derived the word "this monde" (in French) and "el mundo. "(Spanish) meaning" earth "(literally" mound of clay ").
   
• Muscle:
  From the Latin mus (mouse) and ele (dim.) - a small mouse that goes under the skin when flexed.
   
• Museum,  Mosaic:
  Both from the Greek Muse (the Latin museum for "The Place of the Muses"; the mosaic is from the Greek logoios, "related to the Muses")
   
• Mustard (Eng.) / Moutarde (Fr.) / Mostrich (N. Ger. Dialect) / Mostarda (It.) / Mostaza (Sp.):
  As a courtesy, mustard has been enjoyed for thousands of years. It is made from the crushed seeds of a member of the Cruciferae family known as Sinapis. Originally, crushed seeds were mixed with vinegar - much as we enjoy it today - but vinegar was eventually replaced for some time in the Middle Ages with grapes "must" (which is the result of the win-win process). So, the word "must" ard. The botanical name Sinapis introduced the French name of the plant itself, seneve, and the German name of the mustard, Senf.
   
• Nacht (German) Night:
  Originally it meant “Day,” as the ancient Germans, like the ancient Jews, measured daily from sunset to sunset. See also Tag.
   
• Nauseau, Navigate:
  Both from Proto-Indo-European * nau, meaning "boat"
   
• Nemesis:
  From the same Greek, it originally meant, "the act of distributing or distributing others" and later "wrath and vengeance, righteous indignation for breaking the law."
  Nemesis was the god that restored balance. It would have been a mass of shipowners to introduce the ship without sacrificing to the gods, for example, this destructive act could provoke a counter-reaction, as we saw with the Titanic. There was no judgment or divine punishment involved, simply a response from another world to the loss that occurred in this country.
   
• Nice:
  From the Latin word "nescius," which means "ignorance," and, at various times before the appointment of the present meaning means "foolish" then "foolishly accurate" and "precisely accurate" and "correctly accurate" and then our current definition.
   
• Noon:
  It is derived from the Latin noun. The word "afternoon" originally meant nine o'clock after sunrise, or 3:00 p.m .-- usually the hottest part of the day and time when most people in the Roman Empire skipped lunch.
   
• Nostril:
  From Old English "nosthryl," they came from the OE words "nosu" (meaning "nose") and "thryl" (meaning "pit").
   
• Occasion:
  From the Latin place, which means, "an accident, or a great event."
   
• October:
  From the Latin octu (m), meaning "eighty," and imber, meaning "rain." The same "Imber" in September.
   
• Office:
  It originally meant, "Church Server." (Note the country of origin of that name.)
   
• Ojalá (Spain) "I hope [that ...]":
  This word, which in Spanish means "I wish that" or "May God grant" comes from the old Arabic saying "To Sh Allah," which means "May Allah grant." In one of the great paradoxes is that people, who have been on the staircase for centuries, the Catholic frontlines have fought a battle to bring the Iberian Peninsula to Islamic Moors, to this day urge Allah each time to express a strong desire.
   
• Old; and Alt (German) Elder:
  "Alt" originally meant, "You've grown"; the "growth" role; related to "Alan," which means, "to grow" but is no longer available in modern German. In ancient English, the word "Alan" was also used in the same sense of growth or diet. Latin related "alt" which means "high."
   
• Omlette:
  Coming to English by using the French word for the same, the word is thought to come from the Latin word lamella, "small plate," referring to the longer, more omlette form, as well as to represent the gradual decomposition of allumelle first, then allumelette. Alomelette (The cuisinerfrancois of 1651 has aumelette). The modern name "omelette" first appears in the 1784 Chinese bourgeoise.
   
• Opportunity:
  From the Latin Ob-, meaning "in relation to," and portu (m), meaning "port."
   
• Orange (Eng.); Orange (Fr.); Naranja (Sp.); Arancia (It.):
  Interestingly, none of those terms come from the Latin word for orange, citrus aurentium; instead, all of them come from the traditional Sanskrit nagaranga, which accurately means "fatal indigestion for elephants." In certain traditions the orange, not the apple, is that the fruit liable for sin . There was an ancient Malay fable--which made its way into the Sanskrit tongue round the Seventh or Eighth Centuries B.C.--that links the orange to the sin of gluttony and has an elephant because the culprit. Apparently, at some point an elephant was passing through the forest, when he found a tree unknown to him during a clearing, bowed downward by its weight of lovely , tempting oranges; as a result, the elephant ate numerous that he burst. a few years later a person stumbled upon the scene and noticed the fossilized remains of the elephant with many orange trees growing from what had been its stomach. The person then exclaimed, "Amazing! What a nagaranga (fatal indigestion for elephants)!"
   
• Ostracize:
  "Ostron" may be a Greek word for pottery. Periodically the Greeks would hold an election to work out if someone was a danger to their community. Everyone would write their votes on broken pieces of pottery ("ostron") and if the vote was successful, the person was banished or "ostracized."
   
• Pagan:
  From the Latin paganu(m), for "someone who isn't from the town , rather from the country." In Late Latin , this became pagensis, "one who is from the country," and this utimately became the French pays and thus the Spanish País, both meaning "nation."
   
• Palaver:
  From the Spanish, "palabra," meaning, "word."
   
• Parlement (French) Parliament:
  From the French, "Parler," meaning, "to speak." Thus, we will not complain when our legislators do little aside from "speak."
   
• Parler (French) to talk :
  From the Latin "Parabolare," meaning, "to tell parables."
   
• Pavilion:
  Pavillion comes from the Latin "papilion-em," meaning, "butterfly." Pavillion meant a tent and therefore the allusion is to butterfly wings.
   
• Pay:
  Pay goes back ultimately to Latin, "pax" peace, by way of , appease, pacify. So "pay" originally meant "pay off," to stay the peace.
   
• Pedigree:
  From the French "Ped de gru," which suggests or meant, "Crane's foot," the /|\ symbol "used to denote succession during a genealogical table."
   
• Peach:
  When the peach first made its thanks to the Roman Empire from Persia, it had been called malum persicum, "Persian apple." The persicum then became pessicum, pessica and pesca (In modern Russian, it's still piersika.). The Italians have retained the term pesca, and it's become "peach" in English, peche in French, and Pfirsich in German. The Spanish differ from the remainder of Europe in calling it melocoton, literally "cotton-skinned apple"--from melum, "apple," and cotonium, meaning "quince" in Latin.
   
• Pecuniary:
  From the latin "pecunia," which originally meant, "wealth from livestock."
   
• Pearl:
  From from the Latin leg, because the bi-valve that produces pearls seems like a leg-of-mutton.
   
• Pineapple (Eng.); Piña (Sp.); Nana (Fr.); Ananas (Germ.):
  When Columbus landed in Guadeloupe in 1493, he found pineapples, which probably had originally come from Brazil. As Father de Acosta observed as early as 1589, the Spanish thought this new fruit resembled a pine cone; hence, the Spanish name of pinya, and therefore the English name of "pineapple" (the fruit was often just called a "pine" when it had been first introduced into Britain). The word nanais some of the Brazilian Guarani word meaning "perfumed" and was retained in both French and German.
   
• Pedestrian:
  Originally meant a lover (originally of Aristotle).
   
• Planet:
  From the Greek "Planasthai" for "to wander."
   
• Porcelain (French) Porcelaine:
  French porcelaine, from Old French pourcelaine, from Italian porcellana "of a sow," hence cowry shell, hence porcelain (from the resemblance of the cowry shell to the vulva of a sow), from porcella, diminutive of porca, sow, from Latin, feminine of porcus, swine.
   
• Potato (Eng.); Patata (Castilian Sp.); Papa (S. American Sp.); Cartoufle (16th.-cent. Fr.); Kartoffel (Germ.); Kartopfel (Russian; Pomme de terre (modern Fr.--"Earth apple"); Erdaepfel (Aust. Germ.--"Earth apple"):
  The South American Spanish term comes directly from the Incan word papa or bappa, which suggests "sweet potato." Apparently, the soldiers of the various Spanish expeditionary forces to America confused the potato with the sweet potato, as they began to use first the term bappa, then bappata (with the Spanish augmentative suffix -ata), to ask the whole Solanaceae (more than 100 differing types if you ask any Peruvian). It didn't take very long for bappata to become patata, which subsequently made its way into English as "potato." for his or her part, the French, German and Russian words stem from a mistake made by the Pope's botanist in 1588. Therein year, Pedro Cieca, an adjutant of Pizarro (the Spanish conqueror Peru), sent some potato tubers to the Spanish monarchs in 1588. They then gave them to the Pope, who had them examined by his botanist Clusius. Clusius planted the stems during a plot near the Vatican (the first potatoes planted in European soil). Not knowing what Latin name to offer his potatoes after they grew, he incorrectly categorized them as taratuflis, "little truffles." The Italian Pope, who had poor eyesight, then proceeded to read the word as tartufoli, which is that the source from which the word for potato in many European languages originated.
   
• Prom:
  From "promenade"
   
• Pseudo:
  From the Greek "Pseudos," meaning, "false."
   
• Queen:
  From the Gothic German "qino" then the Old English word "cwene" which was their common word for "woman." This gave rise to the early Middle English word "quean" which meant "woman," but was used as a "term of disparagement or abuse... a hussy, harlot" and used sometimes today to mean a male homosexual. Related to the modern Swedish word "kvinna," for woman.
   
• Regret:
  From the French "regretter," which originally meant, "lament over the dead."
   
• Reise (German) Travel:
  Related to, "rise."
   
• Rich:
  In Old French, "riche" meant "powerful"; it came to mean wealthy only by semantic extension. Originally from the German, Reich.
   
• Right:
  From the pre-Christian, Germanic term "riht", which was the sense of justice or balance that tribal elders attempted to achieve when determining the size of the "Bot." This is not to be confused with peace or "Friede," which could be achieved with differing amounts of "Bot" and was merely the cessation of fighting. "Riht" was that perfect amount of "Bot" that restored order within the universe and ensured the most long-lasting peace. (See the etymology of "Bot" at the end of the entry of freedom.)
   
• Robot:
  Robot comes from the Czech word "robot," which means "worker." In 1923, Karl Capek, a well-known, Czech, science-fiction writer at the time, wrote a futuristic thriller about a nightmarish scenario in which the machines have taken over (a la, the "Terminator") and implanted circuitry in humans to make them into mindless zombies willing to serve them as workers or "robots."
   
• Rodent:
  The word rodent comes from the Latin word rodere' meaning to gnaw (and "roedor" (rodent in spanish) is an animal who "roe" (gnaws) )
   
• Romance:
  The sense of "love" comes from the middle ages, when Latin was the language of the intellectuals but the languages of the people -- i.e., the Romance languages -- was the vulgar language love stories were written in.
   
• Rum:
  "Sugar wine" was not called rum until after 1688, and the word seems to have been an abbreviation of "rumbullion" or "rumbustion." The word may have been a term from the new pidgin English of Barbados and possibly derived from the distortion of a term in the Spanish dialect of Seville, combining Low Latin rheu, "stem," and bullion or bouillon, "boiling" (Similarly, "rhubarb" is a plant with edible stems originating from somewhere foreign--in other words, it is a "barbarous stem.").
   
• Saffron:
  The English word "saffron" comes from the Spanish word azafran, because it is in Spain where most of the world's highest quality crocus flowers (the plant whose stamens are the source of all saffron) are found. Azafran comes from the Arabic za'faran, meaning "yellow."
   
• Sanction:
  Originally meant, "imposition of penance." (Note the secularization of the term.)
   
• Salad; Salade (French); Ensalada (Spanish):
  This term first appeared within the Fifteenth Century because the Italian "zelada," a term meaning "salty," which was first applied to a dish that always appeared on festive tables in Milan. It had been actually a sort of ragout, very liquid and really salty (hence, its name), and it had been flavored with preserves, mustard and lemon and decorated with marzipan (Heinous!--editorial comment)(It was also served in cups, instead of directly on the most plate, a novelty at the time). The sauce for this soup-like dish, originally a hot one, came to incorporate various sorts of green stuff which had been pickled in vinegar or salt, then fresh cooked greens, or raw greens within the Roman manner. Finally, within the next century, the raw vegetables began to be sprinkled with oil and vinegar--also within the Roman manner--rather than being served with a spread of hot, broth-like sauces.
   
• Schlaf (German) Sleep:
  Originally meant, "the process of becoming tired"
   
• Scapegoat:
  The results of a mistranslation of the Old Testament by Tyndale in 1530. He mistakenly confused the Hebrew word "azazal," the name of a Caanonite demon, with "ez-ozel," meaning, "the goat the departs." Leviticus 16:8 discusses how goats should be sacrificed to God as a sin-offering, and another should tend to Azazel and let loose within the wilderness, for the sins of the people.
   
• Scream:
  From the Anglo-Saxon "hcream", which was the tribal outcry, during this case, that resulted from the invention of a wrongdoing.
   
• Scruples:
  From the Latin "Scrupulus," meaning "pebble."
   
• Search; Circus:
  From "Circus," which is from the Greek "Krikos" or "Kirkos," which was a hawk or falcon which flies in a circle , and later just a circle or ring.
   
• Senator:
  From the Latin "senex," meaning "old"; thus associated with "senile."
   
• Second:
  The OED says: Fr. Seconde, ad. Med.L. Secunda, fem. Of L. Secundus second a., used ellipt. For secundaminuta, lit. second minute', i.e. the results of the second operation of sexagesimal division; the results of the primary such operation (now called minute' simply) being the first' or prime minute' or prime'.
   
• Silly:
  From 1550 to 1675 was "very extensively" utilized in the sense of deserving of pity and compassion, helpless. It's a derivative of the center English "seely," from the German "selig," meaning happy, blissful, blessed, also as punctual, observant of season.
   
• Sinister:
  From the Latin "sinister" for "left." Hence, left is evil.
   
• Sherry; and Jerez (Spanish):
  The word "sherry" is known as after "Jerez" in Spain, but the way the name was pronounced in 1600. "X" was utilized in Spanish and remains utilized in Catalan, to represent an "sh" sound. When the "sh" sound changed to an aspirate "h" sound the Spanish Academy changed the spellings to "j"--but today the "j" is pronounced more gutterally (the "archaic 'j'" (x) vs. The 'modern 'j'" (j)). So we still spell it "Mexico" while the Spaniards (but not the Mexicans) spell it "Mejico." This shift had occurred by the time Cervantes wrote Don Quixote de La Mancha. It's interesting to notice that at just one occasion almost every Spanish word that you simply can consider which contains the letter "j" used "x" in situ of "j" (ie., "Xerez", "Xuan", "Ximena", "Mexico", "Quixote", "trouxemos" and "baixo" became "Jerez", "Juan", "Jimena", "Mejico", "trajimos" (we are bringing) and "bajo" (low; short; beneath), with "Quixote" remaining unchanged because it may be a proper name .).
   
• Slave:
  After large parts of Slavonia (the current Yugoslavian Federation province of Serbia, also as portions of surrounding countries) were subjugated by the Holy Roman Empire within the Middle Ages, a Slav became synonymous with someone who lived in servitude. Eventually Slav became slave.
   
• Sleazy:
  The Eastern European region of Silesia was known for its fine cloth. Eventually, numerous low-quality imitations aroused on the market that Silesian became sleazy.
   
• Slogan:
  from 2 Celtic words: "slaugh" and "gheun" which mean, respectively, "battle" and "cry".
   
• Soleil (French) and Solell (Catalan) Sun:
  From the Latin "Soliculus", meaning, "a little sun"; "sol" meant just "sun."
   
• Soup; Soupe (French); Sopa (Spanish); Zuppa (Italian):
  From the Old Low Latin term suppa, meaning "soaked [in water or another liquid]." the first sense of this word survives in just Dutch (soppen, "to soak") and English (sop, as in "sopping wet"). The Old Low Latin for "soaked" originally came into use to explain a well-liked dish, which consisted of a bit of bread soaked in water or another liquid then flavored with whatever was handy.
   
• Starve:
  From the Old English "steorfan," meaning "die." associated with the German for "die," "sterben."
   
• Spill:
  From the Old English "spillan," meaning, "destroy."
   
• Stool:
  From the Old English "stol," meaning "throne."
   
• Strawberry (Eng.); Fraise (Fr.); Fresa (Sp.)/ Fragola (It.); Erdbeer (Germ.--"earth berry"); Eper (Hung.):
  The fruit's name differs within the various European languages, although those names deriving from Latin still suggest the exquisite fragrance that caused the tiny , scented berry to be termed wild strawberry , "fragrant berry," in Latin. English "strawberry" refers to the layer of straw placed round the plants to stay the fruit off the soil, a very good idea in damp climates, like that typically found in Great Britain and Ireland.
   
• Suede:
  Gants de Suede is French for "gloves of Sweden." it had been in Sweden that the primary leather was buffed to a fine softness, and therefore the French bought the gants de Suede. Suede now refers to the buffing process--not to any particular quite leather.
   
• Sugar; Candy; Caramel:
  All come from the Greek saccharon and therefore the Roman saccharum, which are both distortions of the Sanskrit sarkara. Round the year 1000, after conquering an honest portion of the southern Mediterranean, the Arabs installed the primary "industrial" refinery on the island of Crete, which they renamed Qandi, which in Arabic means "crystallized sugar." this is often how the word "candy" made its way into English. Shortly thereafter, the Arabs also invented "caramel," which comes from the Arabic phrase kurat al milh and means "ball of sweet salt."
   
• Sweet:
  From an equivalent Indo-European root because the Latin "suavis."
   
• Sycophant:
  From the Greek "sykon," meaning "fig"; a sycophant was thus originally someone who makes figs appear. There are a couple of suggested etymologies: fig smuggling was illegal in ancient Greece, so a sycophant could are a telltale for a reward; or, it might be from the shaking of a fig-tree, which moved the figs from the hidden heights to the bottom where all could see it; or, it might be from "the sign of the fig," which is that the gesture of creating a fist with the thumb in-between the index and middle fingers, which represented female genitalia;--this gesture was wont to indicate an accusation of wrong-doing.
   
• Tag (German) Day:
  Originally meant, "The time during which the sun burns." See also, Nacht.
   
• Tarjeta (Spanish) Card:
  From the French "targette," for, "a little shield."
   
• Tennis:
  "Tennis," a sport which first developed in France, was originally "tenez" (pronounced tuh-nay) which is that the French verb "tenir" conjugated at the person of the plural as a polite imperative verb (translated during this case by something like "there you go"). They were saying "tenez" once they hit the ball so on say :"there, attempt to get this one". But tennis lost popularity in France and gained popularity in England at an equivalent time. So, English were still using the word "tenez" whenever they hit the ball, but saying it with English accent which sounded more like tennis, and which eventually took this new spelling. Then the game gained popularity world wide and got picked up by many languages, including French.
   
• Tete (French) Head:
  See Kopf
   
• Thermostat:
  "Therma" (hot) is from the Greek city of Therma, known for its hot springs.
   
• Thesis:
  From the Greek of an equivalent, meaning, "to put, place, set." From an equivalent Indo-European root as do, deed, doom, the -dom of kingdom and serfdom (etc.); fact, facility, the -fy of nullify and rectify (etc.).
   
• Threshold:
  "Threshold" originated within the middle ages when houses with stone floors were covered with threshings to stay the ground warm and to stop it from being slippery. As threshings were added during the winter, they might be scattered and thinned near the door, so people added a wooden board to carry the threshings in -- a threshold. The OED defines threshold originally as, "The piece of timber or stone which lies below rock bottom of a door, and has got to be crossed in entering a house; the sill of a doorway; hence, the doorway to a house or building.
   
• Tide and Time:
  See Zeit
   
• Tilde (The ~ mark in Spanish and Portuguese); Title:
  From the Spanish for an equivalent, an alteration of an obsolete Catalan title, which was from the Latin "titulus," meaning superscription -- from which we also get "title."
   
• Tomato (Eng.); Tomate (Sp.); Pomodoro (It.):
  The English and Spanish terms both stem from the Nahuatl (the language of the Aztecs) "tomatl," a vegetable (technically, a fruit) first introduced to Europe by the Spanish. For its part, the Italian term literally means pomo de oro, "golden apple." Incidentally, it had been first introduced into Italy by the Spaniards within the Sixteenth Century via Naples (not the island of Sicily, whose cuisine most heavily relies on tomato-based sauces). The rationale is that Naples was a Spanish possession during the reign of the Habsburg Emperor Charles V of Spain (I of Germany)(r. 1516-1556).
   
• Trabajar (Spanish); Travailler (French); Trabalhar (Portugues) Work:
  Travailler, trabajar and trabalhar all mean "to work" in French, Spanish and Portuguese, respectively. They originally came from the Latin word "tripullare" which was the three-sectioned whip that was employed by Roman soldiers to encourage conscripted laborers in those provinces of the Roman Empire (Gaul, Hispania and Lusitania) to figure harder, and thus was wont to mean "to torture." This occurred during the last two or three centuries of the Empire, when oftentimes naked aggression was deemed to be necessary to stop an entire meltdown of control within the West. Before this point the Latin term "laborar" was utilized in these provinces, which survives today in Italian as "lavorar" and in English as "to labor."
   
• Travel:
  From the French "travail," meaning, "work." Daniel Boorstin has argued that this happened because, at just one occasion, "traveling" entailed working: learning the language and native customs, etc. Boorstin contrasts this with "tourism" which doesn't entail any work on your (the tourist's) part.
   
• Trivia:
  The derivation of the word trivia comes from the Latin for "crossroads": "tri-" + "via", which suggests three streets. This is often because in past, at an intersection of three streeets in Rome (or another Italian place), they might have a kind of kiosk where ancillary information was listed. You would possibly have an interest in it, you would possibly not, hence they were bits of "trivia."
  From the Greek "tyrannos," for "usurper," without a necessary negative implication.
   
• Umpire:
  From French 'non partiere' (impartial, neutral). The first word was nunpire, but morphed from "a nunpire" to "an umpire". Approximately I've heard.
   
• Utopia:
  Greek for "nowhere."
   
• Viande (French) Meat; and Vivir (Spanish) to measure:
  Viande is from the Late Latin "vivanda," meaning, "that which lives ." Thus associated with Vivre (French) and Vivir (Spanish).
   
• Victim:
  From the Latin "victima," meaning, "an animal destined to be sacrified."
   
• Villain:
  From "Villaneus," meaning, "inhabitant of a villa," i.e., a "peasant."
   
• Vinegar:
  Comes from the Latin vin aigre, meaning "sour wine.
   
• Walk:
  In Old English, "wealcan" meant "to roll"; by Middle English meant "to move about, travel"; and only in Modern English came to mean "walk" as we all know it.
   
• Wedding:
  From the pre-Christian, Germanic term "wed" or pledge.
   
• Weird:
  From the Proto-Indo-European *wer, meaning "to turn." From this same root, we also get English words: -ward (toward, inward), worth (from the Old German *werthaz, meaning "opposite," thus "equivalent"), pervert, extro/introvert, divert, controversy, invert, verse, versatile, revert, tergiversation, malversation, anniversary, vertex, vertigo, vertebra; wreath, wrath; worry (from the Old English wyrgan, to strangle), wrong (from the Old Scandanavian *vrang, for "crooked"); verge, converge, diverge; wry, wriggle, wrist, wrestle; warp; rhapsody; worm, vermin; the Latin prefix "re-".
   
• Welt (German) World:
  Welt may be a contraction of the Old German words, "Wer" and "alt," where "Wer" meant "Man" (From the Latin "Vir" for "Man"--think "virile") and "Alt," which in Old German, meant "time" but now means "old." So, Welt is Wer + alt, which is "the time of man."
   
• Werewolf (German and English):
  Wer + Wolf; "Wer," in Old German, was "man" (related to the Latin "Vir" for "Man"). Thus, literally, "Wolfman."
   
• Whiskey (Ireland); Whisky (Scotland):
  This term originally came from uisgebeatha (Scottish Gaelic) and uiscebeatha (Irish Gaelic), which both mean "water of life." The word entered English as "whiskey" or "whisky" when Henry II invaded Ireland.
   
• Window:
  From the Anglo-Saxon "vindr" eage," meaning the "wind's eye."
   
• Wine:
  Comes from the Greek word for wine, oinos (Cretan dialect), which itself was taken from the name of the Greek god who was alleged to have first revealed the key of wine to the traditional Cretans, Dionysus (Pronounce it without the "Di.").
   
• Wit:
  From the Old English "witan," aiming to know; intelligence.
   
• Witness:
  From the pre-Christian, Germanic term "witan", which suggests wise, tribal elders (literally, those that follow the way of the Norse god "Wodin" or "Odin").
   
• Woman:
  From the Old English "Wyfmon," meaning, "wife." See Queen.
   
• Work; and Werk (German) Work; Warm; Worm; and Wurst:
  Work is from the German "Werk" (meaning the same), which is etymologically associated with the "warm" and "wurst" (Sausage). "Worm," in turn, comes from "wurst."
   
• Worm:
  From the Old English "wyrm," meaning "dragon."
   
• Yankee:
  From the Dutch "Jan-Kees" etc. Jan= short for: Johannes (=John), Kees= short for Cornelis (=Cornelius). All three names were quite common in those days (and still are): Jan, Kees and Jan-Kees.
   
• Zeit (German) Time:
  Related to the German (and English) "Tide." In Old German, Zeit also meant "to divide, separate."
   
• Zero:
  The centerpiece of the Hindu-Arabic numerical system was the invention of zero--sunya because the Indians called it, and andcifr because it became in Arabic. The term has come right down to us in English as cipher, which suggests "empty" and refers to the zero column within the abacus or counting frame (see "abacus")(The term has also come right down to us as "decipher," which suggests "to determine the meaning of anything obscure"). The Arabic term survives even in Russian, where it appears as tsifra, which is that the word for number.

1.2.       Acquaintance with Prefixes and Suffixes from Foreign Languages in English to Form Derivatives.

English speakers today--or even people trying to find out English--can enjoy understanding a number of the derivatives, or parts of a word taken from other languages, like Latin and Greek. Since there are over 1,000,000 words within the English, it's impossible to memorize all of them. However, understanding some basic components of words and customary ones that are derivatives of the classical languages can assist you determine their meaning.

In some ways, a word is simply sort of a cake, made from different ingredients. You'll find out what a word means by watching its three parts. The root, or the foremost basic sort of the word that also has meaning, is what makes up the bottom of the word. Frequently something is going to be attached the start of a word to feature meaning, which is named a prefix. Suffixes are almost like prefixes, but instead come at the top of the word. For instance, if you study the word ''microbiology,'' you'll see it's composed of those three parts, all of Greek origin: a prefix, ''micro-'' (meaning ''small''); a root, ''bio'' (meaning ''life''); and a suffix, ''logy'' (meaning ''study of''). Understanding these parts can assist you determine that microbiology is that the ''study of small life forms.''

Many English words and word parts are often traced back to Latin and Greek. The subsequent table lists some common Latin roots.

Latin root Basic meaning Example words:

From the instance words within the above table, it's easy to ascertain how roots combine with prefixes to make new words. For instance , the basis -tract-, meaning “to pull,” can combine with variety of prefixes, including de- and re-. Detract means literally “to pull away” (de-, “away, off”) and retract means literally “to pull back” (re-, “again, back”). The subsequent table gives an inventory of Latin prefixes and their basic meanings.

Words and word roots may also combine with suffixes. Here are examples/ instances of some important English suffixes that come from Latin:

Greek Latin Derivatives: Prefix and Suffix Starter List:

Most of these combining/ interactive forms can be used as either prefixes or suffixes. Examples are presented to illustrate current usage.

1.3.       Synonyms, Antonyms, Homonyms and Homophones.

Synonyms

Synonyms are words that carry a similar or same meaning to another word. Sometimes even though the synonym of a word has an identical meaning the word and the synonym may not be interchangeable. For example, "blow up" and "explode" have the same meaning, but "blow up" is informal (used more in speech) and "explode" is more formal (used more in writing and careful speech). Synonyms also provide variety to speech and writing.

Many words in the English language contain more than one synonym. Some examples of Synonyms:

Shallow - superficial

Stop – cease

Spontaneous - capricious

Gloomy – sad - unhappy

House - home - abode

Evil - bad - wicked

Garbage - trash - junk - waste 

Present – gift – reward – award

Sniff – smell – inhale

Little – small – tiny

Under – below – beneath

Short list of synonyms in English, listed by the part of speech:

Nouns:

• Belly / stomach
• Children / kids
• Disaster / catastrophe
• Earth / soil
• Father / dad
• Happiness / joy
• Instinct / intuition/ understanding
• Mother / mom
• Present / gift
• Sunrise / dawn

Verbs:

• Answer / reply
• Beat / defeat
• Behave / act
• Begin / start
• Close / shut/ turn on/turn off
• Leave / exit
• Provide / supply/ distribution
• Select / choose
• Shout / yell
• Speak / talk

Adjectives:

• Big / large
• Complete / total/number
• Correct / right
• Crazy / mad
• Foolish / silly /fool/ stupid
• Happy / glad
• Hard / difficult
• Ill / sick
• Last / final
• Near / close
• Sad / unhappy
• Stable / steady/ strong

Adverbs:

• Abroad / overseas
• Almost / nearly/ about / approx.
• Bad / poorly
• Fast / quickly
• Intentionally / purposefully
• Out / outside
• Rarely / seldom/ not common
• Sometimes / occasionally/ periodically
• Surely / for sure/ definetly
• Very / highly / extremely/too much

Prepositions:

• Above / over/ more
• About / regarding / concerning
• Against / versus
• Below / beneath / under
• By / via
• Despite / in spite of
• In / into/ to
• Off / away
• Until / till
• With / including

Conjunctions:

• And / plus
• Because / since
• But / yet/for now
• If / provided
• Once / as soon as possible/ and

Interjections:

• Hello / hi
• Gee / gosh
• Goodness / goodness me / my goodness
• No / nope
• Oh Lord / oh good Lord
• Thanks / thank you
• Whoopee / yahoo / hooray
• Yes / yeah

Antonyms

Antonyms are words that carry the opposite meaning to another word. They can be used to show contrast between two things or emphasize a point. Antonyms can be totally different words from their counterparts or can also be formed by adding prefixes to some words.

Below are some examples of antonyms that are commonly used in the English language:

Antonyms formed by changing entire words

Love – hate

Beginning – ending

Ugly – beautiful

Wild – tame

Extrovert – introvert

Antonyms formed by adding prefix –un

Acceptable - unacceptable

Able - unable

Do - undo

Certain – uncertain

Seen – Unseen

Antonyms formed by adding the prefix –in

Decent – indecent

Tolerant – intolerant

Human – inhuman

Curable – incurable

Expressible – inexpressible

Antonyms formed by adding the prefix –non

Sense – nonsense

Essential – nonessential

Flammable – non-flammable

Renewable – non-renewable

Entity – nonentity

Other prefixes used to form antonyms of words are –anti (Thesis - Antithesis), -ill (Literate – Illiterate), -mis (Informed – Misinformed), -dis (Assemble – Disassemble) etc.

Short list of antonyms in English, listed by the part of speech:

Nouns

• Day / night
• East / west
• The enemy / friend
• Failure / success  
• Guest / host
• Health / disease
• Question / answer
• Speaker / listener
• Summer / winter
• Top / bottom/ up / down

Verbs

• Agree / disagree/accept
• Arrive / leave/ come / go
• Begin / end/ start
• Fall asleep / wakefulness/sleep
• Find / lose/ gain
• Lend / borrowing
• Love / hate
• Open / close/turn on /turn off
• Remember / forget
• Start / stop

Adjectives

• Is asleep / awake
• Beautiful / ugly /good/ bad
• Big / small
• Black / white
• Cheap / expensive
• Dead / alive
• It is dry / wet
• Easy / difficult
• Full / empty
• Good / bad
• Hot / cold
• Intelligent / stupid/you are smart
• Sad / happy/ exciting
• Sick / living healthy
• Thin / fat

Adverbs

• Always / never
• With anger / happily/ excitement
• Fast / slowly
• Here / there
• Inside / outside/ indoors/ outdoors
• Likely / unlikely/possible/ impossible
• Near / far
• Partly / fully
• Seemingly / actually/ visually
• Yesterday / tomorrow

Prepositions

• Above / below
• Against / for / because
• Before / after
• In / out/ indoors/ outdoors
• Like / unlike/ love / contrast
• On / off
• Plus / minus
• To / from
• Towards / away/remote
• With / without

Conjunctions

• And / or
• Therefore / nevertheless /or so

Interjections

• Bravo / boo

• Hello / goodbye
• Holy cow / duh
• Phew / oops
• Thanks / no thanks
• Yes / no
• Yippee / oh my/ oh

Homophones

Homophones can be defined as pairs of words which sound alike but have different meanings and different spellings. Homophones can be frequently found in the English language and although they might sound similar but their meanings can be completely different or even opposite.

Below are some examples of homophones:

Sell/cell: The former means to deliver something for money while the latter means a small compartment.

Hear/here: The former means to listen to something or someone will the latter describes a place.

Cent/Scent: The former is a unit of currency while the latter is smell.

Hour/our: The former is a unit of time while the latter is a possessive adverb.

See/Sea: The former means to watch while the latter implies a large water body

Below are some commonly used homophones in the English language:

Air    /      heir

Aisle    /       isle

Ante-    /       anti-

Eye    /       I

Bare    /       bear

Be    /       bee

Brake    /       break

Buy    /       by

Cereal    /       serial

Coarse   / course

Dam    /        damn

Dear     /        deer

Die  /         dye

Fair  /        fare

Fir /       fur

Flour /    flower

For /     four

Hair /      hare

Heal /     heel

Hear /     here

Him /    hymn

Hole /    whole

Hour /    our

Idle /    idol

In /    inn

Knight    /   night

Knot /     not

Know /     no

Made /    maid

Mail /    male

Meat /    meet

Morning   /   mourning

None     /  nun

Oar /    or

One /    won

Pair /   pear

Peace    /   piece

Plain /   plane

Poor /   pour

Pray /    prey

Principal    /     principle

Profit /    prophet

Real /     reel

Right /    write

Root /    route

Sail /    sale

Sea /     see

Seam /    seem

Sight /    site

Sew /     so

Shore /   sure

Sole /    soul

Some /   sum

Son /   sun

Stair /    stare

Stationary    /    stationery

Steal /    steel

Suite /    sweet

Tail    /    tale

Their /    there

To    /   too

Toe    /    tow

Waist    /    waste

Wait    /    weight

Way    /    weigh

Weak    /    week

Wear     /    where

Homonyms

Homonyms are words that sound the same or spelled the same but may have completely different meanings. Homonyms are rarer than Homophones but they are also ever present in the English language.

Below are some examples of Homonyms:

Band: A musical group/ a ring

Bat: A Flying Mammal/ An object used to play baseball, cricket.

Address: to speak to/a location

Rose: A type of flower/ to go up

Right:  correct / direction opposite of left

Pound: unit of weight / to beat

Quarry - a site for mining stone / to extract or obtain slowly

Ream - a pile of paper / to juice a citrus fruit

Ring - a band on a finger / something circular in shape

Right - correct / direction opposite of left

Rock - a genre of music / a stone

Rose - to have gotten up / a flower

Spring - a season / coiled metal

Stalk - a part of a plant / to follow or harass someone

Tender - gentle / offer of money

Tire - to grow fatigued / a part of a wheel

Well - in good health / a source for water in the ground

1.4.       One Word Substitution

Substitutions are useful to simplify sentences.  Some phrases can easily be replaced by a single word containing the same meaning, thereby reducing the size of the structure of the sentence and simplifying it. They form an essential part of the vocabulary.

Some examples of one-word substitutes are listed below:

1. To fall apart over time - Disintegrate

2.     A copy of something that is identical - Facsimile

3.     A smart and educated individual - Intellectual

4.     Someone who is driven by passion to do crazy things - Zealot

5.     Things to be done throughout the day - Schedule

6.     To leave somewhere that is treacherous - Escape

7.     A person who pushes an idea or belief system they do not believe – Hypocrite

8.     Someone who sees everything negatively – Cynic

9.     Something that is not understandable – Incomprehensible

10.  A movie or play held during the daytime – Matinee

11.   Time-frame between kids hitting puberty and being an adult –       Adolescence

12.   A person that is unknown – Anonymous

13.   Someone that you work with – Colleague

List of One Word Substitutions – 1

Words for various fields of study:

Mapping of earth and its formation - Geography

Art related to ornate, good handwriting - Calligraphy

Scientific study of bodily diseases - Pathology

Study of birds - Ornithology

Study of celestial bodies - Astronomy

Study of collection of coins, tokens, paper money etc. - Numismatics

Study of earth and rocks - Geology

Study of election trends - Psephology

Study of flying aero planes - Aviation

Study of handwriting - Graphology

Study of hereditary, genes and variation in living organisms - Genetics

Study of human development - Anthropology

Study of languages     - Philology

Study of living things - Biology

Study of religion - Theology

Study of science of insects - Entomology

Study of sound and sound waves         - Acoustics

Study of the law of the flow of water and other liquids - Hydraulics

Study of the relation between the organism and their environment - Ecology

Study of various aspects of aging - Gerontology

The science of time order         - Chronology

Study of religion - Theology

The science of human development - Anthropology

List of One Word Substitutions – 2

Words used for professional individuals and words used for habits:

One with unlimited power    - Autocrat

One who walks on ropes - Funambulist

An expert in writing by hand - Chirographer

The doctor who attends to child delivery - Obstetrician

The doctor who attends to corns in the feet and hands - Chiropodist

The doctor who deals with the female reproductive system       - Gynaecologist

The doctor who specializes in root canal and nerve treatment - Endodontist

The doctor who straightens teeth - Orthodontist

The doctor who treats bone problems      - Orthopedician

The doctor who treats eye diseases - Ophthalmologist

The doctor who treats gums - Peridontist

The doctor who treats heart problems    - Cardiologist

The doctor who treats skin diseases - Dermatologist

One who is all powerful - Omnipotent

One who is all knowing - Omniscient

One who is present all over - Omnipresent

One who can throw his voice - Ventriloquist

One who talks while sleeping - Somniloquist

One who walks in sleep - Somnambulist

One who walks at night - Noctambulist

One who turns his thoughts inwards - Introvert

One who turns his thoughts outwards - Extrovert

One who is both inwards and outwards at times - Ambivert

One who demands strict conformity to rules - Martinet

One who believes in ruthless self-aggrandizement - Egoist

One who doesn't consume alcohol - Teetotaler

One who exhibits courage or fearlessness - Intrepid

One who easily believes others - Credulous

One who knows a lot about good food and wine - Connoisseur

One who is beyond reform - Incorrigible

Well known for bad qualities - Notorious

A shrewish loud-mouthed female - Virago

One who is extravagantly romantic, chivalrous and impractical - Quixotic

List of One Word Substitutions – 3

Words related to certain actions, time and direction:

A backward look or a view into the past - Retrospect

Examine one's motives or look inwards      - Introspect

To examine carefully - Inspect

Careful, cautious watch on surroundings - Circumspect

To walk aimlessly - Amble

When two things befall together    - Coincident

A thing occurring again and again for a long time - Chronic

Someone or something out of time - Anachronism

To send out of one's native country - Expatriate

A highly accurate timepiece - Chronometer

Make to happen at the same time - Synchronize

Capable of moving in all directions - Omnidirectional

1.5.       Basics of Phonetics: Definitions, Phonetic Symbols, Transcription of One and Two Syllable Words

Definition

No two persons speak exactly alike and the pronunciations differ greatly depending upon the locality and geography of the speaker. So how should one decide on a model? The English spoken by the native speakers of in south-east England, also known as Received Pronunciation (R.P) is often considered acceptable. Language starts with the ear. Therefore, one must first “hear” English and pay close attention to how different words sound.

Phonetics is a branch of linguistics that deals with the study and classification of how humans make and perceive sounds. In other words, It is the study of the physiological production of speech sounds and how different sounds are used to form syllables, words and sentences.

Phonetics can be classified into three main branches:

1. Articulatory Phonetics

Articulatory Phonetics describes how the movement of different vocal organs are used to produce different speech sounds. It deals with the physical aspects of speech production. The organs of speech comprise of the Tongue, Nasal cavity, Lips, Epiglottis, Teeth, Uvula, Soft palate, Vocal chords, Windpipe, and the Pharyngeal Cavity.

2.     Acoustic Phonetics

Acoustic Phonetics deal with the acoustic properties of speech sounds. The variations in air pressure while speaking form an essential component of how sounds are made. Speech sounds can be divided into two major classes, the first, sounds that consist of periodic wave form i.e the fluctuations in air pressure are in regular intervals, and the second, sounds that consist of a non-regular wave from,

3.     Auditory Phonetics

Auditory Phonetics deal with the study of the variation between what is said by the speaker and what is heard by the receiver. In other words, it is the study of how humans perceive sounds.

Like the English language, Phonetics also consists of consonants and vowels. A consonant is a sound in which there is either a complete or partial obstruction which prevents the air from issuing freely from the mouth. On the other hand, a vowel is a voiced sound in the pronunciation of which the air passes through the mouth in a continuous stream, there being no obstruction such as would produce friction.

Phonetic Symbols

Speech sounds, also known as Phonemes, is the smallest recurring sound in a sentence. Merriam Webster defines speech sound as “any one of the smallest recurrent recognizably same constituents of spoken language produced by movement or movement and configuration of a varying number of the organs of speech in an act of ear-directed communication.”

The English language consists of 26 alphabets but there are 44 speech sounds (Phonemes) in the English language consisting of 20 vowel sounds and 24 consonant sounds.

Phonemes (speech sounds) are represented in writing by placing the letters used to represent the sound between two slashes, for example, the sound that you say at the beginning of the word pot is represented by /p/.

Speech Sounds can be classified into three types, viz. Consonants, Vowels and diphthongs.

1. Consonants:

A consonant is a sound accompanied by voice, in which there is either a complete or partial obstruction which prevents the air from freely issuing from the mouth.

In words such as base, maze, bathe, rouge, bake, path, long the sounds at the end of the words are distinctive. These twenty-four sounds may occur initially, medially and finally.

Consonants are perhaps more important than vowels because even if we pronounce the consonants only, most English words would be easy to understand. Consonant form the bones, the skeleton of English words and give them their basic shape. Moreover, differences of accent are mainly the result of differences in the sound of vowels; if the consonants are imperfect there will be a great risk of misunderstanding.

There are many types of consonants such as Fricatives (s,z,f,v), Plosives (stop) consonants (p and b; t and d; k and g). Nasal (m,n), Lateral and Gliding consonants.

Below are all the consonants comprised in the English phonetic script by the International Phonetics Association (IPA)

Unvoiced consonants

p f θ t s            ʃ      ʧ             k

pea free thing tree see sheep     cheese coin

Voiced consonants

b v ð d z ʒ             ʤ        g

boat video this dog zoo television joke go

m     n     ŋ     h      w  l  r j

mouse   now    thing   hope   we  love  run you

2.     Vowels:

In ordinary speech, a vowel is a voiced sound in the pronunciation of which the air passes through the mouth in a continuous stream, there being no obstruction and no narrowing such as would produce audible friction. All English vowels are voiced. Vowels like consonants can also occur initially or finally.

The following list consists of some words with vowel speech sounds:

Feel, fill, tall, bull, fool, mile, bat, toil, cart, pear, poor, butter, pier.

The qualities of vowels depend upon the position of the tongue and lips. It is convenient to classify them according to the position of the main part of the tongue. The position of the tip has no great effect on vowel quality. The tip of the tongue is supposed to be touching or near the lower teeth.

1. Front vowels are the vowels which are produced with the front of the tongue raised in the direction of the hard palate. Ex. Feed.
2. Back vowels are the vowels which are produced with the back of the tongue raises in the direction of the soft palate. Ex. Food.
3. The vowels which are intermediate between the front and the back vowels are known as central vowels. Ex. Bird.

Below are the vowels comprised in the English Phonetic script by the International Phonetics Association (IPA)

ɪ i: ʊ u:

Ship sheep book shoot

e ɜ: ə ɔ:

left her teacher door

æ ʌ ɒ ɑ:

hat up on far 

3.     Diphthongs:

A diphthong is a deliberate glide where speech organs start in the position of one vowel and move towards another. A diphthong constitutes one syllable though the ear perceives two separate syllables.

Every diphthong may be said to have a first element (the starting point) and a second element (in the direction of which the glide is made). Most of the length and stress associated with the glide is concentrated on the first element. The second element is only lightly sounded. All English diphthongs are falling diphthongs (decrescendo).

The diphthongs are equivalent in length to the long pure vowels and are subject to the same variations of quantity. They also reflect variations in different regional and social types of speech.

Diphthongs are represented in phonetic transcription by a sequence of two letters, the first showing the position of the organs of speech at the beginning of the glide and the second showing their position at the end. In the case of ‘closing diphthongs’ the second letter indicates the point towards which the glide is made, but that point is not necessarily reached, and such diphthongs sound quite correct if the organs of speech perform only part of the maximum permissible movement.

Below are the diphthongs comprised in the English Phonetic script by the International Phonetics Association (IPA)

eɪ ɔɪ aɪ

wait coin like

eə ɪə ʊə

hair here tourist

əʊ aʊ 

Show mouth 

Transcription of One and Two Syllable Words

Phonetic transcriptions are representations of the accurate pronunciation of a word. In the English language, phonetic transcriptions of words are essential, because the spelling of an English word may not necessarily tell you how you should pronounce it.

Phonetic transcriptions are typically written in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA), in which each English sound has its own symbol.

For instance, the IPA-based phonetic transcription of the single syllable word HOME is hoʊm, and similarly the transcription of COME would be kʌm. It is noteworthy that even though in spelling, these words are similar as they both end in OME, their phonetic transcriptions are quite different, and therefore, they are pronounced differently.

In English the phonetic transcription of a word is usually written in between slashes, such as: /hoʊm/, /kʌm/.

Below are some examples of phonetic transcriptions of one and two syllable words:

1.6.       Communication: Definition, Cycle, Elements, 7Cs & Barriers

Introduction

Language involves both the ability to comprehend spoken and written words and to create communication in real time when we speak or write. Most languages are oral, generated through speaking. Speaking involves a variety of complex cognitive, social, and biological processes including operation of the vocal cords, and the coordination of breath with movements of the throat, mouth, and tongue.

The use of language changes considerably depending upon the channel of communication. For example, it is easier to use multiple independent and subordinate clauses along with complicated vocabulary while writing but it becomes difficult to do the same while speaking. When speaking one tends to use a simpler form of the language.

There are certain elements of a language which only come into play while speaking such as pronunciation, intonation, word stress and accent. If one is already familiar with a certain language, learning the proper spoken form of another language can be a difficult task as it would involve re-structuring one’s whole biological structure of speaking.

For non-native English speakers, the influence of their first language can be a very big problem when it comes to pronunciation. If up to later age, the sole language we speak is our mother tongue, tons of the speech patterns get set in the human brain. Each language has peculiar sounds and combinations of consonants and vowels. If we start speaking multiple languages from infancy, we easily retain the pliability of uttering sounds from different language systems. Our brains can be easily trained for various sounds from different languages. But if we don't receive that training in our childhood, our brains get familiar with the sounds on just one language and at a later stage it becomes very difficult to coach the brain for a completely different audio system needed for the second language.

Spoken language usually involves of more use of personal pronouns, shorter thought units than written language that are easier to follow, more repetition of words and phrases to emphasise ideas, use of colloquial words and contractions to create a lively conversational tone, use of familiar vocabulary to ensure that the listener understands what the speaker is saying and fewer references to previously stated information.

Definition

Communication is the process of transferring information by means of speaking, reading, listening and writing. Although the act of communication is heavily dependent on these four skills, it goes beyond these and also incorporate non-verbal elements such as body language, expressions, sign language, electronically transmitted codes (Morse code etc.) etc. It is both an art and a science.

Although every individual communicates simply by being in the world, learning effective communication skills requires hard work and determination. Developing good verbal and body language skills involves learning and consciously using your skills to improve.

One must be thoroughly familiar with all styles of correspondence in order to facilitate effective communication. The form of communication intrinsically depends upon the purpose and the central idea of the message to be conveyed. For example, it is feasible to acquire information or provide information using a formal phone call or an email whereas while conveying bad news to a particular individual a face-to-face conversation is considered rather apt.

Communication can be formal or informal

1. Formal communication: Formal Communication is the exchange of official information that flows along the different levels of the organizational hierarchy and conforms to the prescribed professional rules, policy, standards, processes and regulations of the organization.
2. Informal communication: Informal Communication is the casual and unofficial form of communication wherein the information is exchanged spontaneously between two or more persons without conforming the prescribed official rules, processes, system, formalities and chain of command.

Significance

Communication serves four major important functions within any group or organization. These are:

• Control
• Motivation
• Emotional expression
• Information

Control

Communication serves a controlling function in a hierarchical structure. When a teacher has to control her students or a manager has to control his employees and ask them to perform the required tasks, controlling words and tone has to be used. This function is mostly applicable in a formal setting however there may be some exceptions (Parents and children).

Motivation

Proper communication can be used to motivate employees to perform well. Motivational communication includes praising people for a well-done job, inspiring them to do even better and pointing out where they are going wrong and helping them rectify their mistakes. Motivational speakers also use communication as a tool to inspire and influence people.

Emotional Expression

Communication is useful tool for showing a whole range of emotions such as frustrations, happiness, anger. Therefore, it provides for the emotional expression of feelings which can be understood and provided with proper feedback.

Information

Communication facilitates decision-making, by passing information from one party to another. News channels, newspapers, current affairs all provide information regarding the daily events taking place in the word, this keeping one well informed.

Communication Cycle and Elements

The process of communication can be easily understood from the following flowchart:

The communication process comprises of the following components:

1. Sender: Sender is the individual who wants to send the message to the receiver. A sender makes effective use of words, symbols, pictures, graphs etc. available to him to construct the message. The views, background, approach, skills, competencies, and knowledge of the sender determine whether the message is approachable or not.
2. Message: The message comprises of the information that is to be exchanged between the sender and the receiver. The central idea of the message must be clear and should be easily understood by the receiver.
3. Channel: The medium of communication should be chosen with respect to the purpose of the message and the ability of the receiver to comprehend it. Hence, the sender must choose an appropriate medium for transmitting the message. The channel can be oral or written, the use of oral medium is preferred when the message is urgent and requires an immediate response, the written medium is preferred when the message is technical and there is a need for it to be documented.
4. Receiver: The receiver is the individual to whom the message is addressed. The ability of the receiver to decode the message depends on the knowledge of the receiver, the reliance of the encoder, responsiveness of the receiver to the message.
5. Feedback: After the receiver receives the message he tries to decode it, understand it and tried to provide a proper feedback to the sender, who then tries to interpret the feedback.

Communication requires the sender and the receiver to possess 4 basic skills, they are the main elements of the communication process, they include:

1-Listening

One should understand the main ideas of most speech in a standard dialect.

2-Speaking

One should be understood without difficulty by natives, and converse in a clear and participatory fashion.

One should be able to narrate and describe concrete and abstract topics using sustained, connected discourse.

3-Reading

One should easily follow the essential points of written text.

4-Writing

One should be able to address a variety of topics with significant precision and detail.

One should be able to organize writings with a sense of theoretical structure.

7Cs of Communication

The seven C’s of communication is a list of principles that you should ensure all of your communications adhere to. Their purpose is to help ensure that the person you’re communicating with hears what you’re trying to say. The seven C’s of communication include: clear, correct, complete, concrete, concise, considered and courteous.

1. Clear

There are several stages to clarity.

Firstly, it’s important to be clear about the purpose of the message you’re delivering. The recipient should be made aware of why they are receiving the message and what you’re trying to achieve by delivering it. If there are multiple goals, each should be laid out separately.

Secondly, it’s essential that the content of the communication is itself clear. The use of jargon must be avoided, use simple language and simple structures and always focus on the core points of your message.

2. Correct

It’s essential that both the factual information and the language and grammar you use are correct. If your audience spots errors in either, they will be distracted and your credibility will be greatly reduced. This will reduce the effectiveness of your communication.

3. Complete

Completeness is often one of the most important of the 7 Cs of communication.

When creating a message, it’s important to give the recipient all of the information they need to follow your line of reasoning and to reach the same conclusions you have. This level of detail will be different in different situations, and you should adjust your communications accordingly.

In addition, you should make things as easy as possible for the recipient. For example, if you are issuing a “call to action”, provide explicit guidance on that action. Increasingly it’s common to include things like hyperlinks in written communications or to attach FAQs, both of which help audiences access a complete set of information while also ensuring that core communications focus on core messages.

4. Concrete

When shaping your communication, you must ensure that you are specific and that the logic and messages that you’re using fit together, build on each other and support each other. Your arguments should be based on solid facts and opinions from credible sources and you should share irrefutable data to support your argument.

It may be important to help bring the solid nature of what you’ve created to life for your audience through examples that show the relevance of your messages for them as individuals.

5. Concise

When communicating messages of this nature it’s important to stick to the point and keep your messages short and simple. If a message can be given in five words, don't make it ten. Don’t repeat your messages.

The more you say, the more risk there is of confusion. Avoid that risk by focusing solely on the key points you need to deliver.

6. Courteous

Not everyone knows how to use the 7 Cs of communication.

You can increase the effectiveness of your communications by being polite and showing your audience that you respect them. Your messages should be friendly, professional, considerate, respectful, open and honest.

To help ensure you are courteous, you should always use some empathy and consider your messages from the point of view of the audience.

7. Coherent

The last of the 7 Cs of communication is coherence. If your communications are not coherent they will not be effective. To help make sure your communications are coherent you should have a logical flow and your style, tone and language should be consistent throughout.

In addition to making sure that each correspondence that is issued is coherent within itself, you should also ensure consistency of message when delivering multiple communications.

Barriers

Communication is only complete if the message received by the recipient is interpreted in the same way as was intended by the sender. But due to the presence of a wide number of factors the message may be destroyed. These factors act as barriers to effective communication. It is essential to locate and eradicate these factors in order to allow free flowing communication.

Some of the barriers that block communication are listed below:

1. Language Barriers – The linguistic ability of both the sender and receiver define their ability to effectively communicate. Especially when technical communication is concerned, the free flow of communication requires both parties to be sufficiently acquainted with the information that is being exchanged. For example, if two people from different backgrounds converse with the technical terminology of their own fields they are bound to misunderstand each other.

2.     Psychological Barriers- The psychological state of the receiver plays a significant role when processing information. Factors such as personal issues, worries and stress might affect the receiver’s ability to decode information as they might be preoccupied with their own concerns.

Anger on the sender’s end is also an example of a psychological barrier, while angry one tends to convey thoughts one doesn’t mean only to regret later. Shyness, anxiety and depression may also act as barriers.

3.     Physical Barriers- Physical barriers such as noise, physical distance between the speaker and receiver, conditions of the topography, poor lighting, speech impediment, hearing disability also affect effective communication.

4.     Perceptual Barriers- The difference in how individuals perceive things also play a role in communication. People often find themselves unable to accept messages that go against their upbringing and values. Here even though the communication is effective, the feedback suffers. A similar situation might be perceived differently by different individuals and therefore might create disagreement.

5.     Cultural Barriers- Different cultures possess different norms of social interactions and communication. Something deemed appropriate in one culture might not be the same in another. Body language and gestures play a vital role in non-verbal communication which might suffer due to cultural differences.

6.     Inattention- One of the most common barriers towards effective communication is inattention, the receiver might simply be uninterested or might be daydreaming while the message is being conveyed to him.

These barriers can be easily avoided with a little effort and dedication. Below are some methods useful for avoiding these communication barriers:

1. Clarity of words and purpose - Clarity is one of the most essential requirements of communication. While writing, it is necessary to write in good handwriting with proper grammar and sentence formation. While speaking one should use proper vocabulary and speak each word clearly and carefully along with proper inflections.

2.     Active Listening- One should listen carefully what the speaker is saying in order to understand properly and provide feedback. One should be attentive while listening, ask open ended questions and should be able to summarize the information provided by the speaker.

3.     Focus should be the other - While conversing one should maintain eye contact with the speaker as this shows the speaker that the message is being received by the listener. While speaking the focus should always be on the receiver.

4.     Non-Verbal Communication- One’s body language often speaks as loud as his words. While communication one should show one’s reactions and interests through their body language.

5.     Avoid Interruptions- It is essential to let the speaker finish talking before conveying one’s own thoughts. Interrupting is not only rude but also can be disadvantageous as one may not totally grasp the meaning of the speaker. If an interruption is absolutely necessary, one must use polite words like “pardon me” or “excuse me” instead of cutting the speaker in the middle of their thought process.

6.     Controlling Emotions and Thinking before Speaking- It is said one must think twice before they speak. One must always consider the opinions and feelings of others before speaking their mind. One must also consider one’s own emotions and not speak out of anger or frustration. The process of communication should be logical rather than emotional.

7.     The Message- The message one wishes to convey must always be clear and concise, there should be no doubts in one’s mind while speaking. The central idea of the message should always be conveyed completely and indubitably.

8.     Eliminating Noise- One must eliminate all the outside forces that might disturb the conversation in order to maintain the flow of the communication process.

9.     Feedback- One must pay attention to what the other person is saying and try to understand it as closely as possible to his intended meaning. This will allow him to provide proper responses.