Unit – 4

Writing Practices

4.1              Comprehension

Comprehension simply means the ability to understand something. It comprises of the multiple processes involved in hearing, understanding and making sense of the spoken language. This includes grasping various speech sounds and understanding the syntax of sentences. Comprehension can also include the process of understanding how the presentation of sentences changes meaning.

Comprehension is the correct association of meanings with word symbols. It is the selection of the correct meaning suggested by the text It is a thinking process. It is thinking through reading. Students should lead and get complete meaning. There are two situations that arise while reading a passage. The pupils may find a reading comprehension passage difficult for them. The teacher should know about the difficulties beforehand and prevent their occurrence.

It is often contested that speaking as a skill is more important than listening which is a common misconception. Listening is as important a skill as speaking if not more, as it is only by listening one can learn proper pronunciation and intonation of words which allows him to speak fluently.

Oral language skills including listening comprehension also are important for writing development. Although oral language skills aren't explicitly laid out in the developmental models of writing, they are essential component skills as writing requires generation of ideas, which then need to be translated into oral language.

There are two ways in which a person can listen to something being said to them – active and passive. Passive listening is listening without giving the speaker your full attention. Passive listening is like not listening at all therefore one must always give the speaker their full attention and practice active listening in order to fully grasp the meaning of what the speaker wants to say.

Some common difficulties with comprehension are:

• Students are not able to concentrate on what they read.
• They are not able to recognize words. Noisy surroundings, inadequate lighting and uncomfortable seating arrangements.
• Unfamiliarity of the subject matter (eg) a child from a city may not understand a passage on farming and a village child about road signal systems.
• In effective questioning and answering techniques.
• Lack of appropriate guidance by the teacher Steps for the comprehension skills. These are various steps followed for the construction of comprehension.

4.2              Précis Writing

The term precis comes from a French word “précis”, which can be translated as "precise, clear, up to the point”. Therefore, the word precis in the context of writing means a summary of any writing piece, be it a book, an article, or a novel. What is typical while writing a precis is the outline of the main points and arguments presented in the given text. A precis does not contain a deep or critical analysis of the text, but it nevertheless objectively explains the situation narrated in a text.

Precis vs. Summary

A precis and a summary are quite similar to each other but they do contain certain major differences which set them apart. Below are the two main differences between a precis and a summary:

1. A summary consists of a number of brief statements which covers the main points of the text. It has no pre-defined word limit. A precis on the other hand, has its own title and should be 1/3 of the total words of the original passage.
2. A summary is a sort of general overview of the contents of a passage. Here only the main events in the passage are discussed. A precis, however, focuses on every detail and analyses a particular situation.

Rules

Below are the fundamental rules to be followed while writing a precis:

1. Understand the theme of the passage

The first and the most important thing is to thoroughly read and comprehend the purpose of the passage. Once you understand the theme, it is easier to grasp the key ideas in the passage, which will help you remember them while writing the precis.

b.     No copying from the passage

It is important in precis writing to use your own words and not copy from the passage. If you find certain sentences in the passage that you would like to incorporate in your precis, you need to understand them and then craft that sentence in your own words. Key words can be used but entire sentences should always be avoided.

c.      Carry clarity and conciseness

One of the most fundamental rules of writing a precis is clarity. The sentences should be clear, concise, meaningful and too the point. They should reflect the central ideas from the passage.

d.     A reflection of your intelligence

The precis should be written in such a way that it flaunts your writing skills. The use of language, vocabulary and structure of sentences should be perfect. A good precis will provide the readers a good impression of your writing skills and it will also make the precis comprehensible to the readers.

e.     Be original

Each and every sentence in the precis should be one's own creation with no plagiarism whatsoever. If you find a significant idea or motif from the passage that you want to include in your precis, read the passage again and again and try to re-construct the idea from your memory using your own words.

f.        Use of indirect speech

A precis must always be written in indirect speech since it employs the perspective of a third person. Direct speech leaves a personal impact and should be avoided while writing a precis.

g.     Use facts and statistics

To maintain the credibility of the text, try to include all the numbers and facts you read in the text. It will also help you enhance the quality of your writing and will build the interest of the reader in your precis. Therefore, any of the facts and numbers should not be missed while writing the Precis.

h.     An analysis of the various sections

Divide the text into sections and try to analyse each section carefully. A careful analysis of each section will let you draw in closer to the main themes and concepts in the text. Further, you can only mention the crucial content of the passage, if you have read it thoroughly and have identified the areas which carry high proportional value.

i.        An interpretation of the original passage

Always conclude the passage by providing your own understand instead of the writer's perspective. The conclusion has to be from your own point of view but should still be in the third person as if spoken by a third party. It is your interpretation of the text that gives meaning to the precis.

j.        The size of the precis

The size of a precis should always be one third of the original passage.  While writing the precis one should always be aware of the word count but one should also be able to retain the individuality of the passage in the prescribed word limit.

Precis Format

A precis should be short and concise and comprises of three parts: The introduction, the main body and the conclusion.

The Introduction

• The introductory sentence of a precis should mention the author’s name along with the article/book title. It should also include the date of publishing in parenthesis. After that, the topic that you want to discuss in your precis has to be elaborated using a few key words. Extravagant detailing of the topic should be avoided.

• In the introduction, try to include a rhetorical verb outlining the author’s primary purpose (e.g., “assert,” “argue,” “deny,” “refute,” “prove,” disprove,” “explain”). This will give a strong definition to the facts and concepts you are about to present in the main body of your precis.

• It is important to include the thesis statement of the text in the introduction. A thesis statement is the main idea or crux of a particular text. This thesis statement will be elaborated in the main body by providing facts and evidences in its favour.

The Main Body

• The main body should include clarification of how the author formulates and further explains the main themes in the text. It should be informative enough to incite the reader's interest and short enough to retain that interest.

• It should include a sentence that states the purpose of the author in writing the text. Phrases such as “in order” are helpful in developing this sentence.

• Describe how the author establishes his connection with the readers. Always keep the audience for whom you are writing in mind while writing a precis. This includes the using vocabulary and structuring sentences according to the needs of your audience.

• All key points and arguments must be contained in this section.

The Conclusion

• Present a finishing remark of 2-3 sentences to shed light on the author’s intended idea for the book or passage.

• Give a 1-sentence restatement of the major claim which the author used to develop their evidence in the reading.

Steps for Writing a Precis

Below are the steps involved in writing a precis

Step 1: As discussed, the very first step of Precis writing is to form a clear understanding of the passage. You should fully acquaint yourself with the subject first in order to get the meaning behind a passage before starting to write a precis.

Step 2: While reading the content, make sure you highlight the important points of the passage. It will help you in keeping track of the important information that needs to be written in your Precis. Also, you should omit the information, which you feel is not important for your Precis.

Step 3: Further, you need to remember that logical ordering is highly important when it comes to precis writing. Additionally, a logically organised text helps in making things much clearer to your audience and they tend to understand your take in a processed way.

Step 4: If you have some names to be mentioned in your Precis, remember, they should be with the designations, as it helps to increase the credibility of the content. In case, the designations are not mentioned in the passage, you can write the first name.

Step 5: Moving on, the word count of the passage should be taken into account, because one- third of the same has to be written in Precis. Therefore, conducting a word count before beginning the precis could be beneficial.

Step 6: Now, prepare the draft of your Precis by jotting all the important points together. While writing always remember to maintain the flow of your concepts and you should not miss any important information you have gathered while reading the passage.

Step 7: Before finally submitting your Precis, make sure you review all the details carefully. Also, you must do a thorough check of your grammatical and structural errors. Furthermore, one thing not to miss is to mention the total count in a bracket after the end point of your Precis.

4.3              Essay Writing

There are many types of essays and papers you can write as a student. The content and length of the essay varies depending on your level, subject of study, and the requirements of a particular course.

However, many subject bodies share the same goal. They aim to convince students of a position or perspective through informed, evidence-based, analytical and interpretive debates.

In addition, every story has an introduction, body and ending that always do the same or few things.

Essay Writing Process:

The essay writing process consists of three stages: preparation, writing and revision. These categories apply to each article or paper. However, the time and energy spent in each category depends on the sort of essay, for instance a private statement, a press release of intent, a high school essay or a grad school essay.

Preparation:

• Understand the assignment
• Understand your audience
• Select a topic
• Do some initial research
• Name the thesis statement
• Create an outline

Writing:

• Write an introduction
• Organize your arguments and give evidence
• Write the conclusion

Review:

• Analyse the organization
• Review the content of each paragraph
• Proofread for language errors
• Check for plagiarism

Introduction of an Essay:
 

The introduction is important to both capture the reader's interest and inform them of what will be found in the story. The introduction usually contains 10-20% of the text. To learn how to write an article introduction, first become familiar with its most important objectives.

• Move your student by chasing curiosity and curiosity:
  The first sentence of the introduction should draw your student's wish. This sentence is sometimes referred to as a hook. It can be a question, quote, a surprising number, or a bold statement that emphasizes the importance of a topic.
  Let's say you write an article about the development of Braille (a literacy program used by the visually impaired). A boat can be something like:
  The introduction of Braille marked the biggest turning point in the history of disability.

• Provide background and context for your topic:
  After you dismiss the student, it is important to provide context that will help your student understand your argument. This may include providing background information, providing an overview of important academic work or arguments on a topic, as well as explaining difficult words. Do not give too many details in the introduction - you can adequately describe the content of your essay.

• Explain the purpose and create a thesis statement:
  Next, you have to explain your basic argument or thesis statement. The thesis statement provides focus and reflects your position on the topic. Usually one or two sentences long. An example of a thesis statement from Braille essay can be seen as follows:
  The idea of ​​orthopaedics was not entirely new; Louis Braille adapted simple ways to create the first system for writing to the blind. But its success depended on the reception of people who had sinned before the social status of blindness was reversed, and the process was shaped by widespread debates about the place of people with disabilities in society.

• Provide a content map:
  Finish the introduction with an overview of your site structure. An overview should give the reader a general idea of ​​what each paragraph of your article is examining.

The Body of the Essay:
 

The theme of your article is when you make arguments that support your thesis statement, provide evidence, and develop your ideas. His main purpose is to present, interpret and analyse the information and sources you have gathered to support your argument.

• Length of body text:
  The length of the body depends on the type of description. On average, the body comprises 60-80% of your material. In a high school essay, this can be just three paragraphs, but with a 6,000-word graduate essay, the body can take 8-10 pages.

• Section layout/Paragraph Structure:
  In order to give your essay a clear structure, it is important to use paragraphs and topics. This makes the content unwanted and easy to digest. Each section should focus on a point of view or a single point of view.
  The purpose of each paragraph is presented using topic sentences. The topic clause creates a transition from the previous paragraph and informs the argument to be made in this paragraph. Change words can be used to create smooth transitions between sentences.
  After the topic sentence, demonstrate evidence by providing the reader with data, examples or quotes. Be sure to interpret and explain the evidence, and show how the paragraph helps improve your overall argument.

Conclusion of an Essay:
 

Conclusion The last paragraph of the article or paper. It takes about 10-20% of your article. Strong conclusion:

• Draws connections between the arguments made in the body of the story.
• State the consequences of your argument.
• Emphasize the importance and importance of a thesis statement of policy, education or the wider world.
• Evaluates key findings and the importance of the topic
  A good conclusion should end with a memorable or impactful sentence that emphasizes the importance of your work and leaves the reader with a strong final impression.

What you should not do is enter the end
 

To make the end of your article as strong as possible, there are a few things you should avoid including. The most common errors are:

Includes new argument or evidence.

Minimize your conflicts (e.g. "This is one way for many").

Concluding phrases such as “Cheating…” or “Conclusion…” are used.

How to write an essay

• The story begins with a hook that catches your reader's interest.
• Introduction provides background and context that help your reader understand the topic.
• The introduction contains a thesis statement that provides focus and reflects your position on the topic.
• Paragraphs and titles are used for story planning.
• Each paragraph deals with a single idea, debate or issue.
• Subject sentences are used to create a smooth transition between paragraphs.
• The conclusion is not only brief, but draws a link between issues.
• The significance of the thesis statement is emphasized in the conclusion.
• Conclusion does not contain new ideas, arguments or evidence.

4.4              Business Letters & Job Application

Business Letters

Writing letters is an art and a strategy. The latter can be followed by following formal meetings; the former must be nurtured with the care and deepest interest of man. The letters are generally divided into the following four categories: friendly or informal letters, business letters; invitations and responses, as well as the use of functions.

Importance of a Business Letter

Promotional Function: By promoting new products and providing better services to business organizations, improving and enhancing the quality of their products. Customers should be informed through these developments. Business organizations have to expand their market by tapping new areas. All-round expansion is possible only if the organization continues to be well-informed by letters to those people and letters promoting them.

Informational work: Business letters provide valuable data about previous policies, transactions and all other activities of the organization. Modern businesses cannot depend on memory like the old days. If they are available then the letters are ready reference. New policies can be developed by studying earlier. Not only is it necessary to maintain good correspondence, but it is also more necessary to make them available in the files.

Legal work: Business letters can provide evidence in legal disputes, if any, which is in a transaction. They are useful as legal documents in quotes and offers.

Goodwill work: Business letters promote goodwill among business parties that trade. They make a good rapport between the parties in business transactions.

Convey information: The fundamental reason for any business letter is to pass on information in regards to practice business exercises. Information can be transmitted through the business letter to clients, providers, indebted individuals, government experts, monetary organizations, bank, and insurance agencies and to any different gatherings related to the business.

Conclude exchange: One of the particular functions of a business letter is to finish up an exchange. In finished exchanges business letter are as often as possible utilized.

Creation of markets: Business letter are particularly significant for creating interest for new products and services and market creation.

Creation of generosity: In this electronic period, messages can be sent inside a couple of moments through electronic media however a very much beautified business letter has its own significance in creating a positive picture of the company.

Features of business letters

1. Knowing What to Say:
   Nothing is more harmful to good communication than muddle-headedness resulting in not being able to make one's point. Before writing a letter one should be sure of what one wants to say and accordingly one should be in command of all the necessary facts and information arranged logically and systematically.

2.     Clarity:
Knowing what one wants to say is not enough unless one says it in as clear a Language as possible. Here comes the importance of the right word and the right expression put in a sentence constructed neatly and with precision. It should, however, be remembered that right words and write expressions become relevant only when they occur in the right place. Thus, emotional and even flowery language may be apposite to a personal Letter but it will be completely out of place in a business letter.

3.     Brevity:
A few generations ago, when man enjoyed unlimited space and time, prolixity in language would not have been unwelcome, at Least in certain kinds of correspondence. In the modern age, however, addition of even one extra word cost time and energy most people will like to avoid. It is all the more the business correspondence. It means that all redundancy, be it a quotation illustration, an elaboration, in short, padding of any kind, must be avoided at all costs.

4.     Accuracy:
Avoidance of redundant helps achieve accuracy of statement. For much unwanted language in letters is the direct result of inaccurate and inconsistent thoughts and statements. A little care, particularly habitual revision of what one has written, will go a long way towards making writing accurate.

5.     Courtesy:
As remarked earlier, a letter reveals its writer's personality and character. Since there is always a 'you' in every letter, it is necessary that this 'you' or the addressee be shown all the courtesy and respect that language can express. Even when a complaint is lodged or a statement or application rejected, care should be taken that it is couched in polite and civilized language. It is worth remembering that while courtesy costs nothing, there is hardly anything more abrasive than impolite language.

6.     Good Looks:
Finally, a letter must be a visual attraction to the reader. It can displease either through wrong spelling and punctuation or bad writing and typing. These are not matters merely of form as even a well-thought out-letter, rich in ideas and having all the qualities of clarity, brevity, accuracy and courtesy may not only fail to make proper impact on the reader, but may even defeat its purpose by causing him unnecessary annoyance.

Parts of a business letter

It is convenient to divide all letters into 10 parts:

• Sender's address
• Date
• Direction (the address of the person(s) to whom you are writing)
• Salutation
• Reference (not always necessary in intimate, personal letters)
• Body
• Subscription
• Signature
• Postscript (to be as a rule avoided, unless absolutely necessary)
• The envelope.

As these are mostly (except for the body of the letter) matters of form, we will illustrate each one of them. Often there are alternative forms, but you must choose one of them and use it consistently.

• Sender's address:

(a)  Laxmi Niwas,
52 Mall Road,
Civil Lines,
Kanpur 208 016

(b)  D 64 Press Road,
Nauroji Nagar,
Mysore 570 006

(c)  Department of Linguistics,
University of Delhi,
Delhi 110 007.

• Date:

(a)  October 25, 1988

(b)  25th October, 1988

• Direction:

(a)  The Personnel Manager,
Life Insurance Corporation of India,
Bhubaneshwar, 751 006.

(b)  Messrs Atma Ram & Sons,
3B Asaf Ali Roa,
New Delhi 110 001 .

(c)  Professor N. G. Arunachalam,
Department of Civil Engineering,
University Engineering College,
Hyderabad 500 007.

(d) Ms. Kavita Swaroop,
4/D Indira Colony,
Jawahar Nagar,
Agra 282 005.

(Messrs is used for an unlimited company or partnership of traders) (The same address is to be repeated on the envelope.)

• Salutation:

(a)  Dear Sir/Madam,

(b)  Sir/Madam, (in strictly formal letters to and from government departments or officials)

(c)  Dear Sirs/Gentlemen, (in the case of unlimited company, firm or partnership of traders or from a clerk to the Board of Directors, when 'Gentlemen' is preferred)

(d) Dear Mr. Swaminathan,

(e)  Dear Swaminathan,

(f)    My dear Swaminathan/My dear Mr. Swaminathan, ('My dear' shows extra intimacy)

(g) My dear Ravi, (very intimate and friendly)

(a)  Reference:( in professional or business letters)

(b) Sale of Old Stock (between salutation and the body of the letter) (usually placed above the direction)   

(c)  Our ref...

(d)  Your ref...

• Body: (the main part of the Letter, the subject matter of which will differ in each case)

• Subscription:

(a)  Yours faithfully. (most common form in formal, official and business letters)

(b)  Yours truly. (somewhat warmer than the above)

(c)  Yours sincerely, (cordial and friendly)

(d)  Yours affectionately. Very sincerely yours, Yours ever, in very intimate personal letter

Layout of a Business Letter

1. Font and Margins

Before writing an official letter, it must be kept in mind that the letter should not only be simple to understand but easy to read as well. Set your margins to be one or one and a half inches per each side of the document, this will help your letter look professional. Using simple fonts like Verdana, Arial, Calibri or Times New Roman with a 12-point size will give your official letter a clean look as well.

2. Heading and Subject

Once your fonts are set, you can begin addressing your letter. First, write your name in the top left-hand corner of the page. Include your name, address and the current date. You can also include your phone number and email if you are requesting further contact.

While writing the recipient's address information, remember to put it directly beneath yours. Write their name, title of their organization if they are representing one, followed by the address. Review the name and address of your recipient more than once to ensure you've written the correct address and spelled their name right.

3. Salutation

You can now professionally greet your reader. A common salutation used in official letters is, "Dear Ms. Or Mr. Last name". If you know both their first name or last name, you can include that in the salutation. For example, you can write, "Dear Alex Smith". If you know their gender, you can write, "Dear Mr. Alex Smith" or "Dear Ms. Alex Smith". If you're unaware of the name of the recipient, you can write, "Dear Sir or Madam".

4. The Body

The body paragraphs are where you can capture your main points and professionally explain your concerns, opinions or other information to your recipient. This is the part where your introduction and the purpose of the letter comes in. You can use verbiage such as, "I am writing to you today because..."

Once you've explained what the recipient will read, you can expand further throughout the next paragraph. Include details that support your first statement. For example, if you were writing a recommendation letter, you could expand on the skills of the person your recommending by saying, "Avery's time-management and organizational skills have improved the efficiency of my business by 12% since the beginning of the quarter."

You can continue giving examples until you believe your point has been clearly understood by the reader. Keep your sentences short, simple and easy for the reader to understand.

5. Conclusion and Signature

After finishing the body of the letter, the conclusion should be written. This paragraph can be short and will finalize the document by repeating your main point, explaining any possible next steps or thanking the recipient for taking the time to read your letter.

After closing the letter, you can provide your closing signature at the end of the document. Examples of common letter signatures are:

Sincerely

Sincerely yours

With appreciation

Thank you

Regards

Yours truly

Respectfully yours

Carefully select your closing signature as per the requirements and input name at the bottom of the letter.

6. Enclosures

Enclosures are additional materials added to your letter to support your document, similar to when you attach a file to an email. If you're attaching a document to complement your letter, you should mention it near the end of your letter. To inform the reader that an additional document is attached, you can include the word "enclosure" at the end of the letter after your name. You can also shorten the word by writing, "encl."

Write your name and address in the top left-hand corner of the envelope followed by the recipient's name and address in the middle. Now your letter is ready to be sent to the recipient.

Job Application

The application process for internships, internships, and graduate / professional programs usually requires a personal statement or application letter. This type of writing invites writers to present their skills with confidence and accuracy, which can be challenging.

Although the requirements are different in application and application, the purpose of this type of writing is to represent your goals, experiences and qualifications in the best possible light, and to demonstrate your writing ability. Your personal statement or request letter to present to your potential employer or program manager, so it's important that you take enough time to write a piece of creative writing.

Below is the application writing procedure:

• Prepare your materials:
  Before you sit down and write, prepare something to prevent frustration during the writing process itself. Obtain copies of documents such as transcript, resumes and original application form; keeping them in front of you will make your writing career a lot easier. Make a list of important information, with specific names and specific topics for employers and directors, job titles you have worked on, dates for relevant work or volunteer experiences, jobs involved etc. This way, you will be able to look at these materials while writing to include as much detail as possible.

• Write a first draft:
  After you've compiled and reviewed these materials, it's time to start writing. The following is a list of concerns that authors should keep in mind when writing a personal statement / request letter.

Below is an example of a job application letter which can be used as a template for your letters:

4.5              Formal Reports: Components & Characteristics

The success of a business or industrial organization lies in doing its job for this purpose, gathering information and passing it on to those who need it is important. In the broader collection and transfer of information is happening all the time in every area of ​​formal life. So scientists, working brokers, testers, journalists, and various professionals, government and private organizations are asked to write and report to their management on important topics at the institution or the person involved.

Reports can be as short as a few sentences and as long as a few large pages. Although reports can be verbal and informal, here we are concerned with written and formal reports.

Characteristics of a Formal Report

• Requirement:
  When organizing and preparing your reports you need to know who your audience is and whether or not your content meets their interests and needs.

• Accessibility:
  Legitimacy has to do with how easy or readable it is. As most reports in normal cases type, all meetings with good typing should be followed. If there are handwritten reports, special attention should be given to writing clearly and clearly. Any departure from the above requirement will prove displeasing to your audience.

• Clarity and Readability:
  Clarity, durability and systematic presentation of readable content. The concept is summarized better than the following:
  The author does a lot by giving his reader a lot of information and taking away from him a little time.
  In this regard the following five goals are met:

• Conciseness:
  Just like unwanted fat in the body, padding, prolixity and repetition violates the respect of good writing, not to mention the respect they wrote for you. So 'agree' and 'prefer' will be more acceptable than pompous 'agree with' and 'prefer'. As such, why use 'at that point in time' and at a time when we have the best and most economical holdings at that time 'and' when '. Viewed from the point of view of the report, or requested for the report, a good report will contain four important details, an analysis of the information, conclusions and recommendations. It should always be remembered that effective reporting requires special attention to the needs and expectations of the reader. It means that the author of the report has to 'snap a picture', he must think and understand himself.

Components of a Formal Report

A formal report is comprised of the following sections:

1. Title Page

The title page includes the main title of the report, it must be short and concise. You can also include the word counts of your summary and main body.

B.     Table of Contents

Help your reader quickly and easily find what they are looking for by using informative headings and careful numbering of your sections and sub-sections.

For example:

C.    Introduction

The introductory part of the report comprises of statement of the objectives of the report and how the report should be treated by the readers. It should indicate towards the problem that is going to be addressed in the main body. It should be catchy and interesting to grasp the attention of the reader from the very start.

D.    The Body

The main body consists of the central theme or the main idea of the report. It can be divided into a number of sections and subsections to separate your research and subsequent findings in a logical order.

E.     Figures, Graphs, Formulae and Tables

This section consists of the statistical representation of the data you have collected. Ideas should be conveyed in the form which is most suitable to the reader and easily understandable by the reader. Excessive use of these tools should be avoided.

F.     Conclusion

The conclusion is a kind of summing up of all the points you have stated in the main text. It should be a definite solution to the problem introduced during the introductory part of the report. The conclusion must be short and to the point.

G.   Summary

Summarize all the key points stated in the report including your research, your findings and your conclusion. The summary should feel like a brief overview of your investigations and outcomes. The summary should be constructed in such a way that it can be called a stand-alone document on its own.

H.    References

References must include detailed information of all your citations and the sources of material quoted in your texts. It can also include bibliography for further reading.

I.       Appendices

This is the last element of a report. It refers to any material which can be useful in the detailed understanding of your subject. It is not meant for the casual reader but for readers who are highly interested in the subject.

Complaint Report

Many companies encourage the use of complaint reports as the proper method of formally stating a trouble. These reports are usually used to address unsatisfactory transactions or conditions concerning a company. Writing a complaint report properly is key to getting your concern heard and the problem remedied.

A complaint report consists of the following elements:

The Heading

The heading part follows the format given below:

TO:              (The individual or company to whom the complaint is addressed)

FROM:           (The individual registering the complaint)

DATE:             (Current Date)

SUBJECT:           (The main purpose summed up in one sentence)

The Body

The body must contain an introduction where you should write the purpose of your report and what is the primary concern of the report. It should then include the main subject, in this case the complaint. The issue at hand should be properly discussed and you should try to provide reasonable solutions to the problem. The tone should not be aggressive at it would make it more difficult to find a suitable resolution to your grievances. The concluding sentence should sum up the report in 2-3 sentences, try to reiterate the key points you have mentioned earlier and try to suggest a few measures that would help in solving your issue.

Laboratory Report

A laboratory report is a formal, analytical and concise record of an experiment. The discussion of the experiment, the various procedures and the subsequent results obtained should be clear and specific enough that a reader could easily replicate the experiment. One of the main purposes of writing a laboratory report is to communicate the work done in the laboratory to the management on a regular basis. Another reason for writing a laboratory report is to record an experiment for the future and archive it.

Format

Although most laboratory reports will include the following sections, some experiments will require a

Different format. All reports should be tailored so as to meet the requirements laid down by the experiment.

Abstract: The abstract should contain a brief informational synopsis of your experiment. It is advisable to keep the abstract under 200 words. While writing the abstract, assertive or declarative sentences should be used rather than writing a long descriptive prose.

Introduction: Here the background of the experiment which is to be undertaken is explained in a few lines. The introduction should explain the objectives you hope to achieve from the experiment. When appropriate, the background should indicate theoretical predictions.

Procedures (or Methods): This section includes a detailed set of instructions of how the experiment is ought to be conducted. Each instruction should be so precise that the reader should be able to replicate it if he so desired. There should be no ambiguity and error when it comes to numbers and quantities. All statistical information should be well organised.

Results and Discussion (sometimes presented as separate sections): This section must convey results relevant to the goals of the experiment. Here the analysis of the results obtained from the experiment must be carried out along with its implications. All possible sources of error should be acknowledged with potential solutions if any. Results can also be presented in the form of graphs and tables if the experiment needs it.

Conclusions: Here you should place the specific results acquired into the context of the experiment as a whole. The discussion section should serve as sufficient conclusion if the experiment and report is short. Remember to evaluate the results you obtained in light of the objectives stated in the introduction.

Appendices: This section must include the information which is too extensive or tangential to warrant inclusion in the main body of the report, but necessary as procedural or analytical evidence.

Progress Report

A progress report is a type of report which is written in order to inform a supervisor, associate, or customer about progress you’ve made on a project over a certain period of time.

A progress report must answer the following questions:

• What percentage of the work is complete?
• Which part of the work is currently being performed?
• Which sections of the work are yet to be completed?
• What unexpected problems have arisen in the project?
• What is the overall status of the project?
• How much more time will be required to complete the work?

A progress report can be structured in three different ways:

a)     Memo – An informal memo report to be sent to someone within the organization.

b)    Letter – An informal or formal letter to be sent to someone outside of the organization.

c)     Formal Report – A formal report to be sent to someone outside the organization

You should choose the type of progress report depending upon your requirements.

A progress report has no specific structure but should always include the following elements:

• The title and the words “Progress Report” on top of the document
• Section headings to simplify the reading process.
• The name of the writer along with their designation and the receiver’s name and designation.
• The opening should be titled “scope and purpose” where the introduction defines the purpose of the report.
• Two sections titled “Progress….” And “Remaining work” should always be included. The former defining how much work has been successfully completed and the latter describing what part of it is yet to be done.
• A section projecting results and the tentative timeline of completion should also be included.
• The paragraphs should be short and concise and the tone respectful.

Status Report

A status report is a type of progress report which keeps the clients, project managers, supervisors and team members up to date regarding a certain project.

It comprises of the efforts, progress and risk associated with a project. A project status report can be a weekly, monthly or quarterly formulated report.

A project status report may be used to:

• Streamline communication efforts across the organization and stakeholders
• Make it easier to gather and disseminate information about key elements of the project
• Ensure stakeholders have all necessary information for decision-making
• Amplify key messages and goals around the project
• Act as a logbook for past key events and actions

What is included in a status report:

• Summary of Work Completed
• A Plan for What Comes Next
• Updates on Budget and Timeline
• Any Action Items/To-Dos
• Report on Risks, Issues, and Mitigation

Below is the format of a status report:

1. Project Name / Client Name

This section should contain the title of the project along with the name of the client. Make sure you record WHO the report is for and WHAT the report entails (ie. What project).

2. Project Vision

Here the main objectives of the project are to be listed in a clear and to the point manner. This is the only static unchanging section of a status report.

Examples:

Drive qualified customers to “purchase” mobile devices based on an improved UI.

With this project, we hope to increase online sales through the implementation of a drip email marketing campaign.

Launch a website by June 2018 that allows customers to purchase the highest quality & best-tasting product in its category.

3. Project Health

Here the health status of the project can be highlighted. The use of colours could be very helpful for notifying the health status for example, green for successful, yellow for a few complications and red for issues requiring immediate and critical attention. A note to support is always helpful.

Examples:

Green: We’ve obtained approval on drip email designs. No budget concerns at this time.

Yellow: The drip email designs need significant revisions; therefore, the final delivery date has been delayed by 1 week.

Red: The drip email campaign has drastically shifted direction since starting. We need to set-up a meeting to establish a wants/wishes for the project.

4. What We Completed This TIMEFRAME

These should be listed in bullet format. Keep these short & simple. Don’t explain the “how” just what.

Example:

Obtained approval for 3 drip email designs

5. What We Plan to Complete Next TIMEFRAME

This section should include what is planned in clear and precise bullet points.

Example:

Develop the three emails

Perform internal QA & testing

Pass off to client QA & testing

6. Issues/Roadblocks

This is where you can raise any red flags or obstacles keeping you from moving forward.

Example:

If we do not obtain client feedback by 06/02, we will be in jeopardy of not being able to send the email to consumers the same day as the product will be available in stores.

7. Upcoming Tasks & Milestones

This should include a set of goals to be achieved in the near future. Is there anything that the viewer should review? and what’s coming up next?

Examples:

Dd/mm: Client QA & Testing

Dd/mm: Email Deployment

Memo Report

A memo report or memorandum is an internal and informal form of communication which is written to inform and to call to action. It is normally used for communicating policies, procedures or other information within the organisation.

Unlike Interpersonal communication a memo report is presented to a large number of people. A memo has to be concise and concrete in terms of providing information.

One of the instances where you could be asked to write a memo report is in a lab. Here the audience for your memo report is your professor who has asked you to conduct an experiment and supply him with appropriate results.

All memo reports consist of two parts: the heading and the body

The Heading

The heading part follows the format given below:

TO:              (The name of the receiver and their designation)

FROM:           (Your name and designation or title)

DATE:             (Current Date)

SUBJECT:           (The purpose of writing the report)

The Body

The body of a memo report, like any technical report, should be concise and to the point. It needs to be properly structured and organised. It should consist of the following elements:

Opening:

This section should consist of 2 to 3 sentences and should state the main purpose of the memo. It should include the main problem with which the memo is concerned with and how it is going to be addressed. A good way to start the opening statement would be “The purpose of this memo is to inform you regarding the recent changes….”

Findings:

While writing a technical report it is crucial to include a summarized version of your findings regarding the concerned topic. It should include key points so that the reader can understand the purpose of the memo immediately. This section can also be labelled as “summary” or “recommendations”

Discussion:

This is the longest section in the memo which deals with all the information and evidences you have collected to support your arguments. This section can be subdivided into four subsections namely, Methods (any experiments or calculations involved), Analysis (the analysis of collected data), Results (summary of results obtained from methods and analysis) and Commentary (your objective views on your findings)

Conclusion:

After discussing your research, you should summarize the main elements of your finding in 2 or 3 sentences that should reiterate all the implications in the memo.

References:

All citations and bibliography are to be mentioned in the references section.

4.6              Writing E-mails

Emails are basically letters sent electronically. They can be long or short, formal or informal. Although for business purposes only formal emails are considered important.

Emails have become a dominant form of communication. Being able to write polished, relevant email is now a critical skill in college and work.

Formal Email:

• Written for a professor, colleague, manager, etc.

• Must always be professional.
• Accurate grammar, punctuation, and spelling necessary

Example:

Dear Professor Johnson,

I was unable to attend class today due to a doctor’s appointment. If you have a moment, can you let me know what I missed and what homework I need to complete on Friday?

Thank you,

Julia Smith.

Email Format

• Greetings / Salutation:
  A formal email greeting is similar to a letter greeting. When you write a letter to a stranger, you put the question “Who Can Worry About You”? When applying for a job, you were addressing the person, “Dear Hiring Manager.” If you know the name of the recipient, you put “Mr. Dear Mr.M /. Smith. "For formal greetings, you should not use the recipient's first name or the informal greetings" Hello "or" Hello."

• Physical Categories/ Body Paragraphs:
  It is important to remember that the email needs to be shorter.

   I hope that all goes well for you.

   Thank you for your prompt response.
However, in official emails it is best to understand the point. Depending on the topic, you should have four main roles and each paragraph should have one point. In your last paragraph you should provide a "thank you" or "call to action" depending on the topic of your email.

   Thank you for your help with

   Thank you for your time and look forward to hearing from you.

   Please feel free to call me or email me if you have any questions. If this can be taken care of immediately.

• Closing:
  As a greeting, the closing of the official email can be the same as the closing of the book. However, unlike mourning, there are many ways to close.

   Thank you

   very humble

   Sincerely
It is also helpful to add your post (if any) and a phone number under your name in paragraph 4.

For example:
Yours sincerely,
Julia Smith
President of Student Body
Menlo College
(555) 555-5555

• Tips:

   DO NOT use a contract.
Example: no, no, I'm not, I'm not.

   DO NOT write about all the coins.

   Use structured vocabulary and sentence structure. DO NOT use slang.

Close email at least twice and get a second opinion if possible.