Unit – 3

‘Blue Jeans’ from the prescribed textbook ‘English for Engineers’ published by Cambridge University Press.

3.1.          Acquaintance with Prefixes and Suffixes from Foreign Languages in English to Form Derivatives – Words from Foreign Languages and Their Use in English

Acquaintance with Prefixes and Suffixes from Foreign Languages in English to Form Derivatives

English speakers today--or even people trying to find out English--can enjoy understanding a number of the derivatives, or parts of a word taken from other languages, like Latin and Greek. Since there are over 1,000,000 words within the English, it's impossible to memorize all of them. However, understanding some basic components of words and customary ones that are derivatives of the classical languages can assist you determine their meaning.

In some ways, a word is simply sort of a cake, made from different ingredients. You'll find out what a word means by watching its three parts. The root, or the foremost basic sort of the word that also has meaning, is what makes up the bottom of the word. Frequently something is going to be attached the start of a word to feature meaning, which is named a prefix. Suffixes are almost like prefixes, but instead come at the top of the word. For instance, if you study the word ''microbiology,'' you'll see it's composed of those three parts, all of Greek origin: a prefix, ''micro-'' (meaning ''small''); a root, ''bio'' (meaning ''life''); and a suffix, ''logy'' (meaning ''study of''). Understanding these parts can assist you determine that microbiology is that the ''study of small life forms.''

Many English words and word parts are often traced back to Latin and Greek. The subsequent table lists some common Latin roots.

Latin root Basic meaning Example words:

From the instance words within the above table, it's easy to ascertain how roots combine with prefixes to make new words. For instance, the basis -tract-, meaning “to pull,” can combine with variety of prefixes, including de- and re-. Detract means literally “to pull away” (de-, “away, off”) and retract means literally “to pull back” (re-, “again, back”). The subsequent table gives an inventory of Latin prefixes and their basic meanings.

Words and word roots may also combine with suffixes. Here are examples/ instances of some important English suffixes that come from Latin:

Greek Latin Derivatives: Prefix and Suffix Starter List:

Most of these combining/ interactive forms can be used as either prefixes or suffixes. Examples are presented to illustrate current usage.

Words from Foreign Languages and Their Use in English

English is part of the German branch of the family of Indo-European language, so why is it so influenced in Latin and Greek? Although the origin of the English languages ​​was introduced in England at the beginning of the 5th century by people from Denmark and Germany, the language was not entirely different from what we speak today.

When the Normans, a number of French Catholics, invaded the British islands in 1066, they came with their two languages: Latin and French. Because they were a ruling party long after the invasion, English became the language of the weak, effectively forcing English speakers to accept Latin and French words in their own language to match. Since the Renaissance began, nearly 500 years later, many Latin words, as well as those of the Greeks, were included to make English a more '' learned 'language because of the Renaissance's emphasis on classics.

• Abacus:
  Abacus is derived from the Greek word - abax, meaning "sand tray."
   
• Allegory:
  Allegory is derived from Greek - allos meaning "other" and agora meaning gathering place (especially the market). Eventually words join and are linked to the verb to speak of one thing and another to mean another.
   
• Apricot:
  The term comes from the French -  abricot - and it was a bit confusing until the fifteenth century - it does not have a single simple etymology, but rather a mixture of many theories under consideration. But all these roads lead to Rome, from where that name - and fruit - began to spread throughout Europe.
   
• Addictive:
  Slaves agreed to allow Roman soldiers to pay for a concert in battle they were considered addicted to. Finally, a person who was addicted to anything called addiction.
   
• Alarm:
  From Italian, "All'arme" - "To arms!"
   
• Alcohol:
  Alcohol is taken from an Arabic al-kuhl, which has meant that there is a very good antimony powder used for eye makeup. It voiced the idea of ​​something so elegant and smooth, so the Arabic alchemists give the name of al-khul which brings in any insubstantial powder obtained by slow release (a direct conversion of a solid base into a vapor, or process of return), and thus for all computers available through the sanitization process.
   
• Algebra:
  The name means "the science of equations" in English comes from an article by one of al-Khowarizmi's (see "algorithm"), "Ab his AL-JAHR w'almuqaBAlah", meaning, "The Science of Transportation and Sanitation/ Cancellation."
   
• Algorithm:
  The name means "rules of computing" in English, which is based on al-Khowarizmi (Try saying it soon), an Arabic mathematician who lives around A.D. 825 who completed the best known numerical work using Arabic numerals.
   
• Appendix:
  In Latin it means "the hanging part." The human supplement hangs at the end of a large stomach; appendices given at the end of the book.
   
• Assassin:
  Assassin from the old Arabic word "hashshshin," means "person who loves hash," that is, marijuana. Earlier it was referring to a group of heroes who would smoke before the war.
   
• Asthma:
  Latin for asthma, "asthma," meaning "asthma" and "hypertension." The Latin word is derived from the Greek that feels the same.
   
• Avocado:
  Avocado from "awaguatl," the original American testicle name. The Spaniards got the word and used to refer to what we now call avocado.
   
• Ballot:
  Ballot, an Italian word meaning "small ball or pebble or stone." Italian citizens voted by placing a small stone or ball in one of the many boxes.
   
• Barbarian :
  Barbarian from "barbaroi" in Greek, meaning "babblers”.
   
• Bead:
  Bead from the Old English "gebed," which means, "prayer."
   
• Beserk:
  Beserk mainly comes from the Old Icelandic "berserkr," meaning "bear shirt."
   
• Biscuit:
  Biscuit  from mediaeval French 'Bis + cuit' which means 'double cooked'
   
• Boulevard:
  Boulevard from (French) Boulevard; and Bulwark
   
• Bucolic:
  From the Greek "boukolos," meaning "shepherd," from "bous," meaning "ox."
   
• Bulimia:
  Bulimia comes from the Greek "bous" meaning "ox" and "limos," which means "starvation," probably because a person with Bulimia is hungry for beef.
   
• Cab:
  Old Italian terminology for goat (cabra in Spanish).
   
• Calculate:
  The calculation comes from calculus, the Latin word pebble.
   
• Cantar: (Spanish) Singing
  From the Latin "Cantare," which means, "to sing often." Latin "Canere" simply means "to sing."
   
• Carnival:
  Literal meaning: "Flesh, farewell." The end of "val" does not appear in the Latin "Vale." The modern Italian carnevale comes from the Old Italian "carnelevare"; levare = raise, place, remove. ) where people used to fast.
   
• Catharsis:
  In Early Modern English, it is used in the sense of "cleaning." The concept of this name was still used as recently as 1803.
   
• Candidate:
  From the Latin Candidus a word that means, "bright, shining, white, white." The ancient Roman members who were elected to this position wore bright white hats. The same name also spelled out the "firm", who are often not elected.
   
• Casarse : (Spanish, to marry)
  From "casa," which means "house"; so is the English phrase, "to wrap."
   
• Cell:
  Originally meant a monastery. It was Robert Hooke, who invented the first telescope. His first guess was the cork stem, which was made up of small columns. To him, the tiny fractions were like the little monasteries in which they lived, known as cells. Therefore, he called these microscopic building blocks "cells".
   
• Chapel:
  From the Cape "Italian" Capella, since the original Chapel was where the cape ("capella") of the St. Martin of Tour was kept.
   
• Vulture and Chasm:
  From the Greek "chainein," which means, "to soften"; So chaos was "just the beginning of the abyss" without the known universe we know.
   
• Champion; and Campus:
  Check out Kampf
   
• Charlatan: 
  From the Spanish "charlar” for discussion /to chat.
   
• Cheers:
  From the Greek "Kara" for "face," with Latin "Cara," and the French French "Chiere". So "Take courage," it means, "Put on a happy face."
   
• Chocolate:
  It comes from the Spanish word for the same name, which came from the Nahuatl word (Aztecs language) "tchocoatl."
   
• Cider:
  It comes from the Greek Greek sycamore, which came from an ancient Hebrew shekel, which means "any alcoholic beverage other than wine made to ferment fruit juice."
   
• Claim:
  From the Latin "clamor", which is a judicial or public appeal raised on the discovery of sin.
   
• Conejo:  (Spain) Rabbit
  This Spanish word, meaning "rabbit," comes from the Latin word cuniculus, itself, which was taken in a letter from a previous Iberian name - according to Pliny the Elder - referring to both the animal and the scroll - and, by extension, any basement or trench. For its part, the name rabbit is a Flemish origin, and was originally used for small animals. The word used to refer to an old animal - in Flemish and Old English - was "cony" or "coney," which is derived from the cuniculus.
   
• Coward:
  From Old French "coe" which means "tail." The OED adds, "The exact indication of the tail is uncertain: it may be an animal that 'turns tail' on a plane, or a practice in frightened animals to draw the tail between the hind legs: cf. The use of Heraldic in theory B 2. It is noteworthy that in the Old French version of Reynard the Fox , Coart is the name of a hare: this may be a descriptive adjective with regard to its zeal; it is closed, and that the word is then transferred to 'the heart of a hare.'
   
• Companion: Compañero (Spanish); Copain (French) Partner
  From the Latin "Companionem," which was, "breadwinner" - "Con" (also) and "Pan" (bread) - your "partner" may have been someone to break bread with. "Look again to the Lord and take care of it.
   
• Cravate (French); Krawatte (German); Corbata (Spanish) Tie:
  The names "Krawatte" (German), "cravate" (French) and "corbata" (Spanish), which all mean "human" tie, first appeared in the Napoleonic Wars when French troops entered the Crotia region, which, at that time, were part of the Holy Roman Empire. Evidently the Croatians were so capable of removing the German Habsburg yoke that they showed the victorious French troops a bouquet of flowers and ran to them and bound the scarlet threads in their uniforms as a gesture of goodwill. From them the name "Croat" or its variants appear to be attached to certain parts of Continental Europe.
   
• Cretin:
  From the French "Crétin", which originally meant "Christian."
   
• The cup:
  See Kopf
   
• Currant:
  From the Corinthians
   
• Curfew:
  From the French "couvrir feu," literally, "Cover the Fire."
   
• Daisy:
  From "Eye of the Day." George Eddington writes, "Not special in itself, but Mata Hari also means" Eye of the day, "the young woman took the name because she lived in the Dutch East Indies and heard the natives so much in the sun. "
   
• Debonair:
  French "good spirit." In the Middle Ages, people's lives were judged in part by the way they smiled. The person giving out “a good spirit” was viewed as a healthier and happier person.
   
• Deer:
  From the Old English "deor," which means "animal."
   
• Demon: (German and English)
  From the Greek "Daimon" this supernatural force is somewhere between humans and gods, without undesirable touch. An example would be the daimon of Socrates. The daimonans had a genius that did not conform to our modern ideas of good or evil: it was a natural force that could give clues about the circumstances and the critical actions.
   
• Denim:
  The heavy cloth used for jeans was originally made in Nimes, France, as well as in Genoa, Italy (see jean). It was renamed Serge di Nimes - later reduced to di Nimes, which became denim.
   
• Derive:
  From the Latin "De Rivus," "From the broadcast."
   
• Deutsch: (German by German)
  "Deutsch" comes from the Old German word "diutisc" which means "human language" (as opposed to Latin). There are uncertain hints of the "Germanic" origins as the Celtic "Angry Men" or Old High German "Greedy Men"!
   
• Dexterity:
  From the Latin "dexter," meaning "right" (in the left sense).
   
• Dibbs:
  It is suggested that this phrase is based on an old children's play called dibstones. The game, which was played with sheep knuckle-bones or gemstones, dates back to at least the 17th century (that's right, that's when the name started being written). The goal was to catch his opponent's stones, and when a stone was hit, the winner would call "Dibbs!" with the meaning "I want [stone]". It was recently used out of the game but with the same meaning, and there you have it. Interestingly, the use of this outside of the game was not recorded until 1932 in the US. (Lee Quinn)
   
• Elite:
  From the Latin Latin, which means "to choose," from which we find a modern Spanish word that means the same, elegir.
   
• Escape:
  In Latin, escape means "out of the cape." The ancient Romans often avoided arresting the runaway population.
   
• Essay:
  The English noun phrase comes from the French verb "story", to try. The earliest scholars believed that their papers were a modest attempt to present their papers.
   
• Exchequer:
  The Moors introduced Abacus in Europe to expand the Europeans, and monks distributed the device throughout Europe. In Britain, it was used but in its simplicity: they used a checkbox and letters such as checks (instead of using standard rods and beads) - and this gave the British version an "exchequer" to the "Chancellor" of the Exchequer.
   
• Faro: (Spanish) Lighthouse
  An ancient island from Egypt, the Paroah Island, had a lighthouse.
   
• Feo: (Spanish) Ugly
  From the Latin "Foedus," "disgusting."
   
• Forest:
  From the same French meaning, Forest comes directly from the Latin realm, meaning "outdoors," and took the concept of a place restricted or protected by an obstacle. The concept will later outline the legal barriers around areas reserved for royal hunting (as well as logging). Unfortunately, the English foreign word is taken in parallel, indicating a foreigner outside the royal realm, beyond the borders.
   
• Fowl:
  From the English "fugol," which means "bird."
   
• Freedom:
  This comes in German (a literal, modern translation, "Freiheit"), but is actually very close to taking the German word "Friede", which means "quiet"
   
• Fromage (French); Status (Medieval French); Formaggio cheese (Italian)
  From the Latin word for basket or wooden box where curds were cut to form cheese, forma, itself derived from the Greek word phormos (This is where the English word "form" comes from). According to them, the English word cheese, the Spanish word queso and the German word Kaese all come from the Latin word cortus, food too.
   
• Gohen :(Germany) To go
  From the beginning it means, "emptiness"
   
• Genuine:
  It originally meant "put on his knees." In Old Rome, a father formally admitted that his new child by sitting in front of his family put his son on his knees.
   
• Gewissen:  (German) Conscience
  From "wissen" (to know), where we get the word, "wissenschaft" - science.
   
• Gift:
  From the Old English as "gift," which means, "to pay one's wife" for one meaning "marriage" in the plural. The Middle Dutch "gift", now labeled "gif," meant the same, but today it means "poison." Old High German "gift" turned into "poison". From the root "geb-", from which the English word "give." There is another German word, however, which includes the word "gift", but which retains the old meaning of "paying a wife". The name "Mitgift", which is a modern German word for "dowry".
   
• Gin; Ginebra (Spanish); Genievre (French):
  The English word "gin" comes from the French word genievre, meaning "juniper," a berry name that gives gin its unique, spicy flavor. Unfortunately, the word "juniper" comes from the Celtic word jenupus, which means "spicy." One final note: the name of the western city of Geneva and comes from the same source. Evidently, the countryside around Geneva was initially littered with juniper forests.
   
• Gorilla:
  New Latin from the Greek Gorillai, a tribe of hairy women, probably of African descent.
   
• Groggy:
  It comes from the description that many British sailors face when they are going to drink a lot of "grog", a mixture of rum and water. Grog is said to have taken the nickname "Old Grog" given to British Admiral Vernon by his sailors; much like Lord Mountbatten later, he was in the process of wearing a sort of heavy grogram coat, a soft weather cloth (the name comes from French gros-grain). Sailors began to use his nickname in an amusing way in their rum fragments, after he ordered in 1740 to be purified by water.
   
• Guapo :(Spanish) Handsome
  Guapo, and Chulo ("cool"), both originally had the meaning of "scoundrel", claiming to be "good-looking" perhaps in the form of "heroes." The despicable "Wop" comes from "guapo", in the form of the Italian language "guappo".
   
• Gymnasium:
  The Greek of the place where you train is naked.
   
• Hablar :(Spanish) To Speak
  From the Latin "Fabulare," which means, "to speak fairy tales."
   
• Hazard:
  The word came from Arabic "al zahr", which means "dice" and was used by people in Western Europe to name each of the various dice games they learned while in the Holy of Holies during the Crusades. The name eventually caught the attention of the danger, because from the very beginning, dice games were associated with gambling and cartoonists using corrupted dice.
   
• Heresy:
  The Greek is "Choice."
   
• Hierarchy:
  Previously it was the separation of angels from different periods into different stages.
   
• Home:
  From the old English "hum," which also comes with the words, such as Nottingham.
   
• Host,Hospital, Hostel, Hospitality, hospice:
  From the Latin for "nurses, patients," which means, "one who receives stacks in his home." In English, "Host" also means "edible bread eaten at the Hospital"; so the link between friendship and bread is also noteworthy; see Partner with the King.
   
• Husband:
  It comes from the old German words hus and bunda, meaning "house" and "owner," respectively. The word originally had little to do with marital status, except that the fact that home ownership made husbands more desirable to date.
   
• Idea, ideal, Idol:
  Everything from the Greek word "idein" to "seeing"; you see Sanskrit "vid" (knowing) and Latin "videre" (seeing) and English "intelligent." The W / V sound from the Indo-European root is lost in ancient Greek.
   
• Incentive:
  From the Latin word "delicate," meaning "to sing." The idea is "When playing music, one has to = dance."
   
• Jeans:
  Genoa - called "Gene" by the sixteenth-century Europeans - was the first city to make denim cloth (see Denim) used for jeans. The pants were named after the city.
   
• Kampf (German) Struggle:
  From the Latin "company" - of its fortress type, where Roman soldiers were driving soldiers - where we also call the English words, "camp," "compass" and "champion." So, when we talk about "college campus," there are subtle ways of fighting.
   
• Ketchup:
  The Chinese invented the ke-tsiap - a drawing of spiced fish and spices (but no tomatoes) - in the 1690s. By the early 1700's its popularity had spread to Malaysia, where British explorers first encountered it. By 1740 the sausage - called ketchup - was a peculiar English phenomenon, and was beginning to become popular in American colonies. Tomato ketchup was not invented until the 1790s, when colonies in New England began mixing tomatoes in sauces. It took a long time to add tomatoes to the sauces because, most 18. For a century, people thought they were poisonous, because tomatoes are a close relative of belladonna poisonous plants and nearby plants.
   
• Kike - a shameful, offensive name for a Jew:
  Initially it was developed by German Jews to use against Russian Jews. It comes from the "k" sound at the end of many Russian Jewish words, such as "Lewinsky" or "Lemcoff."
   
• Knave:
  Dropped from the old English word "cnafa" which simply means, "youth."
   
• Knight:
  From the Old English "cniht," which means "boy, servant."
   
• Kopf (in German) Head:
  From the Latin "cup", meaning "cup"; The Romans used the cup as a metaphor for the upper part of the head. Similarly, another Latin word meaning "cup," "testa," has now become the French word "Tête," meaning "head,". Note that the Germans and Celts use "skullcap" "on top of one's head") as a drinking container; this has been part of the recognition of enemy culture. So it has to do with "chief" and "capital" (and "testicle").
   
• Lettuce; and Leche (Spanish) Milk:
  Latin lettuce was "lactuca sativa," which means "milky sap"; so it has to do with the Spanish "leche" of milk and "lactic" and other derivatives.
   
• Liberty:
  The Latin words "Liber," "Libera," and "Liberum" - by Long I - came from a source meaning, "to pour." In this case, we get the word "Freedom" (which is why it's pronounced I) short, from the freedom we feel when we get drunk. See Library (unrelated).
   
• Library:
  From the Latin word, Liber - whose name is I - meaning "divination," which would call for the inner sound of a tree. The earliest manuscripts were written on these bins, and from this bark we find the modern name "Library." See Liberals (unrelated).
   
• Liebe (German) Love:
  From the Latin for the word "Libido," from the Latin "Libere" (for free, as in "Liberals").
   
• Light; and Licht (German) Light:
  It is related to the Latin "Luna," which means, "the moon." "Moonlight" is therefore something like tautology.
   
• Lindo (Spanish) Beautiful:
  Related to "limpid" and "legal."
   
• Lobster:
  From the Latin "locusta," which means "locusts." The OED adds, "The Latin word for origin. It means the same lobster or crustacean, the locust application is suggested by a similarity of position."
   
• Lord:
  It comes from the Anglo-Saxon "hlaford," named after "hlaf" and "weard," and then, "loaf-ward"; likewise, "Lady" comes from the Anglo-Saxon "hlaefdige," or "bread-maid." See also partner and host.
   
• Lucifer:
  Lucifer is Latin for "Light Bringer". The same Hebrew, Haleal, means "antagonist." The passage in Isaiah (the only place in the Old Testament that mentions Lucifer) uses the Hebrew word for the Morning Star (ie planet Venus). The verse refers to the Babylonian king excessively, saying that he regarded himself as God, just as the Morning Star is a shining light in the sky, but pearls in comparison to the sun.
   
• Lukewarm:
  Tautology; "luke" Means warm or lukewarm [from ME lew, yes, luke, lewk and OE hleowand h hrr = lukvuarm]
   
• Madera (Spanish) Wood:
  From Latin materia, from PIE * mater-, meaning "mother"
   
• Malaria:
  From the medieval Italy "mal" "(bad) and" aria "(wind), which describes miasma from areas around Rome during the summer months, which are believed to be the cause of the downfall.
   
• Mayonnaise:
  The suffix spoken is French for "native" or "from within." Mahonnaise is said to have been created to celebrate the victory of the French war of 1756 by defeating the British on the Spanish island of Port Mahon.
   
• Marcher (French) To Walk:
  The OED states, "The etymology of Fr. March is obscure; the passing idea is that the ancient engraving concept of 'tread' was based on the concept of hammer ', and that the name stands for Gaulish Latin * marcare, f. L. Marcus hammer. "
   
• Mark (German) The German unit of currency (pre-Euro):
  Originally meant "Borderland," from medieval German border towns - that's why the English word "Mark," as it stands, "mark the border." So, the German place names, Finland, Dänemark, Ostmark, etc. From Mark German, we also find the "marshal" of French as well as Spanish, Portuguese, Italian, and Catalan, "marca."
   
• Mistress:
  From the French "Maîtresse," which means "bride".
   
• Money:
  From the Latin word "moneta" which means "warning"
   
• Mound; and Monde (French),  Mundo (Spanish) World:
  From pre-Christian, the German word "mund" or protection, such as that given by a family or tribal leader to group members. This was also the name of the small garbage hills or "protection" used to bury deceased members of the nation. It is interesting to note that the name was introduced by the Germanic tribes (ie, Goths, Visigoths, Vandals, Alemani, Suevi) who invaded the Roman province of the late fifth century AD and where they derived the word "this monde" (in French) and "el mundo. "(Spanish) meaning" earth "(literally" mound of clay ").
   
• Muscle:
  From the Latin mus (mouse) and ele (dim.) - a small mouse that goes under the skin when flexed.
   
• Museum,  Mosaic:
  Both from the Greek Muse (the Latin museum for "The Place of the Muses"; the mosaic is from the Greek logoios, "related to the Muses")
   
• Mustard (Eng.) / Moutarde (Fr.) / Mostrich (N. Ger. Dialect) / Mostarda (It.) / Mostaza (Sp.):
  As a courtesy, mustard has been enjoyed for thousands of years. It is made from the crushed seeds of a member of the Cruciferae family known as Sinapis. Originally, crushed seeds were mixed with vinegar - much as we enjoy it today - but vinegar was eventually replaced for some time in the Middle Ages with grapes "must" (which is the result of the win-win process). So, the word "must" ard. The botanical name Sinapis introduced the French name of the plant itself, seneve, and the German name of the mustard, Senf.
   
• Nacht (German) Night:
  Originally it meant “Day,” as the ancient Germans, like the ancient Jews, measured daily from sunset to sunset. See also Tag.
   
• Nauseau, Navigate:
  Both from Proto-Indo-European * nau, meaning "boat"
   
• Nemesis:
  From the same Greek, it originally meant, "the act of distributing or distributing others" and later "wrath and vengeance, righteous indignation for breaking the law."
  Nemesis was the god that restored balance. It would have been a mass of shipowners to introduce the ship without sacrificing to the gods, for example, this destructive act could provoke a counter-reaction, as we saw with the Titanic. There was no judgment or divine punishment involved, simply a response from another world to the loss that occurred in this country.
   
• Nice:
  From the Latin word "nescius," which means "ignorance," and, at various times before the appointment of the present meaning means "foolish" then "foolishly accurate" and "precisely accurate" and "correctly accurate" and then our current definition.
   
• Noon:
  It is derived from the Latin noun. The word "afternoon" originally meant nine o'clock after sunrise, or 3:00 p.m .-- usually the hottest part of the day and time when most people in the Roman Empire skipped lunch.
   
• Nostril:
  From Old English "nosthryl," they came from the OE words "nosu" (meaning "nose") and "thryl" (meaning "pit").
   
• Occasion:
  From the Latin place, which means, "an accident, or a great event."
   
• October:
  From the Latin octu (m), meaning "eighty," and imber, meaning "rain." The same "Imber" in September.
   
• Office:
  It originally meant, "Church Server." (Note the country of origin of that name.)
   
• Ojalá (Spain) "I hope [that ...]":
  This word, which in Spanish means "I wish that" or "May God grant" comes from the old Arabic saying "To Sh Allah," which means "May Allah grant." In one of the great paradoxes is that people, who have been on the staircase for centuries, the Catholic frontlines have fought a battle to bring the Iberian Peninsula to Islamic Moors, to this day urge Allah each time to express a strong desire.
   
• Old; and Alt (German) Elder:
  "Alt" originally meant, "You've grown"; the "growth" role; related to "Alan," which means, "to grow" but is no longer available in modern German. In ancient English, the word "Alan" was also used in the same sense of growth or diet. Latin related "alt" which means "high."
   
• Omlette:
  Coming to English by using the French word for the same, the word is thought to come from the Latin word lamella, "small plate," referring to the longer, more omlette form, as well as to represent the gradual decomposition of allumelle first, then allumelette. Alomelette (The cuisinerfrancois of 1651 has aumelette). The modern name "omelette" first appears in the 1784 Chinese bourgeoise.
   
• Opportunity:
  From the Latin Ob-, meaning "in relation to," and portu (m), meaning "port."
   
• Orange (Eng.); Orange (Fr.); Naranja (Sp.); Arancia (It.):
  Interestingly, none of those terms come from the Latin word for orange, citrus aurentium; instead, all of them come from the traditional Sanskrit nagaranga, which accurately means "fatal indigestion for elephants." In certain traditions the orange, not the apple, is that the fruit liable for sin . There was an ancient Malay fable--which made its way into the Sanskrit tongue round the Seventh or Eighth Centuries B.C.--that links the orange to the sin of gluttony and has an elephant because the culprit. Apparently, at some point an elephant was passing through the forest, when he found a tree unknown to him during a clearing, bowed downward by its weight of lovely , tempting oranges; as a result, the elephant ate numerous that he burst. a few years later a person stumbled upon the scene and noticed the fossilized remains of the elephant with many orange trees growing from what had been its stomach. The person then exclaimed, "Amazing! What a nagaranga (fatal indigestion for elephants)!"
   
• Ostracize:
  "Ostron" may be a Greek word for pottery. Periodically the Greeks would hold an election to work out if someone was a danger to their community. Everyone would write their votes on broken pieces of pottery ("ostron") and if the vote was successful, the person was banished or "ostracized."
   
• Pagan:
  From the Latin paganu(m), for "someone who isn't from the town , rather from the country." In Late Latin , this became pagensis, "one who is from the country," and this utimately became the French pays and thus the Spanish País, both meaning "nation."
   
• Palaver:
  From the Spanish, "palabra," meaning, "word."
   
• Parlement (French) Parliament:
  From the French, "Parler," meaning, "to speak." Thus, we will not complain when our legislators do little aside from "speak."
   
• Parler (French) to talk :
  From the Latin "Parabolare," meaning, "to tell parables."
   
• Pavilion:
  Pavillion comes from the Latin "papilion-em," meaning, "butterfly." Pavillion meant a tent and therefore the allusion is to butterfly wings.
   
• Pay:
  Pay goes back ultimately to Latin, "pax" peace, by way of , appease, pacify. So "pay" originally meant "pay off," to stay the peace.
   
• Pedigree:
  From the French "Ped de gru," which suggests or meant, "Crane's foot," the /|\ symbol "used to denote succession during a genealogical table."
   
• Peach:
  When the peach first made its thanks to the Roman Empire from Persia, it had been called malum persicum, "Persian apple." The persicum then became pessicum, pessica and pesca (In modern Russian, it's still piersika.). The Italians have retained the term pesca, and it's become "peach" in English, peche in French, and Pfirsich in German. The Spanish differ from the remainder of Europe in calling it melocoton, literally "cotton-skinned apple"--from melum, "apple," and cotonium, meaning "quince" in Latin.
   
• Pecuniary:
  From the latin "pecunia," which originally meant, "wealth from livestock."
   
• Pearl:
  From from the Latin leg, because the bi-valve that produces pearls seems like a leg-of-mutton.
   
• Pineapple (Eng.); Piña (Sp.); Nana (Fr.); Ananas (Germ.):
  When Columbus landed in Guadeloupe in 1493, he found pineapples, which probably had originally come from Brazil. As Father de Acosta observed as early as 1589, the Spanish thought this new fruit resembled a pine cone; hence, the Spanish name of pinya, and therefore the English name of "pineapple" (the fruit was often just called a "pine" when it had been first introduced into Britain). The word nanais some of the Brazilian Guarani word meaning "perfumed" and was retained in both French and German.
   
• Pedestrian:
  Originally meant a lover (originally of Aristotle).
   
• Planet:
  From the Greek "Planasthai" for "to wander."
   
• Porcelain (French) Porcelaine:
  French porcelaine, from Old French pourcelaine, from Italian porcellana "of a sow," hence cowry shell, hence porcelain (from the resemblance of the cowry shell to the vulva of a sow), from porcella, diminutive of porca, sow, from Latin, feminine of porcus, swine.
   
• Potato (Eng.); Patata (Castilian Sp.); Papa (S. American Sp.); Cartoufle (16th.-cent. Fr.); Kartoffel (Germ.); Kartopfel (Russian; Pomme de terre (modern Fr.--"Earth apple"); Erdaepfel (Aust. Germ.--"Earth apple"):
  The South American Spanish term comes directly from the Incan word papa or bappa, which suggests "sweet potato." Apparently, the soldiers of the various Spanish expeditionary forces to America confused the potato with the sweet potato, as they began to use first the term bappa, then bappata (with the Spanish augmentative suffix -ata), to ask the whole Solanaceae (more than 100 differing types if you ask any Peruvian). It didn't take very long for bappata to become patata, which subsequently made its way into English as "potato." for his or her part, the French, German and Russian words stem from a mistake made by the Pope's botanist in 1588. Therein year, Pedro Cieca, an adjutant of Pizarro (the Spanish conqueror Peru), sent some potato tubers to the Spanish monarchs in 1588. They then gave them to the Pope, who had them examined by his botanist Clusius. Clusius planted the stems during a plot near the Vatican (the first potatoes planted in European soil). Not knowing what Latin name to offer his potatoes after they grew, he incorrectly categorized them as taratuflis, "little truffles." The Italian Pope, who had poor eyesight, then proceeded to read the word as tartufoli, which is that the source from which the word for potato in many European languages originated.
   
• Prom:
  From "promenade"
   
• Pseudo:
  From the Greek "Pseudos," meaning, "false."
   
• Queen:
  From the Gothic German "qino" then the Old English word "cwene" which was their common word for "woman." This gave rise to the early Middle English word "quean" which meant "woman," but was used as a "term of disparagement or abuse... a hussy, harlot" and used sometimes today to mean a male homosexual. Related to the modern Swedish word "kvinna," for woman.
   
• Regret:
  From the French "regretter," which originally meant, "lament over the dead."
   
• Reise (German) Travel:
  Related to, "rise."
   
• Rich:
  In Old French, "riche" meant "powerful"; it came to mean wealthy only by semantic extension. Originally from the German, Reich.
   
• Right:
  From the pre-Christian, Germanic term "riht", which was the sense of justice or balance that tribal elders attempted to achieve when determining the size of the "Bot." This is not to be confused with peace or "Friede," which could be achieved with differing amounts of "Bot" and was merely the cessation of fighting. "Riht" was that perfect amount of "Bot" that restored order within the universe and ensured the most long-lasting peace. (See the etymology of "Bot" at the end of the entry of freedom.)
   
• Robot:
  Robot comes from the Czech word "robot," which means "worker." In 1923, Karl Capek, a well-known, Czech, science-fiction writer at the time, wrote a futuristic thriller about a nightmarish scenario in which the machines have taken over (a la, the "Terminator") and implanted circuitry in humans to make them into mindless zombies willing to serve them as workers or "robots."
   
• Rodent:
  The word rodent comes from the Latin word rodere' meaning to gnaw (and "roedor" (rodent in spanish) is an animal who "roe" (gnaws) )
   
• Romance:
  The sense of "love" comes from the middle ages, when Latin was the language of the intellectuals but the languages of the people -- i.e., the Romance languages -- was the vulgar language love stories were written in.
   
• Rum:
  "Sugar wine" was not called rum until after 1688, and the word seems to have been an abbreviation of "rumbullion" or "rumbustion." The word may have been a term from the new pidgin English of Barbados and possibly derived from the distortion of a term in the Spanish dialect of Seville, combining Low Latin rheu, "stem," and bullion or bouillon, "boiling" (Similarly, "rhubarb" is a plant with edible stems originating from somewhere foreign--in other words, it is a "barbarous stem.").
   
• Saffron:
  The English word "saffron" comes from the Spanish word azafran, because it is in Spain where most of the world's highest quality crocus flowers (the plant whose stamens are the source of all saffron) are found. Azafran comes from the Arabic za'faran, meaning "yellow."
   
• Sanction:
  Originally meant, "imposition of penance." (Note the secularization of the term.)
   
• Salad; Salade (French); Ensalada (Spanish):
  This term first appeared within the Fifteenth Century because the Italian "zelada," a term meaning "salty," which was first applied to a dish that always appeared on festive tables in Milan. It had been actually a sort of ragout, very liquid and really salty (hence, its name), and it had been flavored with preserves, mustard and lemon and decorated with marzipan (Heinous!--editorial comment)(It was also served in cups, instead of directly on the most plate, a novelty at the time). The sauce for this soup-like dish, originally a hot one, came to incorporate various sorts of green stuff which had been pickled in vinegar or salt, then fresh cooked greens, or raw greens within the Roman manner. Finally, within the next century, the raw vegetables began to be sprinkled with oil and vinegar--also within the Roman manner--rather than being served with a spread of hot, broth-like sauces.
   
• Schlaf (German) Sleep:
  Originally meant, "the process of becoming tired"
   
• Scapegoat:
  The results of a mistranslation of the Old Testament by Tyndale in 1530. He mistakenly confused the Hebrew word "azazal," the name of a Caanonite demon, with "ez-ozel," meaning, "the goat the departs." Leviticus 16:8 discusses how goats should be sacrificed to God as a sin-offering, and another should tend to Azazel and let loose within the wilderness, for the sins of the people.
   
• Scream:
  From the Anglo-Saxon "hcream", which was the tribal outcry, during this case, that resulted from the invention of a wrongdoing.
   
• Scruples:
  From the Latin "Scrupulus," meaning "pebble."
   
• Search; Circus:
  From "Circus," which is from the Greek "Krikos" or "Kirkos," which was a hawk or falcon which flies in a circle , and later just a circle or ring.
   
• Senator:
  From the Latin "senex," meaning "old"; thus associated with "senile."
   
• Second:
  The OED says: Fr. Seconde, ad. Med.L. Secunda, fem. Of L. Secundus second a., used ellipt. For secundaminuta, lit. second minute', i.e. the results of the second operation of sexagesimal division; the results of the primary such operation (now called minute' simply) being the first' or prime minute' or prime'.
   
• Silly:
  From 1550 to 1675 was "very extensively" utilized in the sense of deserving of pity and compassion, helpless. It's a derivative of the center English "seely," from the German "selig," meaning happy, blissful, blessed, also as punctual, observant of season.
   
• Sinister:
  From the Latin "sinister" for "left." Hence, left is evil.
   
• Sherry; and Jerez (Spanish):
  The word "sherry" is known as after "Jerez" in Spain, but the way the name was pronounced in 1600. "X" was utilized in Spanish and remains utilized in Catalan, to represent an "sh" sound. When the "sh" sound changed to an aspirate "h" sound the Spanish Academy changed the spellings to "j"--but today the "j" is pronounced more gutterally (the "archaic 'j'" (x) vs. The 'modern 'j'" (j)). So we still spell it "Mexico" while the Spaniards (but not the Mexicans) spell it "Mejico." This shift had occurred by the time Cervantes wrote Don Quixote de La Mancha. It's interesting to notice that at just one occasion almost every Spanish word that you simply can consider which contains the letter "j" used "x" in situ of "j" (ie., "Xerez", "Xuan", "Ximena", "Mexico", "Quixote", "trouxemos" and "baixo" became "Jerez", "Juan", "Jimena", "Mejico", "trajimos" (we are bringing) and "bajo" (low; short; beneath), with "Quixote" remaining unchanged because it may be a proper name .).
   
• Slave:
  After large parts of Slavonia (the current Yugoslavian Federation province of Serbia, also as portions of surrounding countries) were subjugated by the Holy Roman Empire within the Middle Ages, a Slav became synonymous with someone who lived in servitude. Eventually Slav became slave.
   
• Sleazy:
  The Eastern European region of Silesia was known for its fine cloth. Eventually, numerous low-quality imitations aroused on the market that Silesian became sleazy.
   
• Slogan:
  from 2 Celtic words: "slaugh" and "gheun" which mean, respectively, "battle" and "cry".
   
• Soleil (French) and Solell (Catalan) Sun:
  From the Latin "Soliculus", meaning, "a little sun"; "sol" meant just "sun."
   
• Soup; Soupe (French); Sopa (Spanish); Zuppa (Italian):
  From the Old Low Latin term suppa, meaning "soaked [in water or another liquid]." the first sense of this word survives in just Dutch (soppen, "to soak") and English (sop, as in "sopping wet"). The Old Low Latin for "soaked" originally came into use to explain a well-liked dish, which consisted of a bit of bread soaked in water or another liquid then flavored with whatever was handy.
   
• Starve:
  From the Old English "steorfan," meaning "die." associated with the German for "die," "sterben."
   
• Spill:
  From the Old English "spillan," meaning, "destroy."
   
• Stool:
  From the Old English "stol," meaning "throne."
   
• Strawberry (Eng.); Fraise (Fr.); Fresa (Sp.)/ Fragola (It.); Erdbeer (Germ.--"earth berry"); Eper (Hung.):
  The fruit's name differs within the various European languages, although those names deriving from Latin still suggest the exquisite fragrance that caused the tiny , scented berry to be termed wild strawberry , "fragrant berry," in Latin. English "strawberry" refers to the layer of straw placed round the plants to stay the fruit off the soil, a very good idea in damp climates, like that typically found in Great Britain and Ireland.
   
• Suede:
  Gants de Suede is French for "gloves of Sweden." it had been in Sweden that the primary leather was buffed to a fine softness, and therefore the French bought the gants de Suede. Suede now refers to the buffing process--not to any particular quite leather.
   
• Sugar; Candy; Caramel:
  All come from the Greek saccharon and therefore the Roman saccharum, which are both distortions of the Sanskrit sarkara. Round the year 1000, after conquering an honest portion of the southern Mediterranean, the Arabs installed the primary "industrial" refinery on the island of Crete, which they renamed Qandi, which in Arabic means "crystallized sugar." this is often how the word "candy" made its way into English. Shortly thereafter, the Arabs also invented "caramel," which comes from the Arabic phrase kurat al milh and means "ball of sweet salt."
   
• Sweet:
  From an equivalent Indo-European root because the Latin "suavis."
   
• Sycophant:
  From the Greek "sykon," meaning "fig"; a sycophant was thus originally someone who makes figs appear. There are a couple of suggested etymologies: fig smuggling was illegal in ancient Greece, so a sycophant could are a telltale for a reward; or, it might be from the shaking of a fig-tree, which moved the figs from the hidden heights to the bottom where all could see it; or, it might be from "the sign of the fig," which is that the gesture of creating a fist with the thumb in-between the index and middle fingers, which represented female genitalia;--this gesture was wont to indicate an accusation of wrong-doing.
   
• Tag (German) Day:
  Originally meant, "The time during which the sun burns." See also, Nacht.
   
• Tarjeta (Spanish) Card:
  From the French "targette," for, "a little shield."
   
• Tennis:
  "Tennis," a sport which first developed in France, was originally "tenez" (pronounced tuh-nay) which is that the French verb "tenir" conjugated at the person of the plural as a polite imperative verb (translated during this case by something like "there you go"). They were saying "tenez" once they hit the ball so on say :"there, attempt to get this one". But tennis lost popularity in France and gained popularity in England at an equivalent time. So, English were still using the word "tenez" whenever they hit the ball, but saying it with English accent which sounded more like tennis, and which eventually took this new spelling. Then the game gained popularity world wide and got picked up by many languages, including French.
   
• Tete (French) Head:
  See Kopf
   
• Thermostat:
  "Therma" (hot) is from the Greek city of Therma, known for its hot springs.
   
• Thesis:
  From the Greek of an equivalent , meaning, "to put, place, set." From an equivalent Indo-European root as do, deed, doom, the -dom of kingdom and serfdom (etc.); fact, facility, the -fy of nullify and rectify (etc.).
   
• Threshold:
  "Threshold" originated within the middle ages when houses with stone floors were covered with threshings to stay the ground warm and to stop it from being slippery. As threshings were added during the winter, they might be scattered and thinned near the door, so people added a wooden board to carry the threshings in -- a threshold. The OED defines threshold originally as, "The piece of timber or stone which lies below rock bottom of a door, and has got to be crossed in entering a house; the sill of a doorway; hence, the doorway to a house or building.
   
• Tide and Time:
  See Zeit
   
• Tilde (The ~ mark in Spanish and Portuguese); Title:
  From the Spanish for an equivalent, an alteration of an obsolete Catalan title, which was from the Latin "titulus," meaning superscription -- from which we also get "title."
   
• Tomato (Eng.); Tomate (Sp.); Pomodoro (It.):
  The English and Spanish terms both stem from the Nahuatl (the language of the Aztecs) "tomatl," a vegetable (technically, a fruit) first introduced to Europe by the Spanish. For its part, the Italian term literally means pomo de oro, "golden apple." Incidentally, it had been first introduced into Italy by the Spaniards within the Sixteenth Century via Naples (not the island of Sicily, whose cuisine most heavily relies on tomato-based sauces). The rationale is that Naples was a Spanish possession during the reign of the Habsburg Emperor Charles V of Spain (I of Germany)(r. 1516-1556).
   
• Trabajar (Spanish); Travailler (French); Trabalhar (Portugues) Work:
  Travailler, trabajar and trabalhar all mean "to work" in French, Spanish and Portuguese, respectively. They originally came from the Latin word "tripullare" which was the three-sectioned whip that was employed by Roman soldiers to encourage conscripted laborers in those provinces of the Roman Empire (Gaul, Hispania and Lusitania) to figure harder, and thus was wont to mean "to torture." This ocurred during the last two or three centuries of the Empire, when oftentimes naked aggression was deemed to be necesary to stop an entire meltdown of control within the West. Before this point the Latin term "laborar" was utilized in these provinces, which survives today in Italian as "lavorar" and in English as "to labor."
   
• Travel:
  From the French "travail," meaning, "work." Daniel Boorstin has argued that this happened because, at just one occasion , "traveling" entailed working: learning the language and native customs, etc. Boorstin contrasts this with "tourism" which doesn't entail any work on your (the tourist's) part.
   
• Trivia:
  The derivation of the word trivia comes from the Latin for "crossroads": "tri-" + "via", which suggests three streets. This is often because in past , at an intersection of three streeets in Rome (or another Italian place), they might have a kind of kiosk where ancillary information was listed. You would possibly have an interest in it, you would possibly not, hence they were bits of "trivia."
  From the Greek "tyrannos," for "usurper," without a necessary negative implication.
   
• Umpire:
  From French 'non partiere' (impartial, neutral). The first word was nunpire, but morphed from "a nunpire" to "an umpire". Approximately I've heard.
   
• Utopia:
  Greek for "no where."
   
• Viande (French) Meat; and Vivir (Spanish) to measure :
  Viande is from the Late Latin "vivanda," meaning, "that which lives ." Thus associated with Vivre (French) and Vivir (Spanish).
   
• Victim:
  From the Latin "victima," meaning, "an animal destined to be sacrified."
   
• Villain:
  From "Villaneus," meaning, "inhabitant of a villa," i.e., a "peasant."
   
• Vinegar:
  Comes from the Latin vin aigre, meaning "sour wine.
   
• Walk:
  In Old English , "wealcan" meant "to roll"; by Middle English meant "to move about, travel"; and only in Modern English came to mean "walk" as we all know it.
   
• Wedding:
  From the pre-Christian, Germanic term "wed" or pledge.
   
• Weird:
  From the Proto-Indo-European *wer, meaning "to turn." From this same root, we also get English words: -ward (toward, inward), worth (from the Old German *werthaz, meaning "opposite," thus "equivalent"), pervert, extro/introvert, divert, controversy, invert, verse, versatile, revert, tergiversation, malversation, anniversary, vertex, vertigo, vertebra; wreath, wrath; worry (from the Old English wyrgan, to strangle), wrong (from the Old Scandanavian *vrang, for "crooked"); verge, converge, diverge; wry, wriggle, wrist, wrestle; warp; rhapsody; worm, vermin; the Latin prefix "re-".
   
• Welt (German) World:
  Welt may be a contraction of the Old German words, "Wer" and "alt," where "Wer" meant "Man" (From the Latin "Vir" for "Man"--think "virile") and "Alt," which in Old German , meant "time" but now means "old." So, Welt is Wer + alt, which is "the time of man."
   
• Werewolf (German and English):
  Wer + Wolf; "Wer," in Old German , was "man" (related to the Latin "Vir" for "Man"). Thus, literally, "Wolfman."
   
• Whiskey (Ireland); Whisky (Scotland):
  This term originally came from uisgebeatha (Scottish Gaelic) and uiscebeatha (Irish Gaelic), which both mean "water of life." The word entered English as "whiskey" or "whisky" when Henry II invaded Ireland.
   
• Window:
  From the Anglo-Saxon "vindr" eage," meaning the "wind's eye."
   
• Wine:
  Comes from the Greek word for wine, oinos (Cretan dialect), which itself was taken from the name of the Greek god who was alleged to have first revealed the key of wine to the traditional Cretans, Dionysus (Pronounce it without the "Di.").
   
• Wit:
  From the Old English "witan," aiming to know; intelligence.
   
• Witness:
  From the pre-Christian, Germanic term "witan", which suggests wise, tribal elders (literally, those that follow the way of the Norse god "Wodin" or "Odin").
   
• Woman:
  From the Old English "Wyfmon," meaning, "wife." See Queen.
   
• Work; and Werk (German) Work; Warm; Worm; and Wurst:
  Work is from the German "Werk" (meaning the same), which is etymologically associated with the "warm" and "wurst" (Sausage). "Worm," in turn, comes from "wurst."
   
• Worm:
  From the Old English "wyrm," meaning "dragon."
   
• Yankee:
  From the Dutch "Jan-Kees" etc. Jan= short for: Johannes (=John), Kees= short for Cornelis (=Cornelius). All three names were quite common in those days (and still are): Jan, Kees and Jan-Kees.
   
• Zeit (German) Time:
  Related to the German (and English) "Tide." In Old German, Zeit also meant "to divide, separate."
   
• Zero:
  The centerpiece of the Hindu-Arabic numerical system was the invention of zero--sunya because the Indians called it, and and cifr because it became in Arabic. The term has come right down to us in English as cipher, which suggests "empty" and refers to the zero column within the abacus or counting frame (see "abacus")(The term has also come right down to us as "decipher," which suggests "to determine the meaning of anything obscure"). The Arabic term survives even in Russian, where it appears as tsifra, which is that the word for number.

3.2.         Identifying Common Errors in Writing with Reference to Misplaced Modifiers and Tenses

WHAT ARE MODIFIERS?

Modifiers are words that provide additional information about nouns, pronouns, verbs, and themselves to make those things more definite.

Modifiers can be classified into two main types: adjectives and adverbs.

MODIFYING WORD

A modifying word refers to the adjectives and adverbs that modify a word in a sentence and are defined by it respectively.

The modifier is an Adjective when the modified word is a  noun.

Example:

• An outstanding choice for a sovereign summer holiday.
• These huge apartments are along an inland waterway in a quiet residential area.
• The friendly resort of Blue eyes with its stunning white sandy beach is only a short walk away.

An adjective modifies a noun. The physical and other qualities of the noun are expressed by the adjective (huge, quiet, friendly) and also the writer’s opinion or attitude (outstanding, stunning). The residual adjective classifies the area, tells us what type of area it is.

The modifier is an Adverb, if the modified word is a verb or adjective or any other adverb,

Example:

• The car in front of us was a police car.
• You were getting really impatient.
• They were going very slowly.
• They inspected the car thoroughly.
• Then you decided to overtake.

Here the adverbials add information about the noun car, the adjective impatient, the adverb slowly, the action inspected the car and the clause you decided.

Thus, knowing types of adjectives and adverbs will be an added advantage in correcting the sentences.

PLACEMENT OF MODIFIERS

Many phrases really load the sentences with information by supplying extra significance, tying loose strands together, and clearing up area of uncertainty. But, if the phrases and clauses aren’t correctly placed, things can get undisciplined and confusing.

A key to precise sentence construction is the proper placement of modifiers within a sentence:

Only one word or a group of words must be modified by a modifying phrase or clause, and should be placed as close as possible to the word(s) it modifies.

Incorrect: There is a clay figurine in the museum that is thousand years old.

In the given sentence the word museum is modified by using the clause ‘that is thousand years old’.

Correct: There is a clay figurine that is thousand years old in the museum.

Two kinds of problematic modifiers that exist in placement tests, they are known as misplaced modifiers and dangling modifiers.

Identifying Misplaced Modifiers

1.  MISPLACED MODIFIERS

Many sentences in the first glance appear to be correct, but in the second reading, become confusing and unorganized due to misplaced modifiers.

Adverbs and prepositional phrases are the two most commonly misplaced modifiers. They include - however, only, just, even, almost, never, etc.

A. Adverbs with Verbs

In the adverb forms and adverbial forms, the adverb can be moved within a sentence to modify verb, adjective, or another adverb along with the noun phrases.

Example:

Consider these three sentences each having the word just in a different position:

• Jenny was just allowed to go back to work.
• Jenny was allowed to just go back to work.
• Just Jenny was allowed to go back to work.

As it can be seen the placement of the modifier 'just' completely changes the meaning in each of the three sentences.

The first sentence means that Jerry was recently allowed to go back to work.

The second sentence means that Jerry was only allowed to go back to work and nowhere else.

The third sentence means that only Jerry and no one else was allowed to go back to work.

When we’re writing, it’s important to put the modifier in the correct position to convey your intended meaning. Therefore, it is essential to note that the placement of one little adverb can dramatically change the meaning of a sentence.

B. Prepositional Phrase

In case of the ‘adverbial forms’, the prepositional phrase can modify (pro)noun, adjective or adjectival phrase, and verb as adverbial phrase.

Consider this example:

• He saw a house on the top of the hill with the help of telescope.
• He saw a house with the help of telescope on the top of the hill.
• He saw a house on the top with the help of telescope of the hill.
• With the help of telescope, he saw a house on the top of the hill.

To fix the error first try to answer for ‘He did what, where, with what’

With the help of telescope, he saw a house on the top of the hill is correct.

Sentence 1 to 3 positions the telescope with hill, house, top where ideology is incorrect.

C) Adjective Clause

As mentioned and dealt with adjective, it becomes our intention to identify the incorrect appearance of adjective or unintended meaning of adjectives.

Example

• My wife, which was bought in Mumbai city, wore her new scarf around her neck.
• My wife wore her new scarf, which was bought in Mumbai city, around her neck.
• My wife wore her new scarf around her neck, which was bought in Mumbai city.
• My wife wore, which was bought in Mumbai city, her new scarf around her neck.

To correct the error sketch the idea in brief – who or what was bought in Mumbai city

It is obvious that one can’t buy a wife or her neck, hence the correct modifying phrase should be placed near scarf. Therefore, the correct sentence would be ‘My wife wore her new scarf, which was bought in Coimbatore city, around her neck’.

2. DANGLING MODIFIERS

A dangling modifier is a modifier which is always incomplete, in terms of clauses, participles or infinitive phrases

A. Incomplete Clauses

It is necessary to turn a phrase into clause, to make it clear which word(s) are modified. Always suspect an ‘ing’ word of dangling if it’s near the front of a sentence.

Example 1:

Incorrect: While in my meeting, my mother called me.

Here the subject or the doer of the action is missing. Bring the subject, sequence the action and correction happens.

Correct: While I was in my meeting, my father called me.

Example 2:

Incorrect: Running fast to catch the train, my iphone fell out of my pocket.

Sketch the meaning, seems as if iphone is running fast to catch the train.

Correct: While I was running fast to catch the train, my iphone fell out of my pocket.

B.  Dangling Participles

A participle that modifies unintended (pro)noun.

Example 1:

Incorrect: We were excited to see a pasture of wildflowers walking through the park.

Are the wildflowers walking through the park?

Correct: Walking through the park, we were excited to see a pasture of wildflowers.

Example 2:

Incorrect: After having declined the dessert, the waiter brought us the bill.

Hint word ‘us’, the doer is missing.

Correct: Having declined the dessert, we asked the waiter to bring us our bill.

Example 3:

Incorrect: Feeling better, the doctor said I could return to school.

Who was feeling better, the doctor or the speaker?

Correct: The doctor said, I who was feeling better could return to school.

C.  Dangling Infinitives

An infinitive (to + verb), when serving as an adjective, that modifies an intended (pro)noun.

Example:

Incorrect: To recover from the accident, the doctor suggested some rest.

Who is recovering the doctor or the speaker?

Correct: According to the doctor, I need some rest to recover from the accident.

Rules for Identifying Tenses

Rule 1

A past tense in the independent clause is always followed by a past tense in the subordinate clause.

Example: I found out that she was out of town.

However, there is an exception to this rule. When the independent clause in the past tense, the subordinate clause can be in the present tense if a universal truth is being stated by it. 

Example: The children were taught that honesty is the best policy.

Another exception to this rule is when the word ‘than’ is used in the sentence to introduce the subordinate clause. In this case, the subordinate clause can be used in any tense irrespective of the tense of the independent clause.

Rule 2

If the tense used with the independent clause is in the present or future tense, the tense of the subordinate clause can be in any tense based on what needs to be conveyed.

Example: She is saying that she is alright. She says she is fine.

Rule 3

If the independent clause is in the future tense, the subordinate clause is not used in the future tense instead a subordinating clause beginning with when, until, before, after etc. is used.

Example: I will call you when dinner is ready. I shall wait until you return.

Rule 4

When the subordinate clause is introduced with the conjunction ‘that’, the following rules must be followed,

• ‘May’ should be used in the subordinate clause when the independent clause is in the present tense.
• ‘Might’ should be used in the subordinate clause when the independent clause is in the past tense.

Example: We eat that we may live. She tried to live so that he might have a chance at life.

Rule 5

When some phrases such as If only, wish that, what if, it is time are used, the clauses that follow it are always in the past tense.

Example: I wish I could eat another ice cream.

3.3.         Sub– Skills of Reading – Skimming and Scanning

Reading is the cognitive process of decoding symbols to derive meaning from them. It is the ability to understand text, decode its meaning and compare with what the reader already knows.

Knowledge of grammar and vocabulary are very essential to be a good reader. Attention span, the ability to understand the meaning of a word from context, the ability to co-relate thoughts and ideas, the ability to follow the flow of words, and the ability to identify various literary devices are the fundamental skills required for efficient reading.

Skimming and Scanning are reading techniques that use rapid eye movement to shuffle quickly through the text for relevant information. Although they both use the same technique they are quite different methods of reading.

Skimming

Skimming is the process of rapidly reading a text in order to get a general overview of the content. Skimming helps comprehend the general information within a text or a particular section of the text.

Before skimming, one should prepare oneself to read rapidly through the pages. One should not read every word; but special attention must be paid to typographical cues-headings, boldface and italic type, indenting, bulleted and numbered lists.

One should be alert for the names of people and places, key words and phrases, dates, nouns, and unfamiliar words.

Skimming involves the following steps:

1. First the table of content or the chapter overview must be read to get the structural overview of the text.

2. Main headings of each chapter must be glanced through. All headings of charts and tables must be read.

3. After glancing through headings, the whole introductory paragraph must be read followed by the first and last lines of each succeeding paragraph. For each paragraph, only the first few words of each sentence must be read to locate the central idea.

4. Words indicated with boldface or italics must always be read.

5.When something significant is found, the whole sentence containing it should be given priority. One should not waste time reading extraneous details while skimming.

6.All chapter summaries must be read at the end if provided.

Skimming may help understand the text at the most basic level but to get the complete idea of a topic it should always be read completely. Skimming is useful for reading news articles, finding source material for research papers, previewing and reviewing or getting a general idea from a long selection of texts.

Although skimming can save hours of work, it is not advisable to skim often. This is because while skimming one may miss important points or finer shades of meaning.

Scanning

Scanning, like skimming, also uses keywords and organizational cues, but while the objective of skimming is a big picture view of the text, the objective of scanning is to locate and collect particular facts.

It is necessary to skim the text first to decide if it is likely to contain the facts you need. While skimming one should concentrate on table of contents, summaries, indexes, headings, and typographical cues. If after skimming it is established that the text has relevant information, it can be scanned.

Following are some rules to be kept in mind while scanning:

1. It is essential to know what one is looking for. If there is a  keyword or a phrase attached to the topic, one should start with that word or phrase and  begin the scanning process.

1. Only one keyword should be used during one scan. If there is a need for multiple keywords than multiple scans should be conducted.

2. The eyes should rapidly float around the page until the required keyword or phrase is found.

3. After finding the desired keyword, the text surrounding that keyword should be read carefully.

The process of scanning could be tiring as it requires a lot of concentration. One should not let their attention wander while scanning as they might lose track of the keyword or phrase. Scanning is very useful during research projects to find particular facts or fact-heavy topics.

Fast Reading or Rapid Reading

Rapid reading or Fast reading usually involves techniques for moving the eyes faster in order to gather information more quickly. This might include Skimming and Scanning.

How to do Rapid Reading

To begin rapid reading it is often recommend to start with a book that you find relatively easy to understand with a consecutive story. Have a timer to hand, and read a few pages at your normal speed, and just notice how long you spend on a page.

Then set your timer for half that time, read as quickly as you can down the page and move to the next page each time your timer goes off, and just see how much information you get. The first couple of pages might seems a bit overwhelming, but once the panic subsides, you’ll be amazed at how much you can pick up if you go quickly. And once you’ve doubled your speed, you can double again … and again. You only need to read enough to know what it’s about and to get as much information as you need.

Below are some things that must be done before starting fast reading :

1. Get into a good state – sit up straight, take a deep breath, relax, and smile.

2. Open your peripheral vision by keeping your gaze on the opposite wall while relaxing your eyes and trying to see both ears at the same time. Notice how much more you can see to right and left without moving your eyes.

3. Hold the book at a 45 degree angle in front of you – and a little bit further away than normal.

4. Begin to fast read to speed up your eyes and your brain before you start. That means glancing quickly down each page in 10 seconds or less for several pages. You shouldn’t be understanding what you’re looking at – the aim isn’t to read at that speed (yet), simply to get your eyes and brain working quicker, so when you read more slowly, you seem to have more time – which allows you to read more quickly than you do ‘normally’.

3.4.         Nature and Style of Sensible Writing; Defining- Describing Objects, Places and Events; Classifying- Providing Examples or Evidence

Describing Objects, Places and Events

Description is a tool that writers use to keep things live for their readers, to make sure their audience is fully immersed in the words on the page. Every time you tell someone a story, or when you tell someone something, you either use the description or you don't know it. The description is basically "I have a blue car" or "That beautiful baby" or "Flowers soften the sun's golden rays and start showing their bright colors". Descriptive words are used to provide more detail and provide more insight. In fact, commentary is a tool that allows many authors (and speakers) to show up instead of just saying, and enabling our readers to interpret our material.

There are two basic types of Objective and Subjective. The meaning of purpose is shown in the first two examples above; Provides a true account of the item. Co-explanation provides a personal examination of the details by selecting specific words and phrases, such as clarifying the colors in the example above. Vibration not only provides information on colors, but also gives the idea or judgment of the value in the description. Many interpretations provide a mixture of both, giving the audience an idea of ​​the emotional state of the subject being described.

• Sensory details

However, every possible explanation uses sensory information as its basis. These are the five senses that attract attention, smell, sound, taste and touch. In fact, different studies prioritize different sensory details and do not require the use of all five senses for all subjects. We all recognize the importance of looking at detail as a tool, but we don't always know how important other details of interest are. However, think about how often you smell something and immediately think of something or someone else. You can smell freshly baked bread and think of your grandmother's kitchen or popcorn and think of theater. Listening to a phrase can make you think of an old friend or acquaintance. You can associate a certain kind of garment with the clothes you had as a child. When you take a bite of pepperoni you are reminded of your youthful parties. Sensory information actually plays a major role in keeping the narrative alive.

• Using Concrete description

Try to use specific, concrete definitions. For example, an author can write a beautiful description of a tree. However, he is very handsome. Instead, the concrete or modifier resistor will be strong and provide maximum impact. The reader needs image details to build up their heads, concepts that don't seem like a good analog for a real-world analog.

Here is a description of the tree: "The sun's rays illuminated the leaves around the rain, just as the afternoon sky dropped in the evening." The fine features of the tree are "shown" in concrete details rather than simply being pulled out. This gives the reader the illusion of an immediate experience, as opposed to a variety of dictionaries.

• Similes and Metaphors

One way to add descriptive language is to use similes and metaphors, to create an image in the readers' heads by comparing two objects with each other. Metaphors and metaphors help to make connections between two concepts, concepts, or objects that clarify or give new meaning.

A simile to compare using words like or. Usually two different things are compared. For example, bread was as dry as bone. Matching involves a piece of bread that is thick and white than a solid and white bone. The bones are usually dry, and so is the bread. These same characteristics are what make the metaphor successful.

A metaphor says one thing is something else. It's a comparison, but it does NOT use it as a comparison or to make comparisons. For example, my grandmother is an open book. Comparing this means that my grandmother is full of information she willingly shares with others.

To make an simile or metaphor, point to something like the sun, a tree, or a river, or an idea such as love, peace or wrath. Then think of something else with the same features. Decide whether the words "like" or "as" will help make the connection more understandable. An appropriate metaphor or metaphor will enable the reader to view both objects in a new way.

By adding metaphors and metaphors to the definition sheet, the author can attract readers' thinking and make writing more interesting to read. Icons and metaphors add spice to the descriptions. However, many pieces come in the form of metaphors and metaphors, so try to create comparisons specific to your particular topic.

Defining

The purpose of the article may seem to be self-explanatory, simply to explain something. But explaining words in writing is often more complex than simply touching a dictionary. In fact, the way we interpret words can have far-reaching effects on individuals and groups. Finally, a descriptive article will share your unique insight into your chosen topic.

Example, Take a word like alcohol. The only way a person defines alcohol depends on their legal, behavioural and medical conditions. Attorneys may define alcohol in terms of its legal provisions; parents can define alcohol in terms of its behaviour; and doctors will explain alcohol addiction in terms of symptoms and diagnoses. Think, too, about the terms that people are used to discussing in our wider culture. How we define terms, such as marriage and climate change, has a significant impact on policy decisions and on the daily decisions. Think of the conversations a couple can have when words like commitment, respect or love need to be clarified.

Interpreting words within relationships, or other content, can be difficult at first, but as long as the meaning is established between two individuals or a group of people, it is easy to have productive conversations. Definitions, then, establish how people communicate ideas. They set the limits of a given expression, which is why it is so important. In what is described as a great compilation of essays, the author throws himself into a professional, aimed at an audience who knows little, perhaps very little, about the subject.

Note: When writing descriptive essays, avoid simple, incompatible words. Think of ideas, such as heroism, joy, or honesty, not material things. Definitions of ideas and suggestions, instead of concrete objects, are often flowing and conflicting, making for a more effective explanation.

Workplace Writing

Definitions play a very important role in all workplace. Take the name of sexual harassment. Sexual harassment is widely defined at the national level, but each company may have additional mechanisms that define it more. Knowing how your workplace describes and treats all sexual harassment allegations is important. Think again, how your company describes travel, manufacturing, or offerings.

He explains in terms of meaning, but he is the author of meaning. As you look at how to create your own article, it may be helpful to look at parts of the official description:

Parts of definition:

• Formal redefinition
• History
• The context
• Anger
• Same things
• Work
• Definitions

Features of Definitive Writing

• Definitions establish how people communicate ideas. They set the limits of a given speech.

• Context affects the meaning and use of words.

• The thesis of the meaning of the essay should clearly explain the author's interpretation of that word in a particular context.

• The categories of the body should explain the different parts of the meaning expressed in the thesis.

• The conclusion should draw all the elements of meaning together at the end and emphasize the thesis.

Do’s and Don’ts of Definitive Writing

• Avoid using the terms “there” and “there” in your description: “High Quality Management for all managers and employees agree. . ..” “The computer virus is there. . ..”
• Avoid circular definitions (repeating a defined word within a proclamation, the description itself): “A computer virus that destroys or disrupts software. . ..”
• Avoid using too narrow a description, which may improperly limit your paper: "Reggae music is sung on the Caribbean island of Jamaica..."
• Avoid explaining the word by quoting a dictionary or encyclopedia as that reduces your thoughts and ideas.

Classifying

Purpose of Classification in Writing

The purpose of classification is to break down broad topics into smaller, more manageable, more specific sections. We put things into our daily lives all the time, often without even thinking about it. It is important, however, to make sure that you use the same foundation for classification; otherwise, you can end up with items that fall into multiple categories. Mobile, for example, has now become part of a wider category. They can be classified as feature phones, media phones and smartphones.

The sub-categories, and the way these categories are structured, help us make sense of the world. Keep both of these things in mind when writing a dissertation essay.

Note: Choose topics that you are familiar with when writing classification paragraphs. The more you know about a particular topic, the more you can break it up into smaller, more interesting sections. Adding interest and insights will improve your split rankings.

The Structure of Classification in Writing:

The classification story or essay begins with the introductory section introducing a broader topic. The thesis should then explain how and why the topic is divided into groups. Take the first paragraph of an introduction.

Example: When people think of New York, they often think of New York City alone. But New York is actually a diverse place with a full range of activities, sightseeing and cultures to explore. To better understand the diversity of the state of New York, it is helpful to divide it into five distinct areas: Long Island, New York City, Western New York, Central New York, and Northern New York.

The thesis describes not only the paragraph and the paragraph below but also the idea of ​​breaking it down into those sections. With this topic of classification, the author hopes to show his readers a different way of looking at the state.

Each body part of a subdivision is dedicated to fully reflecting each section. In the previous example, then, each New York state will have its own section.

The conclusion should bring back all the paragraphs and clauses again to show the reader the big picture. In the previous example, the conclusion could explain how the different perspectives and activities of each New York state add to its diversity and complexity.

Providing Evidence and Examples

Research requires us to critically evaluate the data and assess its reliability. Therefore, when we think about different things, we examine the key data and understand the most detailed definitions to explain our meanings. An important part of building our research narrative is providing evidence and supporting examples.

The type of evidence we provide can support our claims or leave readers confused or sceptical of our analysis. Therefore, it is important that we use the correct, logical and direct-reading phrases that clearly guide readers from one perspective to the next.
 

When to present evidence and examples:
 

Evidence and examples form the basis on which your claims can stand. Without evidence, your arguments lack credibility and teeth. However, the proof of the clothing list is not as good as failing to provide any materials or details that may support your conclusions. Therefore, when presenting examples, be sure to give careful testimony when needed and to use phrases that will act appropriately and clearly explain how the evidence supports your argument.

• You must present and link your arguments with the evidence where you are.
• State information other than "general information";
• Draw conclusions, make inferences, or recommend based on data;
• Requires clarification of the previous statement, and will be done effectively and illustratively;
• We discuss identifying examples of category representatives;
• Wish to differentiate ideas;
• Emphasize the point by emphasizing a particular situation.

Evidence

What is important of Evidence?

Before you begin to gather information that you can use as evidence in your argument, you must make sure you understand the purpose of your assignment. If you are working on a lesson project, look carefully at the allotted time. It can give you clues as to what kind of evidence you will need.

Is the lecturer talking about specific books to use in writing your paper or the names of other authors who have written on your topic? How long should your paper be (longer works may require more or different evidence)? What themes or topics come to the text in the immediate time frame? Our contribution to understanding writing assignments can help you interpret your assignment. It's also a good idea to think about what is being said about the classroom assignment and to talk to your teacher if you need clarification or guidance.

Sources for Finding Evidence

• Print and electronic sources:
  Books, magazines, websites, newspapers, magazines and selected films are some of the most common sources of scholarly writing. Our contribution to exploring print media will help you choose your print sources wisely, and the library has courses for exploring print media and websites.
  A library can assist you in finding the right resources for the type of work you complete. Just visit the reference desk at Davis or the undergraduate library or chat with the librarian online (IM's screen name of the library undegraded.

• Observation:
  Sometimes you can see exactly what you like, by watching, listening, touching, tasting, or smelling. Example, if you were asked to write about Mozart's music, you would listen to it; if your topic was the way businesses attract traffic, you can go look for windows in a shopping mall.

• Interviews:
  Interviewing is a great way to gather information that you can't find with any other research. The discussion can provide expert opinion, birth or early experiences, and suggestions for further research.

• Research/ Survey:
  Research allows you to find some of what a group of people think about a topic. Designing an effective survey and interpreting the information you receive can be challenging, so it's a good idea to check with your instructor before creating or administering the survey.

• Experiments:
  Experimental data serve as the first form of scientific evidence. In a science experiment, you must follow certain guidelines for the discipline you are studying. In writing in other fields, illegal experiments can be admitted as evidence. Example, if you want to prove that dining options in a restaurant are influenced by gender stereotypes, you can ask your classmates to intentionally narrow down those options and look at others' reactions.

• Personal experience:
  Use your experiences can be a powerful way to attract your readers. However, you should only use your experience when it is appropriate for your topic, your writing objectives, and your audience. Personal experience should not be your only means of proof in many papers, and some of the best instructions for using personal information at all. Example, the story about a microscope you received as a Christmas gift when you were nine years old probably doesn't apply to your biology report.

The Use of Evidence in Writing

There are many ways to present your testimony. Usually, your evidence will be included as text on the body of your paper, such as a quotation, summary, or summary. Sometimes you can combine graphs, charts, or tables; quotes from interviews; or pictures or images with captions.

Quotations:

When you quote, you find the names of the other author as they are on the page. Here are some tips to help you decide when to use quotes:

1. Quote if you can't say better and the author's words are particularly clever, crafty, reading, otherwise, a good illustration of a point you make, or interesting in some way.

2. Quote when using an authoritative source and need the author's ability to support your point.

3. Quote when analysing a dictionary, tone, or author's use of a particular word or phrase.

4. Quote when taking a position based on the reader's specific understanding of what another writer has to say about the topic.
Be sure to introduce each quote you use, and always cite your sources. As with all pieces of evidence, the quotation cannot speak for itself. If you keep a paragraph with a quotation, it may be a sign that you have neglected to discuss the importance of the quotation in light of your dispute. It is important to avoid “multiple quotes,” that is, quotations that have already been thrown into your paper without presentation, discussion, or follow-up.

Paraphrasing:

When you make a paraphrase, you take a particular paragraph of text and enter it in your own words. Putting it in your own words does not mean changing or rearranging a few words of the author: to properly picture and avoid cheating, try to put your source aside and repeat a sentence or paragraph you just read, as if explaining it to someone else. Comparisons are different than a summary because a summary focuses on something, a very short text (such as a phrase, sentence, or paragraph). You will need to indicate when you pass someone else's text by pointing to your sources correctly, just as you would with an average.
When would you like to elaborate?

1. Paraphrase if you want to introduce a writer's position, but his first words are not optional.

2. Paraphrase if you support a particular point and need to draw somewhere in the text that supports your point - for example, where one paragraph in the source applies in particular.

3. Paraphrase where you want to present an author's perspective on a different topic for yourself or another author; you may deny certain points written in your own words after you have transferred your information.

4. Paraphrase where you want to comment on a specific example used by another author.

5. Paraphrase where you need to present information that may not be asked.

Summary

In summary, we provide an overview of the whole text, or at least a long portion of the text. Summary is useful when giving background information, your basis for argument, or citing a source as your argument. The summary is less restrictive than the aggregated information. It can be the most efficient way to enter a large number of sources if you don't have much space. If you summarize someone else's argument or opinion, make sure this is clear to the reader and cites your source accordingly.

Statistics, data, charts, graphs, pictures, images:

Sometimes the best evidence for your argument is the truth or the apparent representation of the truth. This kind of evidence can be a strong backbone of your argument, but you still need to create the context for your reader and draw the connections you want him to make. Remember that statistics, data, charts, graphs, images and images are all open for translation. Guide the reader through the translation process. Also, always, name the origin of your evidence if you have not produced what you use.