Unit – 2
Sentence Structure - 2
Adjective Clause
As the name suggests, it is a clause that acts as an adjective. These are always dependent. They can't stand on their own as sentences but are instead attached to independent clauses in order to modify nouns.
Take a complex sentence such as "The table that we bought last week is already broken." Here, the clause that we bought last week is an adjective clause that modifies table.
Adjective questions
How can you tell if a clause is an adjective one? It's pretty simple: once you have identified a dependent clause, try to identify the noun it's modifying. Adjective clauses can tell one of several things about that noun:
- What kind?
- How many?
- Which one?
Let us look at the previous example!
- The table that we bought last week is already broken.
In this particular sentence, "that we bought last week" is answering the question "which one?" by telling us which table we're talking about.
Here are a few examples where adjective clauses are in bold and the modified noun - in italics to tell you more about the topic.
- The student who gets the highest grade will receive a prize. (Which one?)
- She gave her extra ticket to the girl whose ticket never arrived. (Which one?)
- They drove by the house where he lives. (Which one?)
- We need to find a car that gets better gas mileage. (What kind?)
- This necklace, which is one of my favorites, will look great with that dress. (What kind?)
- All the cookies that we have are stale. (How many?)
Adjective clause signifiers
You'll notice that all these phrases start with the same few words. These fall into one of two groups: relative pronoun and relative adjective. Looking for these words in sentences can help you locate the needed clauses.
- Relative pronouns: who, whom, whose, that, which.
- Relative adverbs: when, where, why.
- Punctuating adjective clauses
You may also have noticed that in some examples above the adjective clause is set off by commas. How can you tell if it needs to be punctuated or if it can be left alone? The key is to look at what role the clause plays in the sentence. If it's necessary - that is, if the sentence doesn't make sense without it - then you don't need to use commas. By removing the adjective clause from the first example above, we lose a necessary piece of information that changes the meaning of the sentence:
- The student who gets the highest grade will receive a prize. - The student will receive a prize.
On the other hand, when we remove the adjective clause here, the main idea of the sentence remains intact:
- This necklace, which is one of my favourites, will look great with that dress. - This necklace will look great with that dress.
When the adjective clause isn't necessary to the sentence, it should be set apart by commas.
Generally, if the adjective clause is needed to clear up any ambiguity about which noun is being talked about. I.e., we need it in order to know which student will receive the prize - so it's essential. If we already know which specific noun we're talking about (i.e., this necklace), the adjective clause is just adding more information. Meaning it is not essential to the sentence. Often, this distinction is unclear. But, you could make a case either way, so don't worry too much if you have trouble identifying essential and inessential clauses.
Nominal or Noun Clauses
At this point, you can probably guess that a noun clause is a clause that acts as a noun.
Also called nominal clauses, these dependent clauses can function in a sentence just like any other noun. They can be a subject, subject complement, direct object, indirect object, the object of a preposition, or an appositive. I.e., "Why you ate all that cake is a mystery to me." Here, the clause why you ate all that cake is acting as a noun and is the subject of the sentence.
Because nominal clauses act like nouns, there's no set of particular questions they answer, since they're not modifying any other words in the sentence. Below are some examples with the nominal clauses in italics and the function of the noun in parentheses.
- Where you want to go is up to you. (subject)
- Whether you open the present now or later depends on when your parents get here. (subject)
- Your art project can be whatever you want. (subject complement)
- Give the ball to whomever asks for it first. (indirect object)
- Hand whatever papers you have over to the teacher. (direct object)
Noun clause signifiers
Noun clauses start with interrogatives (words that ask questions) or expletives (words that explain relationships).
Interrogatives: who, whom, what, which, why, when, where, whoever, whomever, whatever.
Expletives: that, whether, if.
Adverb Clauses
A close cousin of the adjective clause, the adverbial one, functions in much the same way, except it modifies nouns or adjectives. In the sentence, "I'll be working until we finish the project," the clause until we finish the project is an adverbial clause that modifies the verb phrase be working.
Adverb questions
Adverbial clauses can be identified by several specific questions they answer. They will tell you one of a few things about the verb of the main sentence:
- How?
- When?
- Why?
- Where?
- To what degree?
In the above example - I'll be working until we finish the project - the phrase until we finish the project tells us when we'll be working. Here are a few more examples with the adverbial phrase in bold and the word being modified in italics:
- My sister will come to the party even if she's tired. (How?)
- I'll wash the dishes after I eat dinner. (When?)
- She scrubbed the floor until it was spotless. (When?)
- Because you got here late, you'll need to fill out these forms. (Why?)
- Rather than buying a new car, she chose to have her old one fixed. (Why?)
- Wherever you go, I'll find you. (Where?)
- Alex will enjoy the movie more than his sister will. (To what degree?)
- The hostess wouldn't seat us because the restaurant was closed. (Why?)
- The seeds will take root wherever there is enough light. (Where?)
Adverbial clause signifiers
Adverbial phrases start with subordinate conjunctions. Those are words that join together an independent and dependent clause while indicating which is the subordinate (or secondary) clause.
Subordinate conjunctions:
- After
- Although
- As
- Because
- Before
- Even if
- Even
- Though
- If
- In order
- That
- Once
- Provided
- That
- Rather
- Than
- Since
- So that
- Then
- Though
- Unless
- Until
- When
- Whenever
- Where
- Whereas
- Wherever
- Whether
- While
- Why
Punctuating adverbial clauses
Like adjective clauses, adverbial ones are sometimes set off by commas. However, in this case, it's their placement in the sentence that determines how they're punctuated. Clauses that begin the sentence should be separated from the main clause with a comma. Those added at the end of the main clause do not need one:
- Rather than buying a new car, she chose to have her old one fixed.
- She chose to have her old car fixed rather than buying a new one.
Negation
Negation is the process of converting an affirmative sentence into a negative sentence.
For example,
That’s a nice dog – That’s NOT a nice dog.
Verbs can be negated as well. You simply add the word “NOT” after the modal or auxiliary and the meaning of the statement changes to its exact opposite.
You’re supposed to sleep early today – You’re NOT supposed to sleep early today.
I will visit Canada this coming month – I will NOT visit Canada this coming month.
Therefore, it can be said that the process of negation is the process of expressing any sentence in its exact opposite form. Negations, on the other hand, are the words which change the meaning of the sentence from affirmative to negative, they include NO, NEVER, or NOT.
Understanding sentence negation is NO rocket science. All you’re required to do is figure out the most appropriate way to add a negation to the statement and that’s it.
For instance, to convert a statement such as “I’m coming” into a negative statement, you simply add NOT between the “I’m” in the statement and the “coming.”
I’m NOT coming.
The different forms of Negation:
- Negation can come in different forms. In Standard English, the most common form of negation is the use of the functional word “NOT” or its contracted version - n’t.
- Other negative words that can be used to express a negation are no, nowhere, none, never, and nowhere to name a few.
- In some cases, you can formulate a negative statement of a word by adding the prefix un- before a positive word to mean the exact opposite. Examples include happy to unhappy, decided to undecided, tidy to untidy, and so forth.
- There are also other prefixes and suffixes which negate a sentence. They include a-, dis, de-, -less, mis, and in-. And examples include able to disable, clutter to declutter, allow to disallow, capable to incapable and so forth.
So, to define, the scope of negation is the process of figuring out what exactly is being negated in a statement – and it always varies depending on the subject, the context, background information, and the speaker’s assertion.
Examples in a sentence:
I’m barely surviving.
She hardly sends her mum any money.
He scarcely avails himself even to his own children.
Also noteworthy are the negations that also double as verbs. Examples include doesn’t, haven’t, shouldn’t, won’t, can’t, don’t, couldn’t, and wouldn’t to name a few.
Double Negatives:
It is crucial to restrict yourself to using only one negative in a sentence. A double negative will in one sentence will be a grave error. Double negatives are sentences which contain two negatives in one sentence or statement. If a double negative is introduced in a sentence it will turn the negative sentence into an affirmative statement.
Double negatives are not advisable as they are confusing and therefore passed as poor grammar. They are commonly found in informal writing but are to be strictly avoided in informal ones.
Examples in a sentence:
Dating her can’t do you no harm.
Isn’t somebody cared of nobody?
I can’t find my dog nowhere?
She’s never trusted nobody.
Double Negative with Prefixes:
A double negative statement can be formulated using a prefix ir, un, non, dis, or in. Here are common examples:
The evidence gathered so far are not irrefutable.
I won’t allow myself to be disrespected.
The ending is not inconclusive.
She wasn’t as irresponsible as reported.
Double negatives with adverbs:
Negative adverbs can also be used to form double negatives in a sentence.
I can’t barely get by.
I’m not scarcely available as accused.
I don’t go swimming seldom.
Scope of Negation:
The English language is complex and every negative statement made may contain several layers to them, each of which plays to a meaning that’s entirely different from the next one.
Take this sentence for example:
She didn’t call you sweetie.
This statement alone is enough to send you into a complicated mental process trying to figure out what’s being implied by the speaker.
- The first one could be that the speaker is refuting the claim that they ever tried calling you.
- Another one could that the speaker is refuting the claim that they tried calling you by the name sweetie.
- Or it could be that someone is being called by the speaker.
And so forth.
So, to define, the scope of negation is the process of figuring out what exactly is being negated in a statement – and it always varies depending on the subject, the context, background information, and the speaker’s assertion.
Interrogation
A sentence which asks a direct question and always ends in a question mark is known as an interrogative sentence. The interrogative is normal for many questions. An interrogative sentence contains a verb phrase which is followed by a subject.
There are two main types of question: those that can be answered yes or no, and those that have to be answered with a specific piece of information or a sentence such as I don’t know. All types of interrogative sentences have their specific word order.
Yes/no questions
Questions that demand the answer to be in a simple yes or no format are called yes/no questions or sometimes, polar questions.
The normal sentence order for the interrogative is:
Modal/auxiliary verb + subject + base form of the main verb.
Were the dogs barking?
Have you been dieting?
Can Mahmoud come too?
Must you go so soon?
Would you like a chocolate?
If a sentence does not contain a modal verb or an auxiliary verb, the question will be formed by placing a rendition of the supporting auxiliary verb 'do' before the subject and following it with the base form of the main verb.
Does he enjoy tennis?
Do they play a lot?
Did that surprise his mum?
Yes/no questions also have a negative form. Negative yes/no questions are almost always contracted. If the negative is in its contracted form, it will comes immediately before the subject.
Doesn’t he like talking about his childhood?
Can’t Peter have one too?
Don’t you speak French?
Wouldn’t you like to know a bit more about this?
If the complete negative form not is refrained from being used, it will come immediately after the subject. The full form is often considered very formal.
Does he not like talking about his childhood?
Do you not want to know what it was about?
Can Peter not have one too?
WH- questions
If you want to get a detailed answer, and not just a yes or no, you must use a WH- question (or ‘non-polar’ question), which will allow room for many possible answers. The words who, whom, whose, what, which, when, where, why, and how are used to form this sort of question. These words are referred to as WH- words.
Yes/no + Wh:
Did you ring the school? – Yes, I did.
Was she all right in the end? – No/I don’t know.
Have you seen Ali yet? – Yes, I have.
WH-:
Who was that man? – He’s my geography teacher.
What did he say when you told him the news? – He was too surprised to say anything.
When did you see Ali? – Last Wednesday.
Where is Peter going? – To work.
When did they arrive? – Yesterday.
Why have you stopped going running? – The doctor told me to.
Voice:
Voice is the form of the verb takes to point out whether the subject of the verb does or receives the action.
Active voice:
A verb that conveys the action done by the subject is said to be in the active voice.
Jack reads the newspaper.
Mary reads a book.
Passive Voice:
A verb that conveys what is done to subject is said to be in the passive voice. The subject becomes the passive receiver of the action.
The newspaper is read by Jack.
A book is read by Mary.
The Rules to Change the sentences from Active to Passive Form
1. The sentence should have objects (transitive verb). If there is no object then there should be question word who asks the object.
2. Object of active sentence became the subject of passive sentences.
3. Subject of active sentences into passive sentences that preceded the object word "By".
4. The verb used is verb III (past participle) which proceeded by to be.
5. The adjusted sentence construction by tenses.
Fundamental Rules:
1. The position of subject and object are interchanged, object moves to the place of subject and subject moves to the place of object in passive voice.
Example:
• Active voice: I draw a picture
• Passive voice: A picture was drawn by me.
2. Sometimes subjects of sentence are not used in passive voice. Subject of sentence will not be there in passive voice, if exclusive of subject it can give adequate meaning in passive voice.
Example: Passive voice: vegetables are sold very reasonably.
3. Verb III (past participle) is always used as main verb in sentences of passive voice
For all tenses. Present participle or Base form of verb will be never used in passive voice.
Example:
• Active voice: He composed a song.
• Passive voice: A song is composed by him.
4. The word "by" is not always used, the words "with, to, etc" may also be used before subject in passive voice sometimes.
Examples:
Active voice: The water fills the tub.
Passive voice: The tub is filled with water.
Active voice: He knows me.
Passive voice: I am known to him.
Only transitive verbs (verbs which take a direct object) can be made passive.
If you are not sure if a verb is transitive or intransitive in English, try using an object after it.
Transitive Verb Usage
Robin started the project
Subject Verb Object
What did Robin start?
Answer: The project
The verb 'start' can take an object, the project so it is transitive.
Intransitive Verb Usage
Robin laughed
Subject Verb Object
What did Robin laugh?
Answer: Nothing. You cannot laugh something.
The verb 'laugh' cannot take an object, so it is intransitive
Active and Passive Voice for All Tenses
Learn passive vs active voice for different tenses in English, please note that:
V1: Base Form of Verb
V2: Past Simple
V3: Past Participle
Present Simple Tense
Active Voice:
Subject + Verb1
Passive voice:
Subject + am/ is/ are + Verb3
Example:
I prepared a tea. (Active)
A tea is prepared by me. (Passive)
Present Continuous Tense
Active voice:
Subject + am/is/are + Verb-ing
Passive voice:
Subject + am/ is/ are + being + Verb3
Example:
They are playing a game. (Active)
A game is being played by them. (Passive)
Present Perfect Tense
Active voice:
Subject + have/ has + Verb3
Passive voice:
Subject + have/ has + been + Verb3
Example:
She has eaten my burger. (Active)
My burger has been eaten by her. (Passive)
Present Perfect Continuous:
Active Voice:
Subject + have/ has + been + Verb-ing
Passive voice: ---------
Subject + have/ has + been + being + Verb3
Example:
Lisa has not been learning Science. (Active)
Future Tense:
Active voice:
Subject + will/ shall + Verb1
Passive voice:
Subject + will be + Verb3
Example:
My father will take us to the film theatre. (Active)
We will be taken to the film theatre by our father. (Passive)
Future Continuous Tense:
Active Voice:
Subject + will/ shall + be + Verb-ing
The Passive: -----------------
Example:
The teacher will be taking care of the students at this time tomorrow. (Active)
Future Perfect Tense:
Active voice:
Subject + will + have + Verb3
Passive voice:
Subject + will have been + Verb3
Example:
I will have finished my project by the end of this month. (Active)
My project will have been finished by me by the end of this month. (Passive)
Future Perfect Continuous:
Active voice:
Subject + will + have + been + Verb-ing
The Passive: ----------------
Example:
She will have been teaching History for 5 years by next week. (Active)
Past Simple Tense:
Active voice:
Subject + Verb2
Passive voice:
Subject + was/ were + Verb3
Example:
I visited my aunt last year. (Active)
My aunt was visited by me last year. (Passive)
Past Continuous Tense:
Active voice:
Subject + was/ were + Verb-ing
Passive voice:
Subject + was/ were + being + Verb3
Example:
Cris was informing the news to the department. (Active)
The news was being informed to the department by Cris. (Passive)
Past Perfect Tense:
Active voice:
Subject + had + Verb3
The Passive:
Subject + had been + Verb3
Example:
Sam had read the book before Paul came. (Active)
The book had been read by Sam before Paul came. (Passive)
Past Perfect Continuous Tense:
Active voice:
Subject + had + been + Verb-ing
Passive voice: -----------------------
Example:
They had been typing the Question paper for 3 hours before she came yesterday. (Active)
Future in the Past (Would)
Active voice:
S + would + V1
The Passive:
S + would + be + V3
Example:
She would complete the lesson. (Active)
The lesson would be completed by her. (Passive)
Causative Form
Active voice:
Subject + have/ has somebody + Verb1 + something
Subject + get(s) somebody + to + Verb1 + something
Passive voice:
Subject + have/ has/ get(s) something + Verb3 + (by + someone).
Example:
My mother had Milan wash his car. (Active)
My mother had his car washed by Milan. (Passive)
Modal Verbs (Present)
Active voice:
Subject + modal verb + Verb1
The Passive:
Subject + modal verb+ be + Verb3
Example:
We can resolve the difficulty. (Active)
The difficulty can be resolved. (Passive)
Modal Verbs (Present Perfect)
Active voice:
Subject + modal verb + have + Verb3
The Passive:
Subject + modal verb + have + been + Verb3
Example:
The tiger might have killed her. (Active)
She might have been killed by the tiger. (Passive)
An exclamatory sentence is a type of sentence which contains a surprise or overwhelming emotion. An exclamation point is placed at the end of such sentences. The exclamatory words used in the exclamation sentences where sudden changing emotions and thoughts are told often provide information regarding the course of the sentence.
For example, it is certain that a sentence that starts with the word alas will tell a bad situation or a sentence that begins to live in a happy situation is immediately understood. When we examine the exclamation words used in English, it is not difficult to understand which situation is mentioned.
Examples
Oh, we are finally here!
Wow, you didn’t clear the exam!
How beautiful this city is!
Sara, wipe the board!
Woe, I missed the service!
Don’t talk, get out!
Please, help me now!
Hah, okay, now it’s beautiful!
What a coincidence this is!
Wait, that bridge is rotten!
I’m so mad at her!
God, I’m in heaven!
Why don’t you listen to my words!
Come here Ella, quick!
Stay there, don’t come here!
Oh, my God, would you stop by here!
Oh, I was going to be there now!
Hey, no smoking in here!
I will see the reports on my desk tomorrow!
Caution, the soil may slip!
Well, enough!
Wow, he doesn’t know much!
No more, I give up!
Let the stone fall on me!
Off, what does this kid eat and drink there?
I have a great idea!
Alas, it will rain again!
But don’t forget what I said!
How to Form Exclamatory Sentences?
The most common ways of formulating exclamatory sentences include the use of “what”, “how”, “Alas” at the beginning of the sentences or “so” and “such” in the middle of the sentences. These sentences, however, must be non-interrogative, or rhetorical and contain a shift in the typical word order.
Using what a before a singular noun
Form: What a/an + (adjective) + singular countable noun
Example:
What a gorgeous room!
Using what without a before an abstract noun or a plural noun
Form: What + adjective + uncountable/plural noun
Example:
What beautiful weather!
Using how before a modifying adjective, an adverb or a verb
Form: How + adjective/adverb + subject + verb
Exclamatory examples:
How interesting this film is!
How well she sings!
Using so before an adjective or adverb to make exclamations or to express a superlative idea
Form: So + adjective/adverb
Example:
The meal was so good!
Such expresses the same idea as so, but it is used with nouns (with or without a companion adjective)
Form:
Such a/an + adjective + singular countable noun
Such + adjective + uncountable/plural noun
Exclamatory examples:
She’s such a quiet girl!
They are such kind people!
Exclamatory Words (Interjections)
Words which generate a strong emotional response could be called exclamatory words. Below is a list of some commonly used exclamatory words:
Wow!
Brilliant!
Awesome!
Ouch!
Amazing!
Bravo!
Fantastic!
Tremendous!
Sheesh!
Geronimo!
Timber!
Eureka
Hooray!
Gosh!
Jeepers!
Magnificent!
Unbelievable!
Alas!
These exclamatory words are stand-alone words and can function as a complete sentence while expressing emotions or reactions, these words are called interjections. A subject or a verb is not required by an interjection to express a complete thought. They can, however, be inserted in a sentence by using commas.
Transformation of a Sentence refers to changing the form of a sentence without changing its meaning and altering its sense.
Example – I have worked here since 2010, can also be expressed like - I worked here in 2010.
Knowing how to rewrite sentences so that they have the same meaning as the original is often required for many English language tests like TOEFL examination or English ESL EFL Exams. Sentence Transformation is also an important skill which can help in improve our understanding of similar English expressions and vocabulary.
Transformation By Types
Changing an Exclamatory Sentence into an Assertive Sentence
How beautiful she is! – Exclamatory.
She is very beautiful – Assertive.
How chivalrous of you to help her like that! - Exclamatory.
It is very chivalrous of you to help her like that - Assertive.
What a beautiful view! – Exclamatory.
It is a beautiful view - Assertive.
What a great pleasure it is! - Exclamatory.
This is indeed a great pleasure – Assertive.
Changing an Interrogative Sentence into an Assertive Sentence
Did I ever ask you to run? – Interrogative.
I never asked you to run - Assertive.
Is there any fun in doing that? – Interrogative.
There is no fun in doing that - Assertive.
Is not health better than wealth? - Interrogative.
Health is better than wealth – Assertive.
Why worry about what people say? – Interrogative.
It is foolish to worry about what people say - Assertive.
Changing an Imperative Sentence into an Interrogative Sentence
Get away from the pool - Imperative.
Will you get away from the pool or not? – Interrogative.
Please, don’t disturb me - Imperative.
Will you, please, stop disturbing me? – Interrogative.
Stop staring her – Imperative.
Will you stop staring at her? – Interrogative.
Shut the door - Imperative.
Will you shut the door? – Interrogative.
Transforming or Interchanging the Degrees of Comparison
Blue Whale is larger than all the other mammals in the world – Comparative.
No other mammal in the world is as large as the Blue Whale – Positive.
Blue Whale is the largest mammal in the world – Superlative.
Kim Kardashian is one of the beautiful models in USA – Superlative.
Very few models in USA are beautiful than Kim Kardashian - Comparative.
Most models in USA are not as beautiful as Kim Kardashian – Positive.
No other spa is as good as the Golden Spa – Positive.
Golden Spa is better than other spas – Comparative.
Golden Spa is the best spa of all the spas - Superlative.
Nothing else travels as fast as light – Positive.
Light travels faster than anything else – Comparative.
Of all things in the world light travels fastest – Superlative.
Transformation of sentences beginning with 'no sooner'
Transformation of sentences rules
It can be done in two ways - using the expressions:
i) As soon as.
Ii) Scarcely (hardly) had ... When ..
No sooner had I reached the bus-stop than the bus left.
As soon as I reached the bus-stop, the bus left.
Scarcely (or hardly) had I reached the bus-stop when the bus left.
No sooner had the thief run out of the jail than the guard fired at him.
As soon as the thief ran out of the jail, the guard fired at him.
Scarcely had the thief run out of the jail when the guard fired at him.
VIII. Transformation of sentences containing too ... To
Transformation of sentences rules
(a) Use ‘that’ in place of ‘to’.
(b) Use ‘so’ in place of ‘too’.
(c) If the sentence is in the past tense, ‘could’ is used in the subordinate clause.
(a) The girl was too clever to be taught.
The girl was so clever that she could not be taught.
(b) He is too poor to give money.
He is so poor that he cannot give money.
(c) He was too angry to talk to her.
He was so angry that he could not talk to her.
Transformation by Structure
Conversion of simple sentence into complex sentences
a) By expanding a word or a phrase into a noun clause
1. Simple: I was glad to know of his success.
Complex: I was glad to know that he had succeeded.
2. Simple: He pleaded ignorance of the law.
Complex: He pleaded that he was ignorant of the law.
3. Simple: The report of his failure has surprised us all.
Complex: The report that he has failed has surprised us all.
b) By expanding a word or a phrase into an adjective clause
1. Simple: A dead man tells no tales.
Complex: A man who is dead tells no tales.
2. Simple: The boy with the blue shirt is our Captain.
Complex: The boy who is wearing blue shirt is our Captain.
3. Simple: I still remember the joys of my childhood.
Complex: I still remember the joys which I experienced in my childhood.
c) By expanding a word or a phrase into an adverb clause
1. Simple: He felt sorry on finding out his mistake. (Time)
Complex: He felt sorry when he found out his mistake.
2. Simple: Being rich, he can afford this expensive treatment. (Cause/ reason)
Complex: As he is rich, he can afford this expensive treatment.
3. Simple: He is too simple minded to see through the game. (Result/ consequence)
Complex: He is so simple minded that he cannot see through the game.
4. Simple: He is working day and night to improve his prospects. (Purpose)
Complex: He is working day and night so that he may improve his prospects.
Conversion of complex sentences into simple sentences
a) By converting a noun clause into a word or a phrase
1. Complex: I am responsible for what I do.
Simple: I am responsible for my actions.
2. Complex: He wanted to know why he had been dismissed.
Simple: He wanted to know the reason for his dismissal.
b) By converting an adjective clause into a word or a phrase
1. Complex: All that glitters is not gold.
Simple: All glittering things are not gold.
2. Complex: He cannot forget the losses that he has suffered.
Simple: He cannot forget the losses suffered by him.
c) By converting an adverb clause into a word or a phrase
1. Complex: You may do it when you please.
Simple: You may do it at your pleasure.
2. Complex: Because he was ill, he stayed at home.
Simple: He stayed at home on account of his illness.
Conversion of Simple sentences into Compound sentences
a) By using Cumulative Conjunctions like, and, not only…but also, etc.
1. Simple: Taking off his clothes, he jumped into the river.
Compound: He took off his clothes and jumped into the river.
2. Simple: In addition to useful advice, he gave me financial help.
Compound: He gave me not only a useful advice but also a financial help.
b) By using Adversative Conjunctions like, but, still, yet, etc.
1. Simple: In spite of very bad weather, they succeeded in conquering Mt. Everest.
Compound: The weather was very bad, still they succeeded in conquering Mt. Everest.
2. Simple: He had every qualification for the post except sincerity.
Compound: He had ever qualification for the post, but he was not sincere.
c) By using Alternative Conjunctions like, or, otherwise, else, etc.
1. Simple: You must take rich diet to gain weight.
Compound: You must take rich diet, or you will not gain weight.
2. Simple: Take another step at the peril of your life.
Compound: Don’t take another step, else your life will be at the peril.
Conversion of Compound sentences into simple sentences
a) By using Prepositional phrase
1. Compound: He is a Russian by birth, but he speaks Hindi like his mother tongue.
Simple: In spite of being a Russian by birth, He speaks Hindi like his mother tongue.
2. Compound: This book is not beautifully printed, but is free from mistakes also.
Simple: Besides being beautifully printed, this book is free from mistakes.
b) By using Participle
1. Compound: The umpire found the light poor and decided to call off the day’s play.
Simple: Finding the light poor, the umpire decided to call off the day’s play.
c) By using Infinitive
1. Compound: You must observe austerity, or you will not become morally strong.
Simple: You must observe austerity to become morally strong.
Conversion of Compound sentences into complex sentences
a) Compound sentences with Cumulative conjunctions, and
1. Compound: He wanted to win the prize and worked hard.
Complex: He worked hard so that he might win the prize.
b) Compound sentences with Adversative conjunctions like but, still, however,
Nevertheless etc.
1. Compound: Attend your classes regularly, or you will fall short of attendance.
Complex: If you do not attend your classes regularly, you will fall short of attendance.
c) Compound sentences with Alternative conjunctions like or, otherwise, else, therefore
Either…or etc.
1. Compound: I cannot afford to buy many books, therefore I usually study in the library.
Complex: Since I cannot afford to buy many books, I usually study in the library.
Conversion of Complex sentences into Compound sentences
a) By using Cumulative conjunctions, and
1. Complex: Everybody knows that man is mortal.
Compound: Man is mortal and this fact everybody knows.
2. Complex: If I am right, I should be supported.
Compound: I may be right and, in that case, I should be supported.
b) By using Adversative conjunctions like but, still, however, nevertheless etc.
1. Complex: Although they lost the match, they were not disgraced.
Compound: They lost the match, but they were not disgraced.
c) By using Alternative conjunctions like or, otherwise, else, either…or etc.
1. Complex: If you don’t surrender your arms immediately, you will be shot dead.
Compound: Surrender your arms immediately, or you will be shot dead.
Tenses determine whether something has happened, is happening, or will happen. The tense of a verb describes its position in time.
Tenses can be divided into 3 main types and further sub dived into 4 types:
PRESENT TENSES
1. SIMPLE PRESENT TENSE: In this type of tense the action is still taking place, there is no mention of its completeness.
Example: I sleep.
She studies vocabulary every day.
2. PRESENT CONTINUOUS TENSE: In this type of tense the action is still in progress, therefore the use of the word ‘continuous’.
Example: I am sleeping.
I am eating lunch, I will call you later.
3. PRESENT PERFECT TENSE: In this type of tense the action has already been completed, hence the use of the word ‘perfect’.
Example: I have slept.
I have eaten Chinese food a few times already.
4. PRESENT PERFECT CONTINUOUS TENSE: In this type of tense, the action has started taking place beforehand and is still ongoing.
Example: I have been sleeping.
I have been eating a lot of vegetables lately.
PAST TENSES
1. SIMPLE PAST TENSE: In this type of tense the action which is mentioned has already taken place in the past, there is no continuity.
Example: I got some sleep yesterday.
2. PAST CONTINUOUS TENSE: This type of tense describes an on-going action that took place in the past.
Example: I was having lunch when u called yesterday.
3. PAST PERFECT TENSE: This type of tense describes a completed action which took place in the past.
Examples: I had slept.
I had already eaten when my doorbell rang.
4. PAST PERFECT CONTINUOUS TENSE: This type of tense describes an action which started in the past and continued until another point in time, still in the past.
Example: I had been sleeping for two hours before my friend arrived.
FUTURE TENSES
1. SIMPLE FUTURE TENSE: This type of tense describes an action taking place in the future; there is no mention of its continuity.
Example: I will sleep.
I shall finish my project by tomorrow morning.
2. FUTURE CONTINUOUS TENSE: This type of tense describes an action that will take place in the future but will still be ongoing.
Example: I will be sleeping at 11 p.m.
I’ll be staying at my parents’ house for a few weeks.
3. FUTURE PERFECT TENSE: This type of tense describes an action that will occur in the future before another action in the future.
Example: I will have slept before you arrive.
4. FUTURE PERFECT CONTINUOUS TENSE: This type of tense describes an on-going action in the future before a completed action in a specific point in time.
Example: I will have been sleeping for seven hours by 9 a.m. Tomorrow morning.
I will have been studying for two hours by the time my parents arrive.
Below are some basic rules regarding the sequencing of tenses:
Rule 1
A past tense in the independent clause is always followed by a past tense in the subordinate clause.
Example: I found out that she was out of town.
However, there is an exception to this rule. When the independent clause in the past tense, the subordinate clause can be in the present tense if a universal truth is being stated by it.
Example: The children were taught that honesty is the best policy.
Another exception to this rule is when the word ‘than’ is used in the sentence to introduce the subordinate clause. In this case, the subordinate clause can be used in any tense irrespective of the tense of the independent clause.
Rule 2
If the tense used with the independent clause is in the present or future tense, the tense of the subordinate clause can be in any tense based on what needs to be conveyed.
Example: She is saying that she is alright. She says she is fine.
Rule 3
If the independent clause is in the future tense, the subordinate clause is not used in the future tense instead a subordinating clause beginning with when, until, before, after etc. is used.
Example: I will call you when dinner is ready. I shall wait until you return.
Rule 4
When the subordinate clause is introduced with the conjunction ‘that’, the following rules must be followed,
- ‘May’ should be used in the subordinate clause when the independent clause is in the present tense.
- ‘Might’ should be used in the subordinate clause when the independent clause is in the past tense.
Example: We eat that we may live. She tried to live so that he might have a chance at life.
Rule 5
When some phrases such as If only, wish that, what if, it is time are used, the clauses that follow it are always in the past tense.
Example: I wish I could eat another ice cream.
- The Statement or Declarative sentence
Many sentences are labelled as declarative sentences because are used in making a declaration or statement about something. Here are some examples to illustrate declarative sentences.
- That car is really old.
- I love honey on toast.
- The girl likes pancakes, but she doesn’t know how to make them.
These statements are simple to construct and have no frills about them. Then these statements do not depend on being facts. They can be stating an opinion as well. The opinion does not necessarily have to be true but just what the subject thinks.
Also, the declarative sentence uses all tenses. Declarative sentences can employ all types of past, present and future tenses easily.
- I went to the store yesterday.
- I am going to the shop now.
- I will go to the ball game tomorrow.
Affirmative and negative sentences
Declarative sentences can either be positive or negative. When they have a positive meaning, they are known as affirmative or positive sentences. When they contain a negative meaning, they known as negative sentences.
A positive sentence or affirmative sentence will contain a positive assertion or remark. A sentence will always negate an assertion or remark. A positive sentence may or may not contain negative words but its final verdict will always be positive. A positive sentence can be converted into a negative one using negative words such as not, none, nobody, and isn’t.
2. The Question or Interrogative sentence
The purpose of an interrogative sentence is to ask a question in order to obtain an answer. Sometimes an interrogative sentence might be rhetorical in nature, meaning it will ask a question but wont necessarily require an answer. Interrogative sentences in the spoken form may also be sarcastic. Below are some examples of simple interrogative sentences:
- Where are you going?
- What is happening?
- What do you want me to do?
- Do you want me to write something for you?
- Are you going to school today?
There are four types of question sentences. They are:
- Yes/No Interrogatives
- Alternative Interrogatives
- Wh- Interrogatives
- Tag Questions
Yes/No Interrogatives
1. Questions which require a “yes” or “no” answer, are called Yes/No Interrogatives.
Examples:
- Are you going home?
- Will you come with me?
- The answer to each of the above question will be either a “yes” or “no”
How to form Yes/No Interrogatives:
Yes/No Interrogatives are formed with the help of auxiliary verbs. The typical form of such question is:
Auxiliary verb (be, do or have) + subject + main verb or modal verb + subject + main verb
The auxiliary verbs are inverted with the subject (subject – verb inversion) For example:
- Are you going to school?
- Will Jack come tomorrow?
- Have you finished your homework?
- Do you like folk dance?
If a sentence contains more than one auxiliary verb or modal verb, only one auxiliary verb or model should be put before the subject. For example:
- Have you been working for the whole day? (Only “have” has been put before the subject “you”)
Alternative Interrogatives
Alternative Interrogatives are questions that give a choice among two or more answers. Therefore, these questions are also called choice questions. For example:
- Do you prefer coffee or tea?
- Will you come with me now, or will you go with James afterwards?
- Do you prefer to live in the village or the city?
- Will they buy an apartment or villa?
Alternative Interrogatives are also formed with the help of auxiliary verbs. The form of such a question is: auxiliary verb (be, do or have) + subject + main verb or modal verb + subject + main verb. The auxiliary verbs are inverted with the subject (subject-verb inversion)
In the alternative question to be formed, if the main verb is “be”, additional auxiliary verb need not be used. For example:
- Are those flowers roses or Begonias? (Here the main verb, “are” is used to ask the question)
Wh- Interrogatives
Wh- Interrogatives are questions asked using one of the question words, who, what, where, when, why, and how. Auxiliary verbs also have to be used in these types of questions. For example:
- Where are you going?
- How are you doing?
- Why did you do that?
When you use the ‘wh’ and how question words, the questions demand full sentence answers. For example:
#1. Where are you going?
Ans. I am going to the mall.
#2. How are you doing?
Ans. ‘I am doing great.’
#3. Why did you do that?
Ans: ‘Because I wanted to.’
Although in the above examples, the answers are given in single sentences, depending upon the situation, the answer may require long explanation.
Tag questions
Tag questions or question tags are questions formed by attaching question tags onto the end of a declarative sentence. These tags are commonly created using an auxiliary verb inverted with subject. These question tags change the declarative sentences to interrogative sentences.
Examples:
- You are from USA, aren’t you?
- She is watching a film in the T.V.at home, isn’t she?
- You will go to your home town tomorrow, won’t you?
- She was a kind woman, wasn’t she?
- He is not attending the meeting, is he?
Sometimes a declarative sentence can be used as interrogative sentence by putting a question mark at the end of the sentence. When you ask questions like this orally, the last syllable of the sentence should be given proper intonation so as to make the listener understand that a question is being asked to him.
Indirect questions
Indirect questions are question embedded in a statement. For example:
- I asked him where he was staying.
A question, “Where are you staying?” is embedded in this statement. But it should be clearly understood that an interrogative sentence always ask direct questions and indirect question or embedded questions do not come under the category of” Interrogative sentences.”
3. Exclamatory sentence
As a child you may have heard these a lot. When a child steps out of line or makes the wrong decision, parents tend to emphasis what they are saying by using exclamatory sentences.
That is the purpose of exclamation sentences. They express very strong emotion. In listening, it is not hard to identify an exclamation sentence. The tone of the person’s voice will convey that information.
In writing, to make an exclamatory sentence you do need to use the exclamation mark. Writing does not have any sound helping it out, so it needs help from its punctuation friends. Here are a few examples of exclamation sentences:
- I said I wanted pizza!
- I want to go now!
- We are the champions!
- What a cute baby!
Depending upon the situation, there are different methods of expressing or writing exclamatory sentences. Some examples of the common categories are given hereunder.
1. Expressing strong emotion
- Many, many sweet returns of the day!
- Happy New Year!
- Happy Christmas!
2. Those begin with “What”:
- What beautiful scenery!
- What a cute baby!
- What a nice behavior!
3. Those begin with “How”:
- How beautifully she sings!
- How brightly it shines!
- How neatly she has kept her house!
4. Exclamatory sentences containing “such”:
- She is such a kind lady!
- He is such a bright student!
- She is such a wonderful writer!
5. Exclamatory sentences containing “so”:
- She is so glamorous!
- He is so handsome!
- That gentleman is so generous!
It is to be remembered that exclamatory sentences express strong emotion and should be used carefully. They are not to be used to write reports or academic purposes.
4. The Command or Imperative sentence
These are made usually by people who are in authority or are quite bossy. There is no fact and no search for information in these sentences. They also can be used without strong emotion. Imperative sentences are used to command or order people to do something.
Police officers, firemen during a fire, teachers, employers, and parents all use the command sentence quite well. They have the authority to tell people what to do and where to go.
Bossy older brothers and sisters do not have the authority but their place in the family line makes them think they can tell you what to do. Here are a few examples of imperative sentences:
- Get your hands up!
- Do your homework.
- Close the window.
- Go to the bank and make that deposit.
- Go to bed!
In using and hearing the command sentence, again it is the tone of voice by the user that tells you what is meant. In writing, it is the sentence structure as an imperative sentence can use both a period and an exclamation mark.
These sentences normally do not contain a subject. The subject is the person to whom the command is directed towards. To be specific the subject is “you”. It is understood here. That makes imperative sentences second person sentences.
Types of Sentences based on Structure
Structure in English grammar simply means how the different parts of speech are arranged and organised in a sentence so as to form a complete coherent thought. The English language comprises of many parts such as nouns, pronouns, verbs, adverbs conjunctions, prepositions, adjectives etc. It is through the correct use of these elements in a sentence that it becomes meaningful. Therefore, it is essential to understand how each of these parts of speeches has to be structured in a sentence.
There are mainly four types of sentence structures in English language –
- Simple Sentence:
A simple sentence consists of only a subject and a verb. It may also contain an object but it will always have only one independent clause.
Examples: They Studied.
I used the shaver.
He will not fight.
An independent Clause is a group of words containing a noun and a verb which expresses a complete thought.
2. Compound Sentence:
Compound sentences are sentences which comprise two or more independent clauses these clauses are often combine using a semi-colon or an appropriate conjunction.
Examples: I took my umbrella to work today but it did not rain.
He organized his files by tags; then, he updated his reference list.
She tried to write a good review and she succeeded in her efforts.
3. Complex Sentence:
A complex sentence is a type of structure that consists of at least one independent clause and one dependent clause/subordinate clause. Dependent clause is a group of words that contain a subject and a verb but they do not express a complete thought.
In a compound sentence, a dependent clause will usually refer to the subject (who, which) the sequence/time (since, while), or the causal elements (because, if) of the independent clause.
Examples: Because he did his work so diligently, he was praised by everyone in the room.
Jake cried because he couldn’t hit the ball.
He studied for hours and hours with no interest in the subject whatsoever.
4. Complex-Compound Sentence:
The complex-compound sentence is the combination of complex and compound sentence structures. A complex compound sentence will contain at least two independent clauses and at least one subordinate clause.
Examples: She did not mean to hurt him, but he wouldn’t listen to reason, so she had no choice.
Bill tried to apologize to the manager but she ignored him, so he quit the job.
I’m not wrong for thinking this way because I have been hurt in the past as I was a naïve young boy.
WHAT ARE MODIFIERS?
Modifiers are words that provide additional information about nouns, pronouns, verbs, and themselves to make those things more definite.
Modifiers can be classified into two main types: adjectives and adverbs.
MODIFYING WORD
A modifying word refers to the adjectives and adverbs that modify a word in a sentence and are defined by it respectively.
The modifier is an Adjective when the modified word is a noun.
Example:
- An outstanding choice for a sovereign summer holiday.
- These huge apartments are along an inland waterway in a quiet residential area.
- The friendly resort of Blue eyes with its stunning white sandy beach is only a short walk away.
An adjective modifies a noun. The physical and other qualities of the noun are expressed by the adjective (huge, quiet, friendly) and also the writer’s opinion or attitude (outstanding, stunning). The residual adjective classifies the area, tells us what type of area it is.
The modifier is an Adverb, if the modified word is a verb or adjective or any other adverb,
Example:
- The car in front of us was a police car.
- You were getting really impatient.
- They were going very slowly.
- They inspected the car thoroughly.
- Then you decided to overtake.
Here the adverbials add information about the noun car, the adjective impatient, the adverb slowly, the action inspected the car and the clause you decided.
Thus, knowing types of adjectives and adverbs will be an added advantage in correcting the sentences.
PLACEMENT OF MODIFIERS
Many phrases really loads the sentences with information by supplying extra significance, tying loose strands together, and clearing up area of uncertainty. But, if the phrases and clauses aren’t correctly placed, things can get undisciplined and confusing.
A key to precise sentence construction is the proper placement of modifiers within a sentence:
Only one word or a group of words must be modified by a modifying phrase or clause, and should be placed as close as possible to the word(s) it modifies.
Incorrect: There is a clay figurine in the museum that is thousand years old.
In the given sentence the word museum is modified by using the clause ‘that is thousand years old’.
Correct: There is a clay figurine that is thousand years old in the museum.
Two kinds of problematic modifiers that exist in placement tests, they are known as misplaced modifiers and dangling modifiers.
TYPES OF PROBLEMATIC MODIFIERS
1. MISPLACED MODIFIERS
Many sentences in the first glance appear to be correct, but in the second reading, become confusing and unorganized due to misplaced modifiers.
Adverbs and prepositional phrases are the two most commonly misplaced modifiers. They include - however, only, just, even, almost, never, etc.
A. Adverbs with Verbs
In the adverb forms and adverbial forms, the adverb can be moved within a sentence to modify verb, adjective, or another adverb along with the noun phrases.
Example:
Consider these three sentences each having the word just in a different position:
- Jenny was just allowed to go back to work.
- Jenny was allowed to just go back to work.
- Just Jenny was allowed to go back to work.
As it can be seen the placement of the modifier 'just' completely changes the meaning in each of the three sentences.
The first sentence means that Jerry was recently allowed to go back to work.
The second sentence means that Jerry was only allowed to go back to work and nowhere else.
The third sentence means that only Jerry and no one else was allowed to go back to work.
When we’re writing, it’s important to put the modifier in the correct position to convey your intended meaning. Therefore, it is essential to note that the placement of one little adverb can dramatically change the meaning of a sentence.
B. Prepositional Phrase
In case of the ‘adverbial forms’, the prepositional phrase can modify (pro)noun, adjective or adjectival phrase, and verb as adverbial phrase.
Consider this example:
- He saw a house on the top of the hill with the help of telescope.
- He saw a house with the help of telescope on the top of the hill.
- He saw a house on the top with the help of telescope of the hill.
- With the help of telescope, he saw a house on the top of the hill.
To fix the error first try to answer for ‘He did what, where, with what’
With the help of telescope, he saw a house on the top of the hill is correct.
Sentence 1 to 3 positions the telescope with hill, house, top where ideology is incorrect.
C) Adjective Clause
As mentioned and dealt with adjective, it becomes our intention to identify the incorrect appearance of adjective or unintended meaning of adjectives.
Example
- My wife, which was bought in Mumbai city, wore her new scarf around her neck.
- My wife wore her new scarf, which was bought in Mumbai city, around her neck.
- My wife wore her new scarf around her neck, which was bought in Mumbai city.
- My wife wore, which was bought in Mumbai city, her new scarf around her neck.
To correct the error sketch the idea in brief – who or what was bought in Mumbai city
It is obvious that one can’t buy a wife or her neck, hence the correct modifying phrase should be placed near scarf. Therefore, the correct sentence would be ‘My wife wore her new scarf, which was bought in Coimbatore city, around her neck’.
2. DANGLING MODIFIERS
A dangling modifier is a modifier which is always incomplete, in terms of clauses, participles or infinitive phrases
A. Incomplete Clauses
It is necessary to turn a phrase into clause, to make it clear which word(s) are modified. Always suspect an ‘ing’ word of dangling if it’s near the front of a sentence.
Example 1:
Incorrect: While in my meeting, my mother called me.
Here the subject or the doer of the action is missing. Bring the subject, sequence the action and correction happens.
Correct: While I was in my meeting, my father called me.
Example 2:
Incorrect: Running fast to catch the train, my iphone fell out of my pocket.
Sketch the meaning, seems as if iphone is running fast to catch the train.
Correct: While I was running fast to catch the train, my iphone fell out of my pocket.
B. Dangling Participles
A participle that modifies unintended (pro)noun.
Example 1:
Incorrect: We were excited to see a pasture of wildflowers walking through the park.
Are the wildflowers walking through the park?
Correct: Walking through the park, we were excited to see a pasture of wildflowers.
Example 2:
Incorrect: After having declined the dessert, the waiter brought us the bill.
Hint word ‘us’, the doer is missing.
Correct: Having declined the dessert, we asked the waiter to bring us our bill.
Example 3:
Incorrect: Feeling better, the doctor said I could return to school.
Who was feeling better, the doctor or the speaker?
Correct: The doctor said, I who was feeling better could return to school.
C. Dangling Infinitives
An infinitive (to + verb), when serving as an adjective, that modifies an intended (pro)noun.
Example:
Incorrect: To recover from the accident, the doctor suggested some rest.
Who is recovering the doctor or the speaker?
Correct: According to the doctor, I need some rest to recover from the accident.
