Unit – 3

Grammar

3.1 Correction of Common Errors

Common Errors with Articles

     The use of A/An with plural Or uncountable noun:

a fact = OK (singular)

a facts = INCORRECT (plural)

An information = INCORRECT (uncountable)

An advice = INCORRECT (uncountable)

a piece of advice = OK (“piece” is countable)

a pants / a glasses / a scissors = INCORRECT (plural)

a pair of pants/glasses/scissors = OK (“pair” is countable)

a rice = INCORRECT (uncountable)

a grain of rice = OK (“grain” is countable)

a work = INCORRECT (uncountable)

a job / a task / a project = OK (countable)

     The articles ‘A’ and ‘An’ always follow the sound, not the letter

a university (pronounced like you – ni – ver – si – ty)

An umbrella (pronounced like um – brel – la)

a hat (h is not silent)

An hour (h is silent)

An X-ray (pronounced like ex – ray)

An NGO (pronounced like en – gee – oh)

a non-governmental organization (when we say the full words, they start with the N sound)

     The use of A and An without a noun following it.

I am a Japanese. = INCORRECT (“Japanese” is an adjective, not a noun)

I am Japanese. = OK

He is an intelligent. = INCORRECT (“intelligent” is an adjective, not a noun)

He is intelligent. = OK

He is an intelligent man. = OK (now it’s OK because we have the noun “man” after “an intelligent”)

     The use of "The" for Singular or Plural and for Countable or Uncountable nouns, when something specific is being talked about (Not General)

I love pasta. (general)

I love the pasta at that restaurant. (specific)

That store sells furniture. (general)

The furniture in my living room is all new. (specific)

Vegetables are good for you. (general)

The vegetables at the market are always fresh. (specific)

I need advice. (general)

The advice you gave me was very helpful. (specific)

     Use of the article "The" for proper nouns:

• NAMES OF CONTINENTS/COUNTRIES*/STATES/CITIES/STREETS:

We’re traveling around Asia for three months.

I’d like to visit Russia.

Paris is my favourite city in Europe.

Have you ever been to California?

They live on Rosewood Avenue.

*Exceptions: the United States (the U.S.), the United Kingdom (the U.K.), the Philippines, the Czech Republic, the Central African Republic, the Marshall Islands

• COMPANIES & UNIVERSITIES*

My uncle works at Samsung.

Microsoft reported high profits this quarter.

She graduated from Harvard.

New York University is very large.

*Exceptions: If the university’s name BEGINS with “university,” then use “the”:

The University of Pennsylvania, the University of Miami

• LANGUAGES & HOLIDAYS

I’m studying Spanish.

He speaks Italian.

My whole family gets together at Christmas.

The office will be closed on New Year’s Day.

     "The" can be used while referring for certain places:

• DO NOT USE THE WITH INDIVIDUAL LAKES OR MOUNTAINS:

Mount Everest is the highest mountain the world.

We went sailing on Lake Ontario.

• USE THE WITH OCEANS, RIVERS, VALLEYS, DESERTS, MOUNTAIN RANGES, POINTS ON GLOBE:

The Pacific Ocean

The Amazon River

The San Fernando Valley

The Sahara Desert

The Swiss Alps, the Rocky Mountains

The North/South Pole, the Equator

• DO NOT USE THE WITH THE FOLLOWING PLACES:

I’m going home.

She’s at work.

He’s in jail.

We attend church.

My kids went to bed.

My brother’s in high school.

My sister’s in college.

• USE THE WITH THE FOLLOWING PLACES:

I went to the bank.

Let’s go to the movies.

He gets home from the office around 7.

My grandfather’s in the hospital.

I’ll stop by the post office after lunch.

I caught a taxi to the airport.

I’ll pick you up at the train station.

We’re waiting at the bus stop.

We took my son to the doctor.

I’m going to the dentist this afternoon. (in this case, “the doctor” and “the dentist” are short for “the doctor’s office” and “the dentist’s office”)

Common Errors with Prepositions

The use of prepositions in sentences can be a difficult task. Propositions are sometimes short and very common (e.g., at, in and on), and may have several uses depending on the context, which can make it difficult to know which preposition to use.

Below are some common errors to avoid with prepositions:

1. Temporal Errors

The use of 'in' and 'at' depends on the time of the day. For example, in sentences we always use the preposition “in” with “morning,” “afternoon,” and “evening.” But the preposition 'at' is used when talking about the night:

• Helen goes running in the morning.
• Tim goes running in the afternoon.
• Shirley goes running in the evening.
• Bob goes running at night.

b.     Spatial Errors (In and at vs. To)

The preposition 'to' can be used to discuss journeys (e.g., “I’m going to Tasmania”). But if the word “arrive,” is present in a sentence we use “in” or “at” to describe reaching a destination. For instance:

• She arrived in Tasmania just after lunch.
• He arrived at the restaurant five minutes late.

The use of “in” or “at” typically depends on the destination:

The preposition “in” for cities, countries or other large areas. While the preposition “at” is used for specific places (e.g., a library, a bar, or someone’s house).

c.      Time, Days, Months, and Years (At, On, and In)

Different prepositions are used in different contexts while referring to time in days, months and years.

If a time of the day is being referred, the correct term is “at”:

• The party starts at 9pm.

If a specific day or date is being referred, we use “on”:

• The party is on Saturday.

While referring to a month or year, the correct preposition is “in”:

• We’re having a party in April.

d.     Helping verbs

With auxiliary verbs such as “should” or “must.”, the preposition "of" is used.

• Exception: I should of gone to bed earlier. ✗

However, this is an error. The correct word here isn’t even a preposition.

Rather, the verb “have,” must be used which sounds a bit like “of” when spoken (hence the confusion). Thus, it should say:

I should have gone to bed earlier. ✓

e.     Present Continuous Tense

If something has been happening from a long time, we use “for” when referring to a length of time (e.g., a period of hours, days, or months):

• I’ve been writing for six hours.

But if a specific time is used as a point of reference, we use “since”:

• I’ve been writing since breakfast.

The difference here is that the first refers to a measure of time, while the second refers to a fixed point in the past when the activity began.

f.        Talking About and Discussing

“Talking” and “discussing” are similar activities, so people often treat these words as interchangeable. However, only the preposition “about” must be used after “talking.” For example:

• We’re talking about extreme sports. ✓
• We’re discussing extreme sports. ✓
• We’re discussing about extreme sports. ✗

Common Errors with Tenses

Rule 1

A past tense in the independent clause is always followed by a past tense in the subordinate clause.

Example: I found out that she was out of town.

However, there is an exception to this rule. When the independent clause in the past tense, the subordinate clause can be in the present tense if a universal truth is being stated by it. 

Example: The children were taught that honesty is the best policy.

Another exception to this rule is when the word ‘than’ is used in the sentence to introduce the subordinate clause. In this case, the subordinate clause can be used in any tense irrespective of the tense of the independent clause.

Rule 2

If the tense used with the independent clause is in the present or future tense, the tense of the subordinate clause can be in any tense based on what needs to be conveyed.

Example: She is saying that she is alright. She says she is fine.
 

Rule 3

If the independent clause is in the future tense, the subordinate clause is not used in the future tense instead a subordinating clause beginning with when, until, before, after etc. is used.

Example: I will call you when dinner is ready. I shall wait until you return.

Rule 4

When the subordinate clause is introduced with the conjunction ‘that’, the following rules must be followed,

• ‘May’ should be used in the subordinate clause when the independent clause is in the present tense.
• ‘Might’ should be used in the subordinate clause when the independent clause is in the past tense.

Example: We eat that we may live. She tried to live so that he might have a chance at life.

Rule 5

When some phrases such as If only, wish that, what if, it is time are used, the clauses that follow it are always in the past tense.

Example: I wish I could eat another ice cream.

Errors in Pronunciation

There is a great difference in how the words are spelled and the way they are pronounced in the English language. Therefore, it is difficult to ascertain the correct pronunciation of a word by just looking at it the way it is spelled. This often results in mispronunciation. Only by hearing the correct pronunciation from a native speaker one can truly understand how words are supposed to be articulated.

For example, consider the following words – through, cough, though, rough, bough. In these words the pronunciation of the letters –ough varies with each word.

Similarly read, need, believe, machine, receive, we, people, key, quay contain nine different spellings for the same vowel sound in the word “need”.

Below are some commonly made errors with respect to pronunciation and how to avoid them -

THE -ED SUFFIX ON REGULAR VERBS

The past tense of various verbs are formed by adding the suffix “-ed” to the base form of the verb. But Even though all  regular verbs are formed the same way, they might be pronounced quite differently. Depending on the preceding syllable, the -ed suffix can be pronounced in three different ways: /id/, /d/, or /t/.

/ID/

This pronunciation is used when “-ed” is preceded by a “d” or a “t”.

Examples

Need   → needed

End      → ended

Start     → started

Want     → wanted

/T/

Regular verbs that end in a voiceless consonant sound have the /T/ pronunciation. Some common voiceless consonants include: /f/ /k/ /p/ /s/ /t/ /sh/ y /ch/.

Examples

/f/ laugh       → laughed

/p/ stop      → stopped

/sh/ wash       →washed

/k/ like       → liked

/s/ miss    → missed

/D/

Regular verbs having a voiced consonant sound have this pronunciation. Some common voiced consonants are: /b/ /g/ /v/ /z/ /m/ /n/ /l/ /th/ /r/.

Examples:

/b/ grab      → grabbed

/g/ beg      → begged

/n/ listen → listened

/l/ kill → killed

SILENT LETTERS

Silent letters are consonants that appear in a word but are not pronounced. It can be difficult for a non-native speaker to grasp which letters are silent in a word, therefore resulting in errors in pronunciation. For example, There are many English words where the “h” is not pronounced. The same applies to many other consonants. Let’s look at some examples.

Silent H

Although it should be kept in mind that the aspirated “h” in English is always pronounced. Here is a list of words that begin with a silent “h”.

Hour

Honour

Honest

Heir

Herbs

These words containing the silent 'h' usually have a vowel right after 'h' and the actual pronunciation begins from the said vowel.

Silent P

There are a number of words where the first 'p' is not pronounced leading to mispronunciation by non native speakers. Here are those words:

Psychology

Psychiatrist

Pseudo

Pneumonia

Pneumatics

Psalms

Another commonly mispronounced word 'receipt', where the “p” is not at the beginning of the word, is followed by a consonant, but is not pronounced.

There are many other silent letters in English and the only way to recognize them is by practicing their usage. By a general rule, they are consonants followed by other consonants. For example: doubt , subtle , assign , design , knife , knight .

THE STRESS ON DERIVED WORDS

Sometimes the stress passes from a later syllable to the first syllable in some derived forms of verbs. Their visual similarity can be misleading and therefore should be paid close attention to.

Examples

Implant (v) implant (n)

Project (v) project (n)

Upgrade (v) upgrade (n)

Spelling Errors

Figuring out how to spell words is one of the most helpful long-lasting abilities and it fabricates the fundamental establishment that all individuals will require all through their training and life when all is said in done. Figuring out how to spell is significant for other fundamental abilities, including reading and writing. In addition, being acceptable at spelling may affect the future vocations of understudies.

Spelling in English language can be very complicated. Words are often not spelled the way they are pronounced. There are silent letters and invisible letters in various words which make it difficult for one to use correct pronunciation while speaking and write the spelling correctly. Therefore, it is significant to be acquainted with various spelling rules in order to be good at writing in English.

Following are some basic rules that one can follow if they found themselves in a spelling dilemma:

1. Rule 1: Double Consonants

Double consonants can often change the meaning and pronunciation of a word. It’s is difficult to figure out double consonants when a word is spoken, especially if the word has only one syllable. Double consonants can be usually found with words having suffixes added to them.

Example: She dropped her keys on the floor by accident.

Some words can be pronounced as either mono syllabic or bi syllabic.

Example: Blessed are the meek for they shall inherit the earth.

Here the word ‘blessed’ is pronounces as Bless-ed.

Whereas in the sentence below, blessed is pronounced as ‘blest’.

Example: He got blessed by both his father and mother.

2.     Rule 2: “I before E, except after C”

Although this rule got many exceptions it can be used as a general guideline. This rule states that if a word got both I and e in it, then I will come before e. But if the word also has a c before I and e, then the I will come after e.

I before E

Example: This game is a piece of cake.

Except After C

She received a suspicious package on her birthday.

3.     Rule 3: Plural Words

Some words can be changed into plural forms by adding suffixes like ‘s’ and ‘es’. The question remains where to use the ‘s’ suffix and where to use the ‘es’ suffix.

The rule is this: if a word ends in ‑s, ‑sh, ‑ch, ‑x, or ‑z, the suffix –es should be used.

Example: The Genie granted Aladdin three wishes but gave Jaffar only one wish.

For all other kinds of words the suffix ‘s’ can be used.

Example: Jake got three chocolates while Julie got only one chocolate.

There are also a number of words that don’t change spellings when their plural forms are used such as, Moose, fish, sheep.

Also, there are a number of words that change their vowels when converted to plural forms such as foot-feet, goose-geese, mouse-mice etc.

4.     Rule 4: The Silent E

Usually the ‘e’ at the end of a word which is preceded by a consonant is silent. This however, does not affect the way the vowel before the last consonant is pronounced. It is essential to be careful while using ‘e’ at the end of a word as it might change the meaning of said word.

Example:

The monkey bit me. Keep your fingers out of the cage: the monkeys bite.

Here the tense of the word ‘bit’ changed after adding the suffix ‘e’.

The addition of ‘e’ might also create a completely different word such as in cut – cute.

While adding suffixes such as –ed, -er, or –est, the silent ‘e’ is usually dropped from the end.

Example: She had blue eyes. She had the bluest eyes I had ever seen.
 

5.     Rule 5: Suffixes to Words Ending With ‘y’

When a suffix is added to a word that starts with E (such as -ed, -er, or -est) to a word that ends in Y, the Y typically will change to an I.

Examples:  Baby – Babies, Cry – Cries, Family –Families.

If the suffix –ing is added to a word ending with ‘y’, the ‘y’ is not removed.

Examples: Carry – Carrying, Cry – Crying

If a word contains two consonants before the ‘y’ one should change the ‘y’ to ‘I’ before adding the suffix ‘ly’

Example: Happy – Happily, Lucky – Luckily.

Words which are often misspelt:

Commonly misspelt English words are some of the most used words that are unintentionally misspelt by users in day to day writing. Although it is difficult to determine which words are more prone to spelling mistakes, words with double consonants, multiple connected vowels, and long arduous words are more commonly misspelt compared to other words.

Below are some of the most commonly misspelt words in the English Language:

The first column represents the correct spelling of the word followed by the mistake commonly made by writers and the last column represents the misspelt form of the word used.

3.2 Exercise on Rewrite as Directed

Rewrite the following sentences as directed. An example is given below.

You are the only person who loves me. (Rewrite using No one)

No one other than you loves me. OR No one besides you loves me.

Rewrite the following sentences as directed

1. I could not finish the project on time. (Rewrite using ‘able to’)

2. I must submit the project tomorrow. (Rewrite using necessary)

3. Could they solve the problem? (Rewrite using ‘possible’)

4. If you feel that it is necessary for you to make changes in the document, feel free to do so. (Rewrite using ‘need’)

5. Prospero could not make him change his ways. (Rewrite using possible)

6. You should be able to guide us. (Rewrite using ought to)

7. He would spend hours in the water. (Rewrite using ‘used to’)

8. The project should get good publicity. (Rewrite using another suitable auxiliary in place of the underlined one.)

9. I am able to tell you that it has really made a difference. (Rewrite using ‘can’)

10. That was a horrible experience. (Rewrite using What a…)

11. The train arrived as soon as we reached the station. (Rewrite using hardly…when…)

12. He was so weak that he could not walk. (Rewrite using too…to…)

13. She is too polite to refuse. (Rewrite using so…that…)

14. As soon as the tiger appeared, the hunter shot it down. (Rewrite using No sooner ….than…)

15. Though he was young he fought valiantly. (Rewrite the sentence so that it begins with Young as…)

16. Not only Peter but Jack also got a prize. (Rewrite using as well as.)

17. If you do not obey my orders you will be dismissed. (Rewrite using unless.)

18. I opened the door but I saw nothing. (Rewrite using anything.)

Answers

1. It was not possible for me to finish the project on time.

2. It is necessary for me to submit the project tomorrow.

3. Was it possible for you to solve the problem?

4. If you need to make changes in the document, feel free to do so.

5. It was not possible for Prospero to make him change his ways.

6. You ought to guide us.

7. He used to spend hours in the water.

8. The project ought to get good publicity.

9. I can tell you that it has really made a difference.

10. What a horrible experience it was!

11. We had hardly reached the train when the train arrived.

12. He was too weak to walk.

13. She is so polite that she will not refuse.

14. No sooner did the tiger appear than the hunter shot it down.

15. Young as he was, he fought valiantly.

16. Peter as well as Jack got a prize.

17. Unless you obey my orders you will be dismissed.

18. I opened the door but I didn’t see anything. (Nothing means ‘not anything’.)

3.3 Correct Use of Words, Idioms, Phrases, Prepositions etc.

Words

Words are the second smallest unit used during the construction of a sentence after the alphabets. They are the building blocks of any grammatical construction. Words are different combinations and sounds but unlike alphabets, each word carries meaning in itself.

Each word consists of two parts – the alphabet (A-Z) and the syllable. A syllable can be defined as a single or unbroken sound of a written or spoken word. It is a unit of uninterrupted speech which must contain a vowel sound a diphthong or a syllabic consonant. They are also known as beats of a spoken language.

Syllables often contain a vowel with a singular or multiple consonant but that does not mean that there are no syllables without vowels. Some syllables contain only consonants but they do have a verbal sound in them.

A word can be monosyllabic as well as polysyllabic. Monosyllabic meaning it will consist only one syllable for example the words dog, bat, try, shy, kill, heel etc. While polysyllabic words might contain two or more than two syllables, for example, computer (comp-u-ter), relax (re-lax), independent (in-de-pen-dent), extra (ex-tra), document (do-cu-ment).

Syllabus are not to be confused with phonemes as phonemes represent the smallest unit of sound whereas syllables represent and unbroken sound within the word. For example the word chat is made up of three phonemes /ch/ /a/ and /t/, however it contains only one syllable – chat.

There are a few basic rules to determine the number of syllables in a word, they are as follows –

1. Prefixes and suffixes must always be separated from root words.

Examples: Pre-view, End-less, Il-literate

2.      If there are two or more consonants next to each other there is always a division between the first and second consonant.

Examples: Buf-fet, Des-sert, Ob-ject.

However if the two consonants produce a single sound they are not to be divided.

Examples: th, sh, ph, ch, sc.

3.      If a consonant is surrounded on either sides buy a vowel –

1. If the volume has a long sound it has to be divided before the consonant.

Examples: Ba-by. Re-sult, Fro-zen

b.     If the Vowel has a short sound, it has to be divided after the consonant.

Examples: Mo-del, Ra-vage, Me-tal

4.      Words that end with ‘ckle’ have to be divided right before the ‘le’

Examples: Freck-le, Tick-le, Buck-le

5.      Word that end with ‘le’ without the ‘ck’ –

1. If the letter before ‘le’ is a consonant it has to be divided one letter before ‘le’.

Examples: Ap-ple, Fa-ble, Ta-ble

b.     If the letter before ‘le’ is a vowel, it should be considered as a single syllable.

Understanding the use of syllables is very essential to improve one’s skill while speaking. Syllabic structure in spoken English is quite flexible, for example a single vowel can be considered a whole syllabus like in the word Unequal (Un-e-qual).

Strong and Weak forms of Words:

Depending on the stress placed on word while a sentence is being spoken the words can be divided into two types’ strong forms and weak forms.

Grammatical words such as prepositions conjunctions auxiliary verbs and adverbs do not contain any meaning and themselves but are essential for the construction of a sentence. Sometimes while speaking very little or no stress is placed in these words and therefore their effect is weakened. The weakened form of these words is known as weak form. On the other hand some words in a sentence are pronounced with great stress to emphasize them. The emphasized form of these words is known as Strong form.

Strong form only occurs when the words are pronounced separately or they are emphasized on purpose.

Strong forms usually include content words such as nouns and independent verbs whereas weak forms usually include structure words such as verbs, adverbs and adjectives, conjunctions, prepositions, auxiliary verbs.

It is essential to learn the proper usage of strong and weak forms of words in order to hone one’s skill during speaking.

1. Amar can play the piano.

Here the word ‘can’ is unstressed and therefore is in its weak form. Whereas the words Amar, play, the and piano are strong forms.

2.     Martha is from California.

Here the words ‘is’ and ‘from’ are unstressed and are in weak forms.

Whereas the words, ‘Martha’ and ‘California’ are strong forms of the two nouns.

A lot of function words in the English language can have both strong and weak forms.

• Auxiliary verbs such as - am, are, be, been, can, could, do, does, has, had, shall, should, was, were, would,
• Prepositions - at, for, from, of, to,
• Pronouns - he, her, him, his, me, she, them, us, we, you,
• Conjunctions - for, and, but, or, than, that,
• Particles - to,
• Articles - a, the, an.

Parts of Speech

Depending upon the way they are used in a sentence, words can function in different ways when used in a sentence. All words can be classified into eight fundamental parts that are required to construct a complete sentence: noun, pronoun, verb, adjective, adverb, preposition, conjunction, and interjection. These parts of speech determine how a word functions in meaning as well as grammatically within the sentence.

The use of the words defines their place and meaning in a sentence.

1. Noun

Nouns, also called naming words, refer to any person, place, animal, thing or idea. Nouns can be singular or plural, concrete or abstract. There are two types of nouns:

1. Proper noun- These nouns start with capital letters and refer to the name of a particular place or thing. Ex – Barack  Obama, Himalaya mountains.
2. Common noun- These nouns start with lower case letter and refer to the names of general places or things. Ex – man, teacher, letter

2.     Pronoun

A pronoun is a word used in place of the noun.

A pronoun which substituted in place of a specific noun is called an antecedent. Pronouns can be further defined by  their various types: personal pronouns describe specific persons or things; possessive pronouns imply ownership; relative pronouns introduce a subordinate clause; and demonstrative pronouns identify, point to, or refer to nouns.

Ex - Me, she, her, mine, theirs.

3.     Adjective

An adjective is a word that describes the quality or quantity possessed by a noun. It answers the questions like which one, what kind or how many. It is a word used to modify or describe the noun or a pronoun.

Ex - Young boy, Pretty girl, Huge elephant, One thousand sea shells.

4.     Adverb

An adverb is a word that modifies or describes a verb, an adjective, or another adverb, but never a noun. When, where, how, why, under what conditions, or to what degree are the types of questions that are answered by an adverb. Adverbs often end in -ly.

Ex- Very long letter, quickly disappear out of sight.

5.     Preposition

Prepositions are words placed before a noun or a pronoun in order to modify the meaning of other words in a sentence. The prepositional phrase almost functions as an adjective or an adverb.

Ex- The boy received a number of sweets from the teacher.

6.     Verb

A verb is a word that expresses the state of being or work being done by the subject. There are main verbs and there are also helping verbs known as auxiliary verbs. Verbs can also be used to express tense.

Ex – She vanished in the darkness.

7.     Conjunction

A conjunction is a word that joins words, phrases or clauses and establishes a relationship between them. And, but, or, nor, for, so, yet are some examples of conjunctions.  

8.     Interjection

An interjection is a word which is used to express emotion. They are usually followed by exclamation points.

Ex. Oh dear! Wow! Oh my God!

Idioms

Idioms are phrases or expressions that convey a meaning which cannot be derived from the conjoined meanings of its elements. These do not convey the exact meaning of the words but have a figurative or literal meaning.

How are they different from proverbs? Proverbs are well-known sayings, stating a general truth or advice. For example, the proverb ‘a picture is worth thousand words’ is a general truth. The idiom ‘bite off more than you can chew’, however, is neither a general truth nor an advice.

Below are some commonly used idioms in the English language with their meaning:

     Penny for your thoughts - To ask what someone is thinking about

     Actions speak louder than words - Intentions are clearer by actions rather than words

     Add insult to injury - To mock someone's pitiable situation even more

     At the drop of a hat - To do something instantly

     Back to the drawing board - To restart something

     Ball is in your court - It’s up to you to take the next step

     Barking up the wrong tree - Looking in the wrong direction, accusing a wrong person

     Beat around the bush - Speaking indirectly about something

     Best of both worlds - All of the advantages without any drawbacks

     Best thing since sliced bread - A good idea or innovation

     Bite off more than you can chew - To accept a task which is bigger than one's capabilities

     Blessing in disguise - Something which was considered as bad first which turned out to be good

     Burn the midnight oil - To work all night

     Can't judge a book by its cover - Cannot judge something based on first impressions

     Costs an arm and a leg - Used when something is very expensive

     Cross that bridge when you come to it - To deal with the problem as it presents itself

     Cry over spilt milk - Complaining about the past

     Curiosity killed the cat - Being Inquisitive can lead to a difficult situation

     Cut corners - To cut expenses by performing in a subpar manner

     Devil's Advocate - Counter argument

     Don't put all your eggs in one basket - Not to put all resources in one direction

     Every cloud has a silver lining - To be optimistic in difficult situations

     Feel a bit under the weather - To feel slightly sick

     Give the benefit of the doubt - To believe someone without proof

     Hear it on the grapevine - To hear rumours

     Hit the nail on the head - To perform a task perfectly

Phrases

Phrases are combinations of two or more words that form the component of a clause. They are meaningful grammatical constructions that expresses a concept and can be used within a sentence.

There are 5 basic types of phrases in the English language:

1. Noun Phrase:

A noun phrase is a type of phrase which consists of one noun and/or a group of words surrounding that noun. These nouns can be proper nouns, common nouns, abstract nouns etc.

Examples: There is a red box on the table.

I saw two lost puppies on the street yesterday.

He bought a new sports car on his birthday.

2.     Verb Phrase:

A verb phrase is a type of phrase which consists of a root verb and its auxiliaries. It is also known as a ‘verb group’.

Examples: They have been working since last night.

I have been waiting for the rain to stop for nearly an hour.

Jack lost the keys to his apartment when he was jogging.

3.     Adjective Phrase:

Adjective phrases are phrases constructed around a single adjective. It may be a single adjective or a group of words surrounding that adjective.

Examples: The film was very boring, wasn’t it?

I ate a very big meal for lunch.

The blue umbrella stood out in a crowd of all red umbrellas.

4.     Adverb phrase:

Adverb phrases consist of a single adverb and a group of supporting words surrounding that adverb.

Examples: They finished the task as fast as possible.

Please do it now, otherwise you’ll regret later.

He spoke very softly in front of his parents.

5.     Prepositional phrase:

A prepositional phrase is a type of phrase which consists of a preposition which is followed by its object which is usually a noun phrase.

Examples: They kept quarreling over money of all things.

The coin was stuck inside a large black futon.

You shouldn’t go swimming after having a large meal.

Word Pairs

Word pairs are phrases which, if used in proper context give a different meaning than when they are used separately. In other words, they are a coupling of words that go very well together.

Word pairs may also include collocations. Collocations are two or more words that are often used collectively. They sound natural to the native ear.

These word pairs are often non-reversible, meaning the sequence of the words in a word pair cannot be interchanged.

Below are some examples of the most commonly used word pairs in the English language:

Following examples describe how collocations are used in sentences:

1. Are you fully aware of the consequences you’re about to face?
2. He fell on the ground in excruciating pain.
3. The bomb went off when he started the car engine.
4. The prisoner was hanged for committing homicide.
5. After her eyes were filled with horror, suddenly she burst into tears.

Prepositions

A preposition is a word that connects the noun/pronoun in a sentence to the other parts of the sentence such as the verbs and adjectives. It determines the relationship between the nouns, pronouns and the other words in a sentence.

They help one understand the relationships of logic, space and sequence between the different parts of a sentence.

Below are few examples of prepositions commonly used in the English language:

1. I just came back from the U.S.
2. The book is inside the drawer.
3. The kid threw a stone into the lake.

A preposition cannot be plural or possessive. Sometimes prepositions can also act as nouns, verbs and adverbs.

Types of Prepositions

1. Prepositions of Time:

These prepositions indicate when something happens, will happen or has happened in any point in time.

Prepositions of time include at, on, in, before, during, after.

Examples:

1. John was born on the 7th of August.
2. David left his job in 2012.
3. Amy ate lots of fruits during her pregnancy.

2.     Prepositions of Place:

These prepositions usually indicate the position of a particular thing or person. The three most common prepositions of time are on, at and in.

These prepositions may also indicate the time along with place but depending on their use it can be easily ascertained what they are referring to.

Examples:

1. The ball is in the court.
2. The clothes are on the top shelf.
3. I was at the supermarket just yesterday.

3.     Prepositions of Direction or Movement:

Prepositions of movement indicate the direction in which a person or an object is moving.

‘To’ is the most commonly used preposition of movement.

Examples:

1. I went to shop for groceries but all the shops were closed.
2. He took his dog to the park.

The other prepositions of direction or movement are across, though, over, down, up, past, around.

4.     Prepositions of Manner:

Prepositions of manner describe the way in which things take place or means by which things happen.

Prepositions of manner include by, in, like, with, on.

Examples:

1. I like travelling by car.
2. She went to the school in a taxi.
3. Jacob sings like a professional.
4. He reacted with pity when he saw the poor cat.

5.     Preposition of Agents or Instruments:

Preposition of Agents or Instruments describe the action conducted by a person or object on another person or object.

Most common prepositions of these types are by and with.

Examples:

1. The song was recorded by James.
2. He cuts his hair with a clipper.

6.     Prepositions of Possession:

Prepositions of Possession indicate the owing or owning of an object. It also can be used when something is own to someone. Prepositions of possession include of, with and to.

Examples:

1. This is the car of my niece.
2. He said he saw a man with a green umbrella.
3. This jacket belongs to my grandfather.

Question Tags

Question tags are phrases which convert regular imperative or declarative sentences into questions. In other words, question tags are phrases used at the end of sentences to turn them into questions. They may be used to confirm information that has already been conveyed through a sentence or to ask follow up questions at the end of a sentence.

For example, consider a statement “Your name is Jacob.” now if the words “isn't it?” are added at the end of the statement the statement turns into a question where the Identity of Jacob is being confirmed. And therefore, the statement becomes a question, “Your name is Jacob, isn't it?” Question tags replace a period at end of a sentence with a comma and end the same sentence with a question mark.

Below are some examples question tags 

1. You crashed my car yesterday, didn't you?
2. Jake is Brave kid, isn’t he? 
3. I don't need to finish this project today, do I?

There are a few rules for determining question tags for different kinds of sentences; some of them are listed below:

1. The Sentence and the question tag must always be in the same tense.
2. If the sentence is negative the question tag must be negative and vice-versa.
3. Question tags must never contain proper noun, they should always contain the pronoun.
4. Sentences with negative meaning will have a positive question tag.
5. The question tag ‘won’t you’ is used with imperative sentences.
6. Question tags are always made in accordance with the main parts of the sentence.
7. Each, everyone, everybody, no one, nobody, none are singular and hence but their question tag will take forms of plural verbs and plural nouns.

Clichés

Clichés are those words or phrases which have been used repeatedly over time and because of this overuse they have lost their impact.

The word cliché can be traced to its French origin, which is why you'll often see it with an accent over the "e," but you can also write it as "cliche" in English. When printing presses were used, the cast iron plate that reproduced the words, phrases, or images was called a stereotype. The noise that casting plate made sounded like "cliché," meaning click, to French printers, so this onomatopoeia word became printer's jargon for the stereotype. Thus, cliché came to mean a word or phrase that gets repeated often.

Just because a phrase is overused doesn't mean it's a cliché, and because a phrase is a cliché doesn't mean it isn't true. A cliché will convey meaning but often loses its point along the way through over-usage. Below are some common English Clichés:

Common Cliché Sayings

     All that glitters isn't gold

     Don't get your knickers in a twist

     All for one, and one for all

     Kiss and make up

     He has his tail between his legs

     And they all lived happily ever after

     Cat got your tongue?

     Read between the lines

     Someone woke up on the wrong side of the bed

     We're not laughing at you we're laughing with you

Clichés that Describe Time

     Only time will tell

     In the nick of time

     Lost track of time

     Lasted an eternity

     Just a matter of time

     A waste of time

     Time flies

     In a jiffy

     The time of my life

     At the speed of light

Clichés that Describe People

     As old as the hills

     Fit as a fiddle

     Without a care in the world

     A diamond in the rough

     Brave as a lion

     Weak as a kitten

     Had nerves of steel

     Ugly as sin

Clichés that Describe Life, Love, and Emotions

     Opposites attract

     Every cloud has a silver lining

     Don't cry over spilled milk

     The calm before the storm

     Laughter is the best medicine

     Love you more than life itself

     Scared out of my wits

     Frightened to death

     All is fair in love and war

     All's well that ends well

     Haste makes waste

     The writings on the wall

     Time heals all wounds

     What goes around comes around

     When life gives you lemons, make lemonade

     Head over heels in love

     Gut-wrenching pain

     Heart-stopping fear

Articles

Articles are words that precede a noun and define the specificity of that noun. In other words, they imply how specific a particular noun is.

There are two types of Articles in the English language, Definite and Indefinite Articles.

1. Definite Article

The definite article is the word ‘the’. This article is only used when a particular place, thing or activity is being referred to. It limits the meaning to one particular thing or activity.

For example in the sentence “I won’t be attending the party this weekend.” ‘The’ is used before the noun party therefore it refers to a specific party which the subject is talking about. The definite article can be used with both singular and plural words.

Uses of “The”:

1. The definite article can be used to make general things specific, for example, “Please pass me a pen.” when changed to “Please pass me the pen.” Changes the meaning of the sentence entirely. In the former the subject requests for a pen in general whereas in the latter he refers to a specific pen.
2. ‘The’ is used by geographical areas such as rivers, mountains, seas, oceans etc.

“The Middle East”, “The Atlantic Ocean”, “The Himalayas”

c.      Unique things always requite the article ‘the’

“The Sun”, “The Moon”

d.     Musical instruments use ‘the’

“He plays the cello.”

e.     Countries generally don’t use articles in front but if their names are plural they use the article ‘the’

“The Netherlands”, “The United States of America”

f.        Abbreviations and classes of people always use the article ‘the’

“The U.N” “The Poor” “The British” “The IMF”

2.     Indefinite Article

The Indefinite Article is of two types, namely, ‘a’ and ‘an’. The word ‘a’ is used when it precedes a word that starts with a consonant and the word ‘an’ is used when it precedes a word that starts with a vowel. Unlike the Definite Article, the Indefinite Articles refer to a general idea and not a particular one. The Indefinite Article only appears with singular nouns. For example in the sentences “I would like a good book to read.” Or “I am craving for an apple pie.” The subject talks about books or apple pies in general rather than a specific book or apple pie.

Uses of ‘a’ and ‘an’:

1. Uncountable nouns cannot use either ‘a’ or ‘an’. For example advice is an uncountable noun, therefore a sentence such as “Can you give me an advice.” Does not make sense. Rather “Can you give me some advice.” Is more appropriate.
2. Jobs use Indefinite Articles

“I want to become a teacher” “My dream is to become an actor”

c.      There are a couple of exceptions to the overall rule of employing ‘a’ before words that start with consonants and ‘an’ before words that begin with vowels. The first letter of the word honour, for instance, may be a consonant, but it’s unpronounced. In spite of the way it is spelled, the word honour begins with a vowel. Therefore, we use an. For example, consider the following sentences:
My mother is a honest woman.
My mother is an honest woman.

d.     When the first letter of a word is a vowel but is pronounced with a consonant sound, the article 'a' must be used. For example:

She is an United States senator.

She is a United States senator.

Redundancies

Redundancies refer to the use of two or more words together that carry the same meaning thus making them repetitious and unnecessary. Redundant words often make communication longer but definitely not better and therefore, must be strictly avoided. In some specific contexts however, some of these phrases may serve a purpose. Although more often than not, these phrases weigh down our writing with unnecessary words and jargon.