Unit – 3

Forms of Technical Communication

3.1.        Business Letters

Writing letters is an art and a strategy. The latter can be followed by following formal meetings; the former must be nurtured with the care and deepest interest of man. The letters are generally divided into the following four categories: friendly or informal letters, business letters; invitations and responses, as well as the use of functions.

      Knowing What to Say:
Nothing is more harmful to good communication than muddle-headedness resulting in not being able to make one's point. Before writing a letter one should be sure of what one wants to say and accordingly one should be in command of all the necessary facts and information arranged logically and systematically.

      Clarity:
Knowing what one wants to say is not enough unless one says it in as clear a Language as possible. Here comes the importance of the right word and the right expression put in a sentence constructed neatly and with precision. It should, however, be remembered that right words and write expressions become relevant only when they occur in the right place. Thus emotional and even flowery language may be apposite to a personal Letter but it will be completely out of place in a business letter.

      Brevity:
A few generations ago, when man enjoyed unlimited space and time, prolixity in language would not have been unwelcome, at Least in certain kinds of correspondence. In the modern age, however, addition of even one extra word cost time and energy most people will like to avoid. It is all the more the business correspondence. It means that all redundancy, be it a quotation illustration, an elaboration, in short, padding of any kind, must be avoided at all costs.

      Accuracy:
Avoidance of redundant helps achieve accuracy of statement. For much unwanted language in letters is the direct result of inaccurate and inconsistent thoughts and statements. A little care, particularly habitual revision of what one has written, will go a long way towards making writing accurate.

      Courtesy:
As remarked earlier, a letter reveals its writer's personality and character. Since there is always a 'you' in every letter, it is necessary that this 'you' or the addressee be shown all the courtesy and respect that language can express. Even when a complaint is lodged or a statement or application rejected, care should be taken that it is couched in polite and civilized language. It is worth remembering that while courtesy costs nothing, there is hardly anything more abrasive than impolite language.

      Good Looks:
Finally, a letter must be a visual attraction to the reader. It can displease either through wrong spelling and punctuation or bad writing and typing. These are not matters merely of form as even a well-thought out-letter, rich in ideas and having all the qualities of clarity, brevity, accuracy and courtesy may not only fail to make proper impact on the reader, but may even defeat its purpose by causing him unnecessary annoyance.

It is convenient to divide all letters into 10 parts:

• Sender's address
• Date
• Direction (the address of the person(s) to whom you are writing)
• Salutation
• Reference (not always necessary in intimate, personal letters)
• Body
• Subscription
• Signature
• Postscript (to be as a rule avoided, unless absolutely necessary)
• The  envelope.

As these are mostly (except for the body of the letter) matters of form, we will illustrate each one of them. Often there are alternative forms, but you must choose one of them and use it consistently.

• Sender's address:

(a)  Laxmi Niwas,
52 Mall Road,
Civil Lines,
Kanpur 208 016

(b)  D 64 Press Road ,
Nauroji Nagar,
Mysore 570 006

(c)  Department of Linguistics,
University of Delhi ,
Delhi 110 007.

• Date:

(a)  October 25, 1988

(b)  25th October, 1988

• Direction:

(a)  The Personnel Manager,
Life Insurance Corporation of India,
Bhubaneshwar , 751 006.

(b)  Messrs Atma Ram & Sons ,
3B Asaf Ali Roa,
New Delhi 110 001 .

(c)  Professor N. G. Arunachalam ,
Department of Civil Engineering,
University Engineering College ,
Hyderabad 500 007.

(d) Ms. Kavita Swaroop,
4/D Indira Colony,
Jawahar Nagar,
Agra 282 005.

(Messrs is used for an unlimited company or partnership of traders) (The same address is to be repeated on the envelope.)

• Salutation :

(a)  Dear Sir/Madam,

(b)  Sir/Madam, (in strictly formal letters to and from government departments or officials)

(c)  Dear Sirs/Gentlemen, (in the case of unlimited company, firm or partnership of traders or from a clerk to the Board of Directors, when 'Gentlemen' is preferred)

(d) Dear Mr. Swaminathan,

(e)  Dear Swaminathan,

(f)    My dear Swaminathan/My dear Mr. Swaminathan, ('My dear' shows extra intimacy)

(g) My dear Ravi, (very intimate and friendly)

(a)  Reference:( in professional or business letters)

(b) Sale of Old Stock (between salutation and the body of the letter) (usually placed above the direction)   

(c)  Our ref...

(d)  Your ref...

• Body:  (the main part of the Letter, the subject matter of which will differ in each case)
• Subscription:

(a)  Yours faithfully. (most common form in formal, official and business letters)

(b)  Yours truly. (somewhat warmer than the above)

(c)  Yours sincerely, (cordial and friendly)

(d)  Yours affectionately. Very sincerely yours, Yours ever, in very intimate personal letter

3.2        Job Application Letter and Resume

The application process for internships, internships, and graduate / professional programs usually requires a personal statement or application letter. This type of writing invites writers to present their skills with confidence and accuracy, which can be challenging.

Although the requirements are different in application and application, the purpose of this type of writing is to represent your goals, experiences and qualifications in the best possible light, and to demonstrate your writing ability. Your personal statement or request letter to present to your potential employer or program manager, so it's important that you take enough time to write a piece of creative writing.

• Prepare your materials:
  Before you sit down and write, prepare something to prevent frustration during the writing process itself. Obtain copies of documents such as transcript, resumes and original application form; keeping them in front of you will make your writing career a lot easier. Make a list of important information, with specific names and specific topics for employers and directors, job titles you have worked on, dates for relevant work or volunteer experiences, jobs involved etc. This way, you will be able to look at these materials while writing to include as much detail as possible.

• Write a first draft:
  After you've compiled and reviewed these materials, it's time to start writing. The following is a list of concerns that authors should keep in mind when writing a personal statement / request letter.

Below is an example of a job application letter which can be used as a template for your letters:

Resume

A resume is a short document used to summarize the job search and qualifications of the prospective employer. The resume includes contact details for the job seeker, work experience, education, and the appropriate skills to support the job application.
Your renegotiation is a critical part of today's job application process. Writing a good resume is more important than ever now that online job posts tend to attract hundreds if not thousands of applicants. A refurbished, ready-to-start application will increase your chances of getting an interview while poorly written resumes may be lost at sea of ​​applicants.
 

      What is the risk finding with a table and a CV?
Sometimes you will see the words go on and the CV is used interchangeably. They are not the same. The resume is a short documentary designed to market your professional skills while the cv contains an informative list of your expertise, of your courses, and other information.
Cv  stands for curriculum ("course of life"). Cvs are separate by design. Think of them as an encyclopedia version of your professional life, taking your career history, education, credentials, relationships, publication and professionalism. They can extend well over three or four pages.
In the united states, CV’s are usually limited to professions with general positions where deep expertise is critical, such as academics, science and medicine. These CV’s are filled with extended education categories, work history, internships, gigs talk, teaching appointments, magazine publishing and other information that establishes trust.
Re-use across many industries and very short on just one or two pages. That's because the resume is not intended to capture all the details of your previous experience. Your resume should be designed and updated based on the details of each activity you use. Negative jobs in past jobs can be eliminated to save space and attract more attention to your used and accessible skills.

      How to write the resume:

1. Select the resume format and the categories you need

2. Always include contact details, work experience, and education

3. Use traditional topics for high compliance

4. Apply practical skills directly to the job description

5. Replace basic tasks with impactful performance

6. Do not include an old goal statement or reference section

7. Preview and double-check what you wrote

8. Save as docx file (optional) or pdf.
If you think you are done, ask someone else to take care of you. Alternatively, take it to jobscan for a quick answer.

      What to learn from your question?
At the very least, your startup should include your contact details, work experience, and education. Additional job summary sections, skills, volunteer work, and additional qualifications can be added when related to the job you work for.
The work ethic here is "worth it." remember that your resume is intended to quickly highlight the reasons why you are well prepared for the job. It is not intended to explain all the tasks you have done. Instead of simply listing your daily obligations from past activities, read the job listing and try to find the answer to each of the requirements listed. This is likely to get the attention of an employer who can only look at your return for a few seconds. It also broadens your application tracking system to apply to algorithms that help companies identify top candidates.
Below you will find out which parts of the restart to include in your startup and how to adapt to the job you are looking for.
 

      Contact information:
The title of your startup should include the following information:

• Name
• Phone number
• Location (city, country, zip code)
• Email address
• Linked profile url
  It may seem obvious, but job seekers sometimes forget an important piece of contact information in this section. Double check and make it as easy as possible for employers to contact you for job interviews.

• Phone number:
  Enter a personal phone number, not a work number. Enter your city, state, and zip code (e.g. “seattle, wa 98104”). This is important as other applicant tracking systems allow employers to filter the candidates based on location. Employers will always start with local selectors first. If you are traveling from somewhere, write down your current location and your future location.

• Email address:
  Use a valid email address. An email address based around your name is correct, such as jackieromano12@email.com. Your "happy" email address may work well in your life, but the terms "beersnob88" or "biebersuperfan" may not be so clear. Even using a seemingly outdated email client - such as aol or hotmail - can harm your prospects. Consider creating a free gmail account for your search.

• Linked Profile url:
  If the employer is surprised by your qualifications, they will look at your online profiles. All job seekers should create a strong linkedin profile and include a url in their resume. This will make the life of the employer a little easier and help them to cross-check the claims on your resume.
• Work experience:
  Part of the work experience is the heart of your resume. Separate this category from a clear, existing topic, such as "work experience," "work experience," or "employment history." this will help guide employers towards your resume and ensure that the applicant tracking system (ats) is well defined.

Under the main heading, list each activity in chronological order. Each function should have its own sub-heading that includes the following information:

• Company
• Workplace
• Your job title
• Start and end dates

For example:

• Abc corporation, settle
• Distribution manager (01/2017-present)
  The first things an employer looks for in your resume are the topics of the work you hold and the number of companies you've worked with. This format not only makes it easy for them to access that information, but our research has found that this sequence also provides greater ats compatibility.

Under each subheading, include responsibilities and measurable outputs that are relevant to the job you are working on. Remember, you don't have to include all the activities that were part of your daily routine. Use your available space to highlight the skills and knowledge requested in the job description. Jobscan helps you decide exactly what skills are requested and whether or not you have highlighted them.

      Education:
When you have a few years into your career, your education level may also be reduced under your resume.Unless you're using a profession that places more emphasis on education (such as academics, law, or medicine), most job seekers can escape by simply providing the following information on their resume:

• Agency name

• Stem

• School location

• Years visited
If you have just graduated from college, your education level surpasses your professional experience and includes many details. Skills developed in school are real skills that are important in the professional world. Recent rooms can include appropriate coursework, communities, organizations, and extracurriculars that strengthen their identity.

      Activities:
98% of fortune 500 companies use applicant tracking systems (ats) to filter, filter, and enter applicants. Other atss, such as taleo, can automatically add your own content to the job description, allowing employers to focus only on the best "applicants". Employers are also looking at their application site to find keywords, such as "customer service," "accounts available," or "adobe photoshop."

Overloading or coming up as a search result is about adding complex skills and keywords to your resume. A good way to identify key skills in a list and search algorithms is to identify which skills are most prominent in the job description. Aligning these skills to your resume, where applicable, increases your chances of being selected for an interview

Strong skills should apply to all your resume capabilities. Entering the skills category for your startup is not a prerequisite, but it can help you have a natural place to list the essential skills in the job you work for. The dedicated skills section also makes your resume much easier for employers trying to quickly find out if you meet their needs.

If you are using the skills section, remember that the list of skills and keywords is not enough. Add context to these skills to your full potential so employers can believe. This includes factors such as projects you have used in skills, the number of years of experience in a given skill, or the level of your expertise.

      Historical and free:
Some restart forms allow space for some optional components. Only use the category of awards or honors in your resume if it makes sense for the job you work for. Active reputations will improve your credibility while poor prizes simply distract you from your best titles. For example, decide to get a monthly career or get a great customer satisfaction rating for your department, but maybe not if you are a kart race expert in your free time.

      Volunteer work and study:
The work you do as an active volunteer can add to your qualifications and skill set as all paid experience. Also, the word "works." highlight the volunteer work of your startup that uses the skills that apply to the job you work for. Carefully list voluntary organizations or affiliated organizations, such as political or religious organizations.

      What you can leave from your view:

• Statement of note:
  The statement of intent has been used as a standard for the restart and appears in other implementation templates. Traditionally, the purposeful statements were a brief introduction to the resume which explains why the submission is returned. For example, "purpose: to secure a position as a communications manager at a leading sales center."

Including a purpose that you can restart these days can make you appear later. The job summary statement replaced the purpose of today's reboot. Any other information can serve as a cover letter.

While a statement of objectives describes your goals, a concise statement outlines how you can add value to the company.

• Examinations:
  It is not necessary to write your directions in your resume unless otherwise stated in the job description. In addition, it is assumed that you have references, so there is no need to include "references available on request" either. Use the space you save to add additional skills and achievements.
   
• Soft skills:
  When it comes to your resume, soft skills are not nearly as important as technical skills. That is because it is difficult to demonstrate within the context of a restart. For example, an employer will not take your name from you if you say "you work hard" or "you solve a problem." in fact, it looks like it's short.

Instead of simply writing soft skills, find opportunities to show off your interpersonal and behavioral skills. Achievements and measurable results are a great way to do this. For example, instead of saying "hard work," indicate in writing that you have completed x projects that are more than your department average.

• Gpa:
  Only list your gpa as part of your continuing education program if you have recently graduated from college and have a good gpa, similar to a 3.5 or better with a 4.0 rating. There are a few exceptions. Some industries, as professionals, are waiting to see your gpa.

      Should you get more about it?
While a one-page startup is sometimes considered to be the best, a two-page resume may be required after five or ten years of staffing, especially if all of your experience is relevant to the job you are pursuing. Managers sometimes have three or more pages running.

That said, your resume should not be longer than it should. Short, step-by-step resumes will easily be digested and highlight your most important skills. After writing your resume, try removing the excess fluff and inappropriate content to reduce your page count and draw your attention to your best titles. No matter how many pages you start, try putting your most impressive titles at the top of the first page with a summary or category of skills.

      How to do this form:
There are several different ways to format your resume. Choosing the right format will make the writing process easier. When choosing a format, consider the function you are using for it. The chronological, compositional, and functional styles of each work serve a specific purpose.

3.3         Business Letters: Sales and Credit Letters. Letters of Quotation, Order, Claim and Adjustment Letters

Sales and Credit Letters

A sales letter is a type of business letter which is written with the intent of selling a product. Sales letters are an effective way to communicate with clients.

Sales letters are designed in such a way that they immediately grab the attention of the reader. It is like a salesman discussing the purpose but in the form of a letter. A sales letter could be general or particular in nature depending upon the person(s) it is addressed to.

Objectives of Sales Letter

• The main purpose of every sale letter is to convince the reader to purchase a product.
• Introduction and marketing of new products and services.
• To reach potential customers.
• Expansion of the market.

Advantages of Sales Letter

• A sales letter is less expensive.
• Reach a client where a salesman cannot.
• Reach a number of clients all at the same time.
• Ease of understanding and availability of full details.
• More convenient, efficient, and comprehensive.

Elements and Format of Sales Letter

Below is the format of a sales letter

Headline: Here the writer wants to grab the reader’s attention toward the main purpose of the letter.

Introduction: The first paragraph serves the purpose of introduction the product or service to the reader. It provides the reader with the details of the product or service. These details include the cost of the product or service, the quality, the savings and any other information associated with it.

Body: This is the part where the writer needs to build his credibility and convince the reader. Here, the content includes the worth of the product, its similarities and differences from other products, a list of satisfied customers who are already happily using the product, and the terms of contract related to the product etc.

Call to Action: Here the writer tries to incite an appropriate response from the reader. Details such as warranties and discounts are often added in the concluding part of the letter.

Writing Tips for Writing Sales Letter

1. Introduce the ideas in a way that compels the reader to take a positive action.
2. Introduce yourself and the product well.
3. Be clear in what you are offering.
4. Choose your words as per the targeted audience.
5. Always use a headline.
6. Make the first sentence of each paragraph count.
7. Use of font styles, font sizes, bullets, and numbering etc.
8. Strongly describe the credibility of the product using relevant statements and examples.
9. Suitable closing sentences.
10. Correct use of salutation.
11. Proper and complete details of the product and availability.
12. Always ask for the reader's attention, build interest and desire in the reader's mind, and finally incite the call of action.
13. Have a simple and convincing tone.
14. Avoid creating confusion and uncertainty.
15. Avoid being clever and funny.
16. Include your name, signature, and other contact details.
17. Do not use fancy words or slang.
18. Always revise and edit the letter.

Letters of Quotation

A quotation is an offer from the seller to sell products or services at a certain price. A quotation is not a legally binding contract but only an offer. In businesses such offers are often made through letters. These letters are known as quotation letters or voluntary offers.

Quotation letters are written in formal style and follow the same format as other business letters with a change in the main content of the letter.

Format of a quotation letter

Your name, address, city, zip code, phone number and email address should be included in the contact information. Following the contact info is the date. After writing these, you have to write the contact information of the person or organization you are writing to, the salutation, The introduction as to why you are writing the letter, the body comprising of various specifications regarding the products or services along with the price list, a few concluding statements and your signature (handwritten signature if the letter is mailed).

These are the basic steps of writing a business quotation letter. To summarize, a business quotation letter should consist of short and to the point sentence, the focus should always be on the numbers, it should attract the attention of the reader, it should be respectful and should not contain errors.

Sample

Below is a sample letter of quotation which will help you understand the basic template of a quotation letter

Order Letter

An order letter is a type of business letter which is written for the purpose of placing orders for products and services. An order letter is written by the buyer when the seller has provided them with a quote and it is in accordance with their budget.

An order letter is important step towards initiating a business transaction. This letter demonstrates interest in the merchandise and the need to start a business deal. This letter also shows that a customer is satisfied with the details provided in the quote like prices, specifications and other details.

An order letter is also used to specify the timeline around which the ordered products are to be delivered. It also provides other relevant information on quantity, the things ordered, and the mode of payment.

Below is a template of how an order letter should be written. In this template, the buyer is placing an order after receiving a quotation from the seller and agreeing to it.

From,

_____________

_____________

Date (date on which letter is written)

To,

________________

Subject:_________________________________________

Dear _________________,

My name is ____________ and I am writing as ____________ on behalf of ____________. With regard to a request for a quote dated ____________, I wish to order ____________ fabrics that are ____________ in colour and ____________ design. This order is for a client who is preparing for a wedding on   ____________ and I wish to have the order urgently. The reference number of this order is ____________, please include it in all transactions for this order.

The first order will be for ____________ pieces so that we can examine the quality of the fabric and the design before making the second order. The second order will be for ____________ pieces upon approval of the first order. Kindly receive a check of ____________ for the first order. I would appreciate if you sent me a confirmation of receipt through my email ____________.

I hope to receive the shipment by latest ____________ in our office located on this address ____________.

Thank you in advance.

Your Truly,

__________

(__________________)

Claim and Adjustment Letters

Claim Letter

A claim letter is essentially a complaint letter which a buyer writes to a seller to resolve grievances. Claim letters are formal business letters in which an individual or company demands the fulfilment of their claims.

In a claim letter the buyer asks for a refund or replacement for the faulty products or services provided by the seller. The seller then sends an adjustment letter where he tries to find a solution for the buyer’s problem.

Below is a sample claim letter which can be used as a template while writing a claim letter:

Adjustment Letter

An adjustment letter is a response to a buyer’s complaint or claim letter. Th main objective of writing an adjustment letter is to rectify the problem and provide the buyer with an appropriate solution.

Steps on How to Write an Adjustment Letter

1. Write the salutation.

Always address the letter to a particular person. Usually, people that send a complaint letter leave their name and address. Make sure that you spell the name correctly. For example, “Dear Mr. Jones” or “Dear Michael Robertson.”

2. Write the introduction.

Start the first sentence with a positive note. Write that you are pleased to hear from the client or express regret over the troublesome situation, or both. Address the date of the customer’s complaint letter and tell why you are writing. Don’t repeat the content of the complaint in detail.

Try to avoid such words as “complaint” or “claim.” These words may sound accusatory for the client. It will be better to say something like “Your report/message/notice from 2nd November has been received.”

3. Write the main part of the letter.

This section will consist of several parts. First, you need to restate the essence of the problem, so the reader will clearly understand that you have understood their problem well. Then you need to explain why the situation has occurred. Avoid long explanations, and be specific and brief. Clients don’t care about the company’s difficulties and simply want the situation to be fixed.

Second, present the solution to the problem. If the client is right, admit the mistake and provide a compensation or guarantee that the error will be resolved. Provide a list of steps that you are going to take (or have already taken). In some cases, when the claim is unwarranted, the company needs to write a careful and tactful denial to maintain good relations with the customer. Always try to persuade the client that you always have their needs in mind.

4. Write a conclusion.

End the letter with kind words. Thank for the client’s patience and offer further cooperation. Assure the client that such situations are rare and the company will do all possible to prevent this in the future. Express hope that the client will continue to enjoy products or services of the company. Don’t restate the essence of the problem at the end of the letter, as it will leave a feeling of incompleteness rather than your goodwill.

Add a hot-line phone number and website at the end of your letter, so the client can contact your company if needed.

5. Proofread and send the letter.

Make sure that your text is free of mistakes and has a logical structure. When you are pleased with the result, send the letter to the client.

Tips on How to Write an Adjustment Letter

• Don’t forget to fill in the subject field if you are sending an email.
• Write the adjustment letter in the shortest time possible. The company improves its own reputation by responding quickly to all complaints.
• Focus more on the solution rather than on the details of the problem.
• Always write in a positive tone. You need to calm down the customer and cheer them up.
• Focus on the relevant and specific facts rather than emotions.
• Don’t use abusive language or a negative tone. Even if the customer is aggressive or rude, you need to keep a friendly attitude and understanding of the problem.
• Never promise the client to do what is impossible or something that violates the company’s policy.
• Don’t show your surprise about the problem, unless it is a truly unique case for your company.
• Don’t try to make excuses – provide only factual information in the explanation.
• Show that your company takes it seriously.
• If the client experiences a great inconvenience, be generous. For example, you can provide a discount for the next order or a gift if appropriate.
• Remember the classical rule: “The customer is always right.” Even if the customer is wrong, make sure the customer is satisfied with your response.

3.4        Official Letters: D.O Letters, Government Letters, Letters to Authorities

The best way to express an opinion or provide important information to others can be through an official letter. This is a professional way to explain yourself while using simple and concise sentences to avoid taking up the reader's time. Official letters follow a specific structure or format that must be maintained throughout the entire document.

What is an official letter?

An official letter is a formal letter written by an individual or a company to another organization to conduct business. They can be used when applying for jobs, issuing a complaint, expressing interest in a job position or thanking someone.

Follow the steps below to learn how to write an official letter.

1. Set up your font and margins

Before writing an official letter, it must be kept in mind that the letter should not only be simple to understand but easy to read as well. Set your margins to be one or one and a half inches per each side of the document, this will help your letter look professional. Using simple fonts like Verdana, Arial, Calibri or Times New Roman with a 12-point size will give your official letter a clean look as well.

2. Create your heading

Once your fonts are set, you can begin addressing your letter. First, write your name in the top left-hand corner of the page. Include your name, address and the current date. You can also include your phone number and email if you are requesting further contact.

While writing the recipient's address information, remember to put it directly beneath yours. Write their name, title of their organization if they are representing one, followed by the address. Review the name and address of your recipient more than once to ensure you've written the correct address and spelled their name right.

3. Write your salutation

You can now professionally greet your reader. A common salutation used in official letters is, "Dear Ms. Or Mr. Last name". If you know both their first name or last name, you can include that in the salutation. For example, you can write, "Dear Alex Smith". If you know their gender, you can write, "Dear Mr. Alex Smith" or "Dear Ms. Alex Smith". If you're unaware of the name of the recipient, you can write, "Dear Sir or Madam".

4. Use your body paragraphs to state your reasons for writing

The body paragraphs are where you can capture your main points and professionally explain your concerns, opinions or other information to your recipient. This is the part where your introduction and the purpose of the letter comes in. You can use verbiage such as, "I am writing to you today because..."

Once you've explained what the recipient will read, you can expand further throughout the next paragraph. Include details that support your first statement. For example, if you were writing a recommendation letter, you could expand on the skills of the person your recommending by saying, "Avery's time-management and organizational skills have improved the efficiency of my business by 12% since the beginning of the quarter."

You can continue giving examples until you believe your point has been clearly understood by the reader. Keep your sentences short, simple and easy for the reader to understand.

5. Add your closing body paragraph and signature

After finishing the body of the letter, the conclusion should be written. This paragraph can be short and will finalize the document by repeating your main point, explaining any possible next steps or thanking the recipient for taking the time to read your letter.

After closing the letter, you can provide your closing signature at the end of the document. Examples of common letter signatures are:

Sincerely

Sincerely yours

With appreciation

Thank you

Regards

Yours truly

Respectfully yours

Carefully select your closing signature as per the requirements and input name at the bottom of the letter.

6. Mention and add your enclosures

Enclosures are additional materials added to your letter to support your document, similar to when you attach a file to an email. If you're attaching a document to complement your letter, you should mention it near the end of your letter. To inform the reader that an additional document is attached, you can include the word "enclosure" at the end of the letter after your name. You can also shorten the word by writing, "encl."

7. Proofread and send your letter

After you've finished writing, you can read through the letter to catch any grammatical or spelling errors. You can also review it to ensure it makes sense and is clear enough for the recipient to understand. Once proofread, you can send the letter to the recipient. Pick a plain white, square or rectangular envelope. Fold the letter properly so it fits in the envelope.

Write your name and address in the top left-hand corner of the envelope followed by the recipient's name and address in the middle. Now your letter is ready to be sent to the recipient.

D.O Letters

Demi Official letter or D.O is a semi-governmental letter which also consists of personal information shared between the sender and the receiver. D.O letters are written when there is a personal as well as an official relationship between the sender and the receiver.  And because of this personal relationship the letter contains personal elements.

This type of letter is quite flexible in writing style and format, there are no strict rules to be followed during the composition of a D.O letter. These letters are generally shared by two persons having the same designation who also have a personal relationship.

The objectives of writing D.O letters are:

1. To acquire information regarding a specific subject
2. To grab the personal attention of an individual while avoiding the often-lengthy official procedure
3. To transmit confidential information.
4. To tend to matters with utmost urgency that require quick resolution

Fundamentals of drafting a D.O letter:

• D.O letters are usually printed or typed semi-official letters containing the personal name, official designation, name and address of the sender.
• Reference number and date are mentioned as in formal letters.
• The salutation is on a personal level and familiar tone, for example, “Dear Mr. Ravi” or “Dear Mrs. Shastri”
• The language used in a D.O letter is mostly informal and the use of official language is as sparse as possible.
• The individual ‘I’ is used instead of the official ‘we’ which is commonly used in official letters.
• The subscription used is “Yours Sincerely” as one would use in an informal letter after which the name of the sender is typed or written in brackets.
• Sometimes in a D.O letter the name and address of the receiver is written on the left-hand corner at the end of the letter along with their official designation.

Below is the template for a D.O letter which can be used as a format for your letters:

Enter Name of Person,

Enter Designation 

Tele. No.: Enter Telephone Number

D.O. No. Enter Demi-Official Number

GOVERNMENT OK INDIA

Department of Enter Name of the Department

(Enter Name of the Vibhag)

Enter Place the Enter Date

Dear Mr/Mrs ………………………

I would like to propose to draw up a model scheme for ………………………….. A copy of the blueprints for the model is enclosed in the envelope.

Please provide me with your comments on the proposal as soon as possible. I would like to add that we intend on circulating the model scheme formally to all departments in due course for their opinions.

With regards.

Yours sincerely

Enter Name of Person signing 

Enter Name of Person,

Enter Designation

Enter Address.

Government Letters

A government letter is any letter written to a government official to achieve a specific objective. For Example, your neighbourhood is backed up every morning with commuters desperately trying to get to work, and you're convinced the solution is a traffic light. Or you're confused by the mud-slinging during the latest campaign, and you want to know just where an official stand before you vote again. Perhaps a recent policy change in leash laws has made it impossible to walk your pet comfortably. Any of these situations is a reason to write to a government official. Whatever the reason may be, a government letter has to be articulate, respectful and formal.

There are many purposes for writing a government letter, below are some of them:

• Support for political candidate
• Request for volunteers
• Offer to volunteer for candidate
• Negative letter about candidate
• Fundraiser for political candidate
• Down to the wire direct mail letter
• Down to the wire ballot initiative letter
• Direct mail letter for candidate
• Announcement of a public appearance by a candidate
• Support for the president
• Request for presidential appearance
• Question about policy issue
• Personal question
• Childs letter to the president
• An idea for president
• Offering assistance to a representative
• Congratulating a representative
• Complimenting a representative
• Complaining to a representative
• Calling a representative on carpet
• Asking a representative to make a speaking appearance
• Asking a question of a representative
• Underpaid taxes
• Request to change audit date
• Late tax payment
• Overpaid taxes
• Filing by phone
• Filing by internet
• Disputing tax bill
• Claiming exemption
• Asking tax questions

Below are some rules to be followed while writing a letter to an official:

Choosing the Right Official

The first rule of writing these types of letters is decide which official to whom you need to direct your letter. Choose someone who has the most direct influence on the topic you're concerned about. Getting the official's name and title correct is very important. Misspelling a name or using the wrong designation -- Mr. Haley instead of Governor Haley, for example -- can detract a great deal from the seriousness of your letter.

Salutation and Introduction

A formal salutation which includes the designation of the official is most appropriate when writing letters to government officials, such as, "Dear Governor Charles" or "Dear Senator Richardson," followed by a colon. Then in the introductory paragraph you should you should introduce yourself and state the purpose of writing the letter and what you hope to achieve from it. Be concise and specific as your letter may be just one in a deluge of others. The better you can sum up who you are and what issue has prompted you to write, the more effective your letter will be.

Explanations and Suggestions

Delve deeper into the issue at hand. Explain how this issue affects you and anyone else in your group, followed by your personal stand on it and the reasons for your position. Letters to officials are typically of two natures: a complaint or an offer of support. If you are writing a complaint letter try to suggest a suitable resolution along with it. If you want to show your support in their decisions you need to show it in your letter. You may also want to volunteer some of your time to helping out if possible.

Conclusion

Summarize your thoughts in the last paragraph of the letter in a few lines. Try to include all the key words that you used in the body of the letter. Like all formal letters written to higher ups in an official body, be sure to include a note of gratitude for the time the reader has taken to read the letter and consider your thoughts. The letter should be ended with a formal closing such as "Your's faithfully" or "Sincerely". If it's a typed letter, leave space between your closing and your typed name so you can add your signature in ink in that space.

Basic Formal Rules

The letter must always start with the date, name and address. Four lines below that, insert the name, title and address of the recipient. Whether you align the addresses on the left or right of the page depends on the visual style of the letter. Drop down one more line to insert the salutation and another line to begin the body of the letter. Always leave a line after the body for your conclusion. Remember to avoid using contractions and spell out both words and avoid informal language and slang.

Letters to Authorities

A letter to authority is fundamentally a letter of persuasion which is written with an intent to persuade or convince an authority figure into doing something or to act on a particular subject. These letters are formal in nature and follow the same format as basic business letters.

Below are some key points to be considered while writing a letter to an authority figure:

• The first most important task is to analyze the situation and decide what type of response does it require from the authority figure.
• The tone must always be polite and elegant. It is essential to remember that you are trying to persuade the authority figure not ordering them to do something. Therefore, being aggressive is not advisable.
• Think of valid, powerful and relevant arguments to include in your letter. They will help you make your case and convince them.
• Always prepare hard facts and evidence to justify your arguments.
• Be sure to include the designation of the authority while writing their salutation in their letter.
• Always state your name and purpose right in the introductory paragraph of the letter.
• Include all your arguments and counter-arguments along with their justification and evidence in the main body of the letter. Underline or embolden keywords and phrases.
• Try to provide an appropriate resolution in the concluding paragraph of the letter. Try to provide suggestions as to what can be done about the situation at hand.
• Always sign of formally with “Yours’s Sincerely” or “Yours’s Faithfully”. Write your name below and include designation if any.

3.5        Technical Reports: General Format of a Report

The success of a business or industrial organization lies in doing its job for this purpose, gathering information and passing it on to those who need it is important. In the broader collection and transfer of information is happening all the time in every area of ​​formal life. So scientists, working brokers, testers, journalists, and various professionals, government and private organizations are asked to write and report to their management on important topics at the institution or the person involved.

Reports can be as short as a few sentences and as long as a few large pages. Although reports can be verbal and informal, here we are concerned with written and formal reports.

While writing the following principles can be kept in mind:

• Consider your Audience:
  When organizing and preparing your reports you need to know who your audience is and whether or not your content meets their interests and needs.

• Enable Your Report:
  Legitimacy has to do with how easy or readable it is. As most reports in normal cases type, all meetings with good typing should be followed. If there are handwritten reports, special attention should be given to writing clearly and clearly. Any departure from the above requirement will prove displeasing to your audience.

• Make your Report readable:
  Clarity, durability and systematic presentation of readable content. The concept is summarized better than the following:
  The author does a lot by giving his reader a lot of information and taking away from him a little time.
  In this regard the following five goals are met:

• Avoid unnecessary Names and Texts:
  Just like unwanted fat in the body, padding, prolixity and repetition violates the respect of good writing, not to mention the respect they wrote for you. So 'agree' and 'prefer' will be more acceptable than pompous 'agree with' and 'prefer'. As such, why use 'at that point in time' and at a time when we have the best and most economical holdings at that time 'and' when '. Viewed from the point of view of the report, or requested for the report, a good report will contain four important details, an analysis of the information, conclusions and recommendations. It should always be remembered that effective reporting requires special attention to the needs and expectations of the reader. It means that the author of the report has to 'snap a picture', he must think and understand himself.

A technical report is comprised of the following sections:

1. Title Page

The title page includes the main title of the report, it must be short and concise. You can also include the word counts of your summary and main body.

B.     Table of Contents

Help your reader quickly and easily find what they are looking for by using informative headings and careful numbering of your sections and sub-sections.

For example:

C.    Introduction

The introductory part of the report comprises of statement of the objectives of the report and how the report should be treated by the readers. It should indicate towards the problem that is going to be addressed in the main body. It should be catchy and interesting to grasp the attention of the reader from the very start.

D.    The Body

The main body consists of the central theme or the main idea of the report. It can be divided into a number of sections and subsections to separate your research and subsequent findings in a logical order.

E.     Figures, Graphs, Formulae and Tables

This section consists of the statistical representation of the data you have collected. Ideas should be conveyed in the form which is most suitable to the reader and easily understandable by the reader. Excessive use of these tools should be avoided.

F.     Conclusion

The conclusion is a kind of summing up of all the points you have stated in the main text. It should be a definite solution to the problem introduced during the introductory part of the report. The conclusion must be short and to the point.

G.   Summary

Summarize all the key points stated in the report including your research, your findings and your conclusion. The summary should feel like a brief overview of your investigations and outcomes. The summary should be constructed in such a way that it can be called a stand-alone document on its own.

H.    References

References must include detailed information of all your citations and the sources of material quoted in your texts. It can also include bibliography for further reading.

I.       Appendices

This is the last element of a report. It refers to any material which can be useful in the detailed understanding of your subject. It is not meant for the casual reader but for readers who are highly interested in the subject.

3.6            Memo Report, Progress Report, Status Report, Survey Report, Trip Report, Complaint Report, Joining Report, Laboratory Report

Memo Report

A memo report or memorandum is an internal and informal form of communication which is written to inform and to call to action. It is normally used for communicating policies, procedures or other information within the organisation.

Unlike Interpersonal communication a memo report is presented to a large number of people. A memo has to be concise and concrete in terms of providing information.

One of the instances where you could be asked to write a memo report is in a lab. Here the audience for your memo report is your professor who has asked you to conduct an experiment and supply him with appropriate results.

All memo reports consist of two parts: the heading and the body

The Heading

The heading part follows the format given below:

TO:              (The name of the receiver and their designation)

FROM:           (Your name and designation or title)

DATE:             (Current Date)

SUBJECT:           (The purpose of writing the report)

The Body

The body of a memo report, like any technical report, should be concise and to the point. It needs to be properly structured and organised. It should consist of the following elements:

Opening:

This section should consist of 2 to 3 sentences and should state the main purpose of the memo. It should include the main problem with which the memo is concerned with and how it is going to be addressed. A good way to start the opening statement would be “The purpose of this memo is to inform you regarding the recent changes….”

Findings:

While writing a technical report it is crucial to include a summarized version of your findings regarding the concerned topic. It should include key points so that the reader can understand the purpose of the memo immediately. This section can also be labelled as “summary” or “recommendations”

Discussion:

This is the longest section in the memo which deals with all the information and evidences you have collected to support your arguments. This section can be subdivided into four subsections namely, Methods (any experiments or calculations involved), Analysis (the analysis of collected data), Results (summary of results obtained from methods and analysis) and Commentary (your objective views on your findings)

Conclusion:

After discussing your research, you should summarize the main elements of your finding in 2 or 3 sentences that should reiterate all the implications in the memo.

References:

All citations and bibliography are to be mentioned in the references section.

Progress Report

A progress report is a type of report which is written in order to inform a supervisor, associate, or customer about progress you’ve made on a project over a certain period of time.

A progress report must answer the following questions:

• What percentage of the work is complete?
• Which part of the work is currently being performed?
• Which sections of the work are yet to be completed?
• What unexpected problems have arisen in the project?
• What is the overall status of the project?
• How much more time will be required to complete the work?

A progress report can be structured in three different ways:

a)     Memo – An informal memo report to be sent to someone within the organization.

b)    Letter – An informal or formal letter to be sent to someone outside of the organization.

c)     Formal Report – A formal report to be sent to someone outside the organization

You should choose the type of progress report depending upon your requirements.

A progress report has no specific structure but should always include the following elements:

• The title and the words “Progress Report” on top of the document
• Section headings to simplify the reading process.
• The name of the writer along with their designation and the receiver’s name and designation.
• The opening should be titled “scope and purpose” where the introduction defines the purpose of the report.
• Two sections titled “Progress….” And “Remaining work” should always be included. The former defining how much work has been successfully completed and the latter describing what part of it is yet to be done.
• A section projecting results and the tentative timeline of completion should also be included.
• The paragraphs should be short and concise and the tone respectful.

Status Report

A status report is an informative piece of writing which keeps the clients, project managers, supervisors and team members up to date regarding a certain project.

It comprises of the efforts, progress and risk associated with a project. A project status report can be a weekly, monthly or quarterly formulated report.

A project status report may be used to:

• Streamline communication efforts across the organization and stakeholders
• Make it easier to gather and disseminate information about key elements of the project
• Ensure stakeholders have all necessary information for decision-making
• Amplify key messages and goals around the project
• Act as a logbook for past key events and actions

What is included in a status report:

• Summary of Work Completed
• A Plan for What Comes Next
• Updates on Budget and Timeline
• Any Action Items/To-Dos
• Report on Risks, Issues, and Mitigation

Below is the format of a status report:

1. Project Name / Client Name

This section should contain the title of the project along with the name of the client. Make sure you record WHO the report is for and WHAT the report entails (ie. What project).

2. Project Vision

Here the main objectives of the project are to be listed in a clear and to the point manner. This is the only static unchanging section of a status report.

Examples:

Drive qualified customers to “purchase” mobile devices based on an improved UI.

With this project, we hope to increase online sales through the implementation of a drip email marketing campaign.

Launch a website by June 2018 that allows customers to purchase the highest quality & best-tasting product in its category.

3. Project Health

Here the health status of the project can be highlighted. The use of colours could be very helpful for notifying the health status for example, green for successful, yellow for a few complications and red for issues requiring immediate and critical attention. A note to support is always helpful.

Examples:

Green: We’ve obtained approval on drip email designs. No budget concerns at this time.

Yellow: The drip email designs need significant revisions, therefore the final delivery date has been delayed by 1 week.

Red: The drip email campaign has drastically shifted direction since starting. We need to set-up a meeting to establish a wants/wishes for the project.

4. What We Completed This TIMEFRAME

These should be listed in bullet format. Keep these short & simple. Don’t explain the “how” just what.

Example:

Obtained approval for 3 drip email designs

5. What We Plan to Complete Next TIMEFRAME

This section should include what is planned in clear and precise bullet points.

Example:

Develop the three emails

Perform internal QA & testing

Pass off to client QA & testing

6. Issues/Roadblocks

This is where you can raise any red flags or obstacles keeping you from moving forward.

Example:

If we do not obtain client feedback by 06/02, we will be in jeopardy of not being able to send the email to consumers the same day as the product will be available in stores.

7. Upcoming Tasks & Milestones

This should include a set of goals to be achieved in the near future. Is there anything that the viewer should review? and what’s coming up next?

Examples:

Dd/mm: Client QA & Testing

Dd/mm: Email Deployment

Survey Report

A survey report is a document which elaborates the findings of a survey in an objective manner. Survey reports usually consist of detailed statistical analysis of the surveyed data divided into various sections. A survey report has no specific format and is curated as per the requirements of the surveyor.

Surveys can be conducted by means of questionnaires, door to door information gathering or by using internet surveying facilities. A survey report may be presented in factual form (numbers, percentages and proportions) along with its implications.

Like other reports, a survey report can also be broken up into several headings namely,

• To
• From
• Survey
• Date
• Purpose
• Introduction
• The Body
• Conclusion

Below is a basic survey report sample:

To: Mrs Joanna Brown

From: Liam Black Subject:

Survey "Ban on using and selling fireworks".

Date: 1st January 2008

Purpose

The aim of this report is to present results of the survey carried out to find out what is people's opinion on public displays and selling fireworks. That will help to decide if using and selling fireworks should be banned. The survey was carried out among people aged 25-50.

Ban on public displays of fireworks

Seventy two per cent of people asked if there should be a ban on public display of fireworks were of the opinion that public displays should not be banned five per cent were for banning public displays of fireworks while three percent were not sure of their opinion. The facts stated above suggest that people do not mind public displays of fireworks and they would not want any limits on them.

An overall ban on sale of fireworks

The majority of people asked if there should be an overall, ban on sale of fireworks replied 'yes'. One fifth of interviewed said 'no'. One out of ten reported that they would rather ban sale of fireworks while a small portion of people (5 per cent) answered that they would rather not ban the sale of fireworks. Seven per cent did not have any opinion on the subject. It shows that over half of viewers are for banning sale of fireworks.

Children buying and using fireworks

A significant percentage of people (eighty-three) asked if they would allow their children to buy and use fireworks responded "no". The rest of interviewed said "yes". That shows that there should be absolute ban on selling fireworks to children as it may be very harmful and dangerous for them.

Conclusion On the basis of the findings above, it would seem that majority of people find fireworks dangerous and they would claim a definite ban on selling them, especially to children. People also do not trust displays of fireworks which should be banned. They also suggests that government should take some actions to restrict laws associated fireworks and sale of fireworks.

Trip Report

A trip report is an informative document provided to one’s supervisor after their business travel. It includes the collection of events during the trip, the expenditure accrued during the trip and information regarding the purpose of the trip.

A trip report should be curated with the following elements in mind:

1. Purpose: The purpose of a trip report is to justify the purpose of the trip and the money that was spent by the travelling individual. Because trip reports provide proof of expenses, it is imperative that they are accurate and provide a clear explanation of the trip.

2. Audience: Trip reports are targeted towards one's immediate supervisor; however, the report may become a portion of a larger report, or it may be forwarded to other managers, accountants, and even CEOs. Trip reports eventually provide company accountants with information for yearly reports, projected annual budgets, and crucial information for tax filing.

3. Mode: While trip reports can be written as a letter, memo, or e-mail, you should remember that trip reports are official documents that should always be written in a formal tone. Whichever mode of communication that you choose or that you are instructed to use as a means for providing your information, you should plan, organize, and write your report following the convention of business genre and following correct writing conventions (grammar, punctuation, and usage).

It is essential to organise and structure the trip report into different headings and subheadings so as to make it easily readable.

4. Formatting and Elements of the Report:

A. Subject line: On the subject line, you should include the destination, purpose, and date of the trip.

B. Statement of purpose: The first line of the text of your report should be your statement of purpose or the purpose of the trip—be specific. Depending upon your position in the company, it may be necessary to include the name of the person who approved the travel.

C. Introductory summary: The summary can be divided into sections, depending upon the reason for the trip. In each section, you should elaborate so that your company will have information for a follow-up trip.

I. Contains the reason for the trip.

II. Who you met. You should always provide full names, titles, and conversations

That related to your trip.

III. What you accomplished. A work trip is planned for achieving a specific task which should be mentioned in detail.

D. Summary of actions: A description of the events that took place on the trip.

E. Depending on the report, you may be asked to provide recommendations based on your findings from the trip.

F. Outcomes: Describe any results of the trip.

G. Spreadsheet: Provide a detailed list of expenditures, and photo copied receipts. (Do not highlight the receipts. Highlighting can impair the quality of the copy.)

Complaint Report

Many companies encourage the use of complaint reports as the proper method of formally stating a complaint. These reports are usually used to address unsatisfactory transactions or conditions concerning a company. Writing a complaint report properly is key to getting your concern heard and the problem remedied.

A complaint report consists of the following elements:

The Heading

The heading part follows the format given below:

TO:              (The individual or company to whom the complaint is addressed)

FROM:           (The individual registering the complaint)

DATE:             (Current Date)

SUBJECT:           (The main purpose summed up in one sentence)

The Body

The body must contain an introduction where you should write the purpose of your report and what is the primary concern of the report. It should then include the main subject, in this case the complaint. The issue at hand should be properly discussed and you should try to provide reasonable solutions to the problem. The tone should not be aggressive at it would make it more difficult to find a suitable resolution to your grievances. The concluding sentence should sum up the report in 2-3 sentences, try to reiterate the key points you have mentioned earlier and try to suggest a few measures that would help in solving your issue.

Joining Report

A joining report is a report written to the immediate supervisor or manager in the event of returning to work after a leave or vacation. These reports are the shortest kinds of report only intimating the supervisor of one’s return to the job. A joining letter on the other hand refers to a letter written by an individual to confirm his position where he is newly appointed to work at an organisation.

There is no set format for a joining report but it can follow the template given below:

JOINING REPORT

I hereby report myself for duty after returning from leave from this day on ……………….. (forenoon/

Afternoon).

I have availed the following kinds of leave.

Earned leave for ……………………….. Days (from ……………… to ………… )

Half Pay leave for ……………………… days (from ……………… to ………… )

Commuted leave (MC) for ……………... Days (from ……………… to ………… )

EOL (with/without MC for …………days (from ……………… to ………… )

With permission to prefix/suffix holidays on ……………………..)

Signature: ……………

Name in block letter:

Designation: ………….

Laboratory Report

A laboratory report is a formal, analytical and concise record of an experiment. The discussion of the experiment, the various procedures and the subsequent results obtained should be clear and specific enough that a reader could easily replicate the experiment. One of the main purposes of writing a laboratory report is to communicate the work done in the laboratory to the management on a regular basis. Another reason for writing a laboratory report is to record an experiment for the future and archive it.

Format

Although most laboratory reports will include the following sections, some experiments will require a

Different format. All reports should be tailored so as to meet the requirements laid down by the experiment.

Abstract: The abstract should contain a brief informational synopsis of your experiment. It is advisable to keep the abstract under 200 words. While writing the abstract, assertive or declarative sentences should be used rather than writing a long descriptive prose.

Introduction: Here the background of the experiment which is to be undertaken is explained in a few lines. The introduction should explain the objectives you hope to achieve from the experiment. When appropriate, the background should indicate theoretical predictions.

Procedures (or Methods): This section includes a detailed set of instructions of how the experiment is ought to be conducted. Each instruction should be so precise that the reader should be able to replicate it if he so desired. There should be no ambiguity and error when it comes to numbers and quantities. All statistical information should be well organised.

Results and Discussion (sometimes presented as separate sections): This section must convey results relevant to the goals of the experiment. Here the analysis of the results obtained from the experiment must be carried out along with its implications. All possible sources of error should be acknowledged with potential solutions if any. Results can also be presented in the form of graphs and tables if the experiment needs it.

Conclusions: Here you should place the specific results acquired into the context of the experiment as a whole. The discussion section should serve as sufficient conclusion if the experiment and report is short. Remember to evaluate the results you obtained in light of the objectives stated in the introduction.

Appendices: This section must include the information which is too extensive or tangential to warrant inclusion in the main body of the report, but necessary as procedural or analytical evidence.

3.7        Research Papers, Dissertations and Theses

Research Paper

A research paper is a form of academic writing which involves in-depth analysis, interpretation and argumentation of a specific topic. They are long and detailed studies of subjects which test the researching abilities of the writer along with their logic and writing abilities.

The basic idea of a research paper is to contribute something new or original to the topic. It requires strong and extensive knowledge of the topic and the ability to engage with a variety of sources on part of the researcher.

Below are the steps one must follow to write an engaging research paper:

1. Understand the assignment

The first step of writing a research paper is understating your assignment. Find out the objectives, deadline, formatting, length specifications and submission methods for your research assignment. It can be helpful to make a list of these items and check them off as you define them. Be conscious of word limits and timeframes if any.

2. Choose a research paper topic

Try to choose a topic from a subject which already interests you. Narrow it down to a topic which meets the requirements for your assignments, and would be easy for you to research. Brainstorming with a pen and paper is a good method to search for a topic. While choosing a topic try to be original and specific. Other research papers and dissertations can also be helpful for choosing a topic.

3. Conduct preliminary research

Journals, websites on the internet and journals are some of the best sources for conducting research. Try to avoid irrelevant ideas or concepts which would hinder you from thinking radically about your topic. Like a debate it is essential to look for both arguments and counter-arguments about your topic. Try to formulate an original idea and persuade it while researching. Make questions such as “What do I want to look for?” “Why is this relevant to this other thing” and so on. They would help you search for many possible answers which you can incorporate in your research.

4. Develop a thesis statement

A thesis statement is your central argument in the research paper. This argument should be your original contribution to the subject and should establish your purpose and position in writing the paper. If you start your research paper with a question, this thesis statement should be its answer.

It should be coherent, concise and meaningful. The thesis statement should be summed up in a sentence or two with the right choice of words which summarize your argument.

5. Create a research paper outline

A research paper outline will be like a table of contents with headings and subheadings for your topics, arguments and evidences that you would present in the paper.  It will give you an idea of what the final draft of the research paper will look like.

A structured outline of your paper will make your succeeding processes much more efficient.

7. The first draft

The first draft will not look like the final product but it will give you the basic layout of how it should be. The basic strategies while writing the first draft should be to write down your central arguments and add detail to them. It is not necessary to start with the introduction just start from wherever you feel comfortable. It is very important to keep track of your sources at this stage to avoid plagiarism.

Use the first draft to organise and structure your research paper while filling it with information. Its essential to follow a logical order while jotting down ideas and evidences.

8. Write the research paper introduction

The introduction to a research paper should introduce the background of the research and define key terms and concepts. It should provide a brief insight into what is going to be your original contribution to the subject.

It should also let the readers now what to expect from the rest of the paper and how you are going to present your arguments and evidences. It is advisable, while writing an introduction, to be very specific and keep it as short as possible.

9. Write a compelling body of text

This is the part where you include all the findings from your research. It should cover your thesis statement and answer all the questions as clearly and concisely as possible. Here all the ideas should be elaborated and evidences should be produced to support your arguments.

The structuring of the main body should be logical and the reader should be able to follow each argument with ease. If two paragraphs discuss something similar they are to be written in such a way that they give two different perspectives.

10. Write the research paper conclusion

The conclusion should provide a sense of closure to the reader summarizing all that you have stated previously in the paper. The conclusion should be convincing enough to prove your thesis statement beyond any doubts.

The conclusion should be short and to the point and should not include any new information or arguments.

12. The revision process

The revision process involves proof-reading the paper to ensure there are no discrepancies and the paper is articulated as it is supposed to be.

While revising, check the logical flow of arguments, check for typographical errors, check if all questions raised in the paper are answered, check for irrelevant or unnecessary information.

Dissertation and Theses

A dissertation or theses is a long piece of academic writing presented at the end of an academic session. It is based on original research and should consist original ideas and concepts about a particular topic.

There are two major differences between a dissertation and a thesis. Firstly, while a dissertation is presented at the end of a post-graduate programme a doctoral thesis marks the end of a PhD degree.  And secondly while they both follow the same format and structure a thesis is much more detailed and intricate than a dissertation.

In short, a thesis is presented to earn a doctorate degree while a dissertation is presented to earn a master’s degree.

Below are the elements and format of a dissertation or thesis:

Title page

The title should be an indication of what the research is about. It will need to be succinct, specific and representative of the research you have done. Every discipline has its own format for the title page, this format is to be followed and the title page is to be created accordingly.

Abstract

The Abstract is one of the shortest sections of a dissertation or thesis. It is a concise summary of the research which you have done for the thesis. It should consist of the results and implications of the research and should answer they 'how's' and 'whys' of the paper. The abstract is almost always constrained in one page and has a certain word limit which may differ depending upon the discipline.

Contents, figure and table lists

This section will include the organisational structure of the dissertation or thesis. Any imbalance in space devoted to different sections of content will become clear. This is a useful check on whether you need to join sections, or create new or sub-sections.

Introduction

This is the first piece of actual information that the reader will come across but it is advisable to write it in the end. Once you have completed the other sections of the dissertation, you will have a clearer idea of what you are introducing. The introduction has two main roles:

• To detail the information which was summarized in the abstract
• To introduce the content of the rest of the dissertation.

The literature review, or context of the study

The purpose of this chapter is to show that you are aware of how your dissertation fits into the body of existing research in your field. To do this you need to:

• Expand on the current state of research done on the subject
• Consider which closely related areas are there which you can refer to
• Persuade the reader that further research on the topic is needed
• Explain how your dissertation or thesis will help you fill the research gap

This can lead into a clear statement of the research question(s) or problem(s) you will be addressing.

It is worth taking time to develop a logical structure for sections in this chapter. This will help to convince examiners of the relevance of your research. It will also provide you with a framework for your discussion chapter.

Methods and materials

This chapter should provide a straightforward description of how you conducted the research. All the materials and methods used during your research are to be described in this section in detail. The amount of detail should be enough for another researcher to replicate your work.

Results / Findings

You will need to check the preferred style of reporting in your field. Decisions about style of presentation may need to be made about the following:

Will you begin with an initial overview of the results, followed by the detail? Alternatively, you may decide to move immediately into the detail of the results

In which order you will present the detailed results?

What balance, in terms of word space, do you want to achieve across the spread of results that you have?

Discussion

In this section you discuss how your research relates and compares to the previous findings of your predefined subject. You can refer back to the argument that you provided for your research in the literature review. You should then discuss what your own research has added in this context. It is important to show that you appreciate the limitations of your research, and how these may affect your findings. You can report on the implications of your findings for theory, research, and practice.

Conclusion

The conclusion should be short and precise and shouldn't include new information or arguments. It is essentially a summary of your research. Here you will draw ‘conclusions’ from the main points that have emerged and what they mean for your field.

References

This section needs to include all your references in the required referencing style. As you edit and rewrite your dissertation you will probably gain and lose references. It is important to check that each source cited in the text appears in your reference list. You must also check that all the references in your reference list appear within the text.

Appendices

Include in the appendices those items that a reader would want to see, but which would disrupt the flow if placed within the main text. Make sure to check if the appendices are included within the word limit. Also ensure you reference the Appendices within the main text where necessary.

Acknowledgements

This section should include the people who have helped you in the various stages of composing the paper. Read the acknowledgements in other dissertations in your field. This will give you an idea of the ways in which previous students have acknowledged the different kinds of help they have received

3.8        Email Writing

Emails are basically letters sent electronically. They can be long or short, formal or informal. Although for business purposes only formal emails are considered important.

Emails have become a dominant form of communication. Being able to write polished, relevant email is now a critical skill in college and work.

      Formal Email:

• Written for a professor, colleague, manager, etc.
• Must always be professional.
• Accurate grammar, punctuation, and spelling necessary

Example:

Dear Professor Johnson,

I was unable to attend class today due to a doctor’s appointment. If you have a moment, can you let me know what I missed and what homework I need to complete on Friday?

Thanks you,

Julia Smith.

      Email Format:

• Greetings / Salutation:
  A formal email greeting is similar to a letter greeting. When you write a letter to a stranger, you put the question “Who Can Worry About You”? When applying for a job, you were addressing the person, “Dear Hiring Manager.” If you know the name of the recipient, you put “Mr. Dear Mr.M /. Smith. "For formal greetings, you should not use the recipient's first name or the informal greetings" Hello "or" Hello."

• Physical Categories/ Body Paragraphs:
  It is important to remember that the email needs to be shorter.

   I hope that all goes well for you.

   Thank you for your prompt response.
However, in official emails it is best to understand the point. Depending on the topic, you should have four main roles and each paragraph should have one point. In your last paragraph you should provide a "thank you" or "call to action" depending on the topic of your email.

   Thank you for your help with

   Thank you for your time and look forward to hearing from you.

   Please feel free to call me or email me if you have any questions. If this can be taken care of immediately.

• Closing:
  As a greeting, the closing of the official email can be the same as the closing of the book. However, unlike mourning, there are many ways to close.

   Thank you

   very humble

   Sincerely
It is also helpful to add your post (if any) and a phone number under your name in paragraph 4.

For example:
Yours sincerely,
Julia Smith
President of Student Body
Menlo College
(555) 555-5555

• Tips:

   DO NOT use a contract.
Example: no, no, I'm not, I'm not.

   DO NOT write about all the coins.

   Use structured vocabulary and sentence structure. DO NOT use slang.

   Close email at least twice and get a second opinion if possible.
 

3.9        Technical Proposals: Purpose, Characteristics, Types, Structure

A technical proposal is a document which is used to introduce a new product to the receiver(s). It consists of the product execution plans of the organisation, how the product can benefit the readers and also contains the technical details of the product.

A technical proposal should be concise and should be able to explain the complex details of a product easily. It should also be able to attract potential customers by ensuring them that your organisation is the one they want to make deals with.

Purpose

A technical proposal is curated for various purposes but the main objectives are to offer sales of product or services, or to offer the undertaking of a project which can be practical or theoretical in nature. It can also be an offer to solve a technical problem.

A technical proposal can be written for various purposes including:

• To provide sale offers on property, buildings, machinery etc.
• To provide offers for construction of buildings, highways etc.
• To survey areas for water resources
• For designing a number of training programmes
• To provide offers for office automations
• To undertake various theoretical and practical research
• To provide details of a newly launched product

Characteristics

There are some basic characteristics that all technical proposals are likely to contain, which are summarised below. These characteristics can be tailored depending upon the requirement of the receiver(s).

.

The fundamental characteristics of a technical proposal include: 

1. A well-stated definition of the problem or requirement

It should first and foremost describe the problem or the need of your product in the market. It should also describe why the problem or need has occurred in the first place and what shall be the consequences if the problem remains unsolved.

2. A clearly stated proposal to solve the problem 

The proposal should contain means and methods of solving the problem stated earlier. If you are offering a product or service it should clearly state how the product or service will meet the requirements of the recipient and guarantee satisfaction. It should also discuss how the solution will be implemented.

3. Awareness of alternative proposals

It should always contain a plan B. Meaning, if the first offer should get refused by the recipient there should be plans for other ways to convince them

4. An evaluation of the benefits of your proposal

A technical proposal will always try to impose the positive effects of your proposal, for example, cost benefits or sustainability. A detailed account of how your product or service will benefit the receiving organisation financially and how durable the project or undertaking will be is a basic feature that is included in all technical proposals.

5. Possible counter arguments to your proposal 

The customer is to be made aware of all the possible arguments that one could make against your offering, then the counter-arguments against those should be included to emphasize the reliability of your product or service.

6. A careful analysis of your audience 

A technical proposal is carefully crafted taking the requirements, convictions and prejudices of the readers into account.

And the information and details presented in the proposal are always in accordance with the audience’s knowledge base and background.

7. A reasonable, sensible tone and style

The use of irony and sarcasm are to be avoided as much as possible. Provide arguments and counter-arguments for your proposal but always keep in mind that your key points should be positive regarding your product or service.

The appeal to the recipient should be based on intellect and reason rather than emotion. (although appealing to the emotions subtly is likely to be necessary at times as part of the persuasive tone – see persuasive writing).

Types

All proposals can be divided into four broad categories viz. Internal, external, solicited and unsolicited proposals:

1. Internal, external:  An internal proposal is a proposal written to someone within the organisation itself (a business, a government agency, etc.). Internal proposals are mostly semi-formal and contain less information (such as qualifications) since the communication is internal and there is a sense of familiarity. An external proposal is written to an individual or organisation which is outside the scope of one's own organisation. Technical proposals are mostly external proposals.

These proposals me be solicited or unsolicited as discussed below.

2. Solicited, unsolicited: A proposal which is specifically requested by the reception is called a solicited proposal. Companies often send out requests for proposals (RFPs) through the mail or publish them in various news sources. A proposal which is provided on one's own volition and is not requested by the recipient is known as a solicited proposal. It is a basic requirement to convince the recipient regarding the existence of a problem or the need of a product before starting the main part of an unsolicited proposal. Technical proposals, more often than not, are unsolicited proposals.

Most technical proposals can be classified into 4 main types:

Research Technical Proposal

In research technical proposals a specific research topic is discussed at length. It proposes the strategies for implementation of a particular research along with its objectives. The results of the research are also discussed in the proposal if they are obtained.

Academic technical proposal

Academically inclined proposals include solutions to academic problems such as classroom automation or surveys. These proposals are always concise, formal and well organised.

Business technical proposal

Business technical proposals are proposals which supplement offers towards improving the various business processes. It could be an introduction to any new technical software or products to save the cost and time of the business and provide sustainability. It is very detailed about the specifications of the product or services it offers.

Government technical proposal

These proposals are curated with government undertakings in mind. They are formal in tone and provide a detailed cost analysis and benefits of dealing with your organisation.

Structure

A technical Proposal consists of 3 main sections and various sub-sections.

The 3 main sections include:

• Prefatory
• Main Body
• Supplementary Parts

These 3 sections can be divided into a number of sub-sections which include:

Prefatory:

Title Page: The title should be suitable and catchy so as to grab the attention of the receiver.

Table of Contents: The table of contents should include the structure of the proposal and should be well organised with various headings and subheadings.

Executive Summary: This section must include a summarized version of the contents of the main body. It should be short and should contain all the key points covered in the proposal.

Main Body:

Introduction: In this section the main problem or the need of a particular product or service should be stated and emphasized. The introduction should be short but convincing enough for the reader to read further. It should also state the main objectives of the proposal and how they are going to be achieved.

Technical Section: This section should include all the technical details regarding the product or service. The implementation process and statistical data are also a part of this section. If there are any charts, graphs or any other illustrative tools, they are to be included in this section.

Cost Estimate: This section includes the cost benefit analysis of the undertaking. It should include all the benefits you and your organisation is providing with respect to the offered goods and services. It should also include a sustainability guarantee and all the cost figures connected to the project.

Conclusion: This section should include a summary of the key points with an emphasis on benefits with making deals with your organisation. It shouldn’t be very long and should contain all the necessary information which is required to persuade the reader to accept your proposal.

Supplementary Parts:

Appendices: This section must include the information which is too extensive or tangential to warrant inclusion in the main body of the report, but necessary as procedural or analytical evidence.

References: References must include detailed information of all your citations and the sources of material quoted in your texts. It can also include bibliography for further reading.