Unit – 4
‘What Should You Be Eating’ from the prescribed textbook ‘English for Engineers’ published by Cambridge University Press.
An abbreviation is a shortened form of a word where the last letters of a word are omitted. Abbreviation is useful in writing when one has to cram a lot of words into a small space. Although they help at simplifying the language it is essential to note that one must avoid using them in formal writing except for some universal abbreviations. It is essential to know if your audience knows the abbreviation before using it while conversing with them.
Below are examples of some commonly used abbreviations:
Professor – Prof.
B.S. = Bachelor of Science B.A. = Bachelor of Arts M.A. = Master of Arts M.B.A. = Master of Business Administration Ph.D. = Doctor of Philosophy
UN – United Nations
Times and dates -
- a.m. (ante meridiem) = before noon p.m. (post meridiem) = after noon
- Jan., Feb., Mar., Apr., May, Jun., Jul., Aug., Sep., Oct., Nov., Dec.
- Mon., Tues., Wed., Thurs., Fri., Sat., Sun.
Places -
U.S. (United States), U.K. (United Kingdom), E.U. (European Union), U.A.E. (United Arab Emirates).
Units of Measurement -
- In. (inches) ft. (feet) lbs. (pounds)
- Mm. (Millimetres) cm. (centimetres) m. (meters)
There are some rules that must be kept in mind while using abbreviations, they are as follows:
- Periods should be used in abbreviations that contain lowercase letters. For example – c.o.d.
- Periods should not be used for organizations, titles, time zones, businesses, and acronyms. For Example: UN, CIA, NASA, ISRO, IBM, EST.
- Proper nouns always have capitalized abbreviation such as United Nations – UN or World Health Organization – WHO. Common noun do not have capitalized abbreviation such as compact disk – cd or air conditioner – ac.
Below are some standard abbreviations:
- A:
A, the ampere
Å, angstrom units
aa amino acids (s)
Ab, anti
AIDS, acquired immunodeficiency syndrome
AKT, v-akt murine thymoma viral oncogene Homolog 1
ALS, amyotrophic lateral sclerosis
AMP, adenosine monophosphate (ADP, ATP)
AMPK, AMP kinase
ANCOVA, an analysis of financial discrimination
ANOVA, analysis of variance
ATPase, adenosine triphosphatase (AMPase, ADPase)
AU, combat units
AUC, the area at the bottom of the curve
- B:
BAC, bacterial chromosome transplant
Β-gal, gal-galactosidase
BM, context
BMI, body mass index
BMP, a bone morphogenetic protein
bp, base (couples)
BP, blood pressure
bpm, hit (s) per minute
BRAF, v-raf murine sarcoma viral oncogene homolog B
BrdU, bromodeoxyuridine
BSA, bovine serum albumin
BTU, British (heat) unit
BW, body weight
- C:
° C, degree (s) Celsius
cAMP, cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cGMP)
Cas9, a 9-CRISPR-compatible protein
CCL, CC chemokine ligand
CCR, CC chemokine receptor
CD, collection of variants (CD4, CD8)
CDC, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention
cDNA, complementary DNA
CDP, cytosine diphosphate
C / EBP, CCAAT / proteinancer binding
CFA, complete Freund's genius
CFSE, carboxyfluorescein diacetate succinimidyl ester
CFU, colony-forming units
ChIP, chromatin immunoprecipitation
CHO, Chinese hamster ovary
CI, confidence interval
Ci, curies (s)
C-KIT, CD117, cell / cell growth line, protooncogene c-KIT
cM, centimeters (s)
Cmax, higher value [higher]
Cmin, minimum [concentration] concentration
CMP, cytidine monophosphate (CDP, CTP)
CMV, cytomegalovirus
CNRS, Center National de la Recherche Scientifique
CNS, central nervous system
CoA, coenzyme A
COX, a cycloo oxygenase
cpm, counting (s) per minute
CRISPR, compounded regularly by a short palindromic repetition
CSA, an activity that stimulates colonization
CSF, a factor that promotes colonization
Ct, limit cycle
CT, compact tomography
CXCL, CXC chemokine ligand
CXCR, a CXC chemokine receptor
- D:
d, day (s)
d, of persons
3D, 3-dimensional
Da, dalton (s)
DAB, 3,3′-diaminobenzidine
DAPI, 4 ′, 6-diamidino-2-phenylindole
DC, a dendritic cell
DEAE, diethylaminoethyl
∆ (delta), change, change
DFG, Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft
DMEM, Dagbecco's modified Middle Eagle
DMSO, dimethylsulfoxide
DNA, deoxyribonucleic acid
dpc, coitum date (s)
dpf, the date (s) for fertilization
dP / dt, the initial output pressure measured later
dP / dV, pressure per unit change
dpm, disintegration (s) minute
dsDNA, double-stranded DNA
dsRNA, double-stranded RNA
DTT, dithiothreitol
- E:
E1, embryonic day 1 (E2, E3)
EBV, Epstein-Barr virus
EC50, 50% active concentration
ECG, electrocardiogram, electrocardiography
ECL, enhanced chemiluminescence
E. Coli, Escherichia coli
ED50, 50% effective dose
EDTA, ethylenediamine tetraacetic acid
EEG, electroencephalogram
EGF, a characteristic of epidermal growth factor
EGFP, an enhanced GFP
EGFR, EGF receptor
EGTA, ethyleneglycol-bis- (β-aminoethylether) -N, N, N ′, N'-tetraacetic acid
ELISA, an enzyme-linked emunosorbent assay
EMSA, electrophoretic mobility shift assay
ER, endoplasmic retopulum
ERK, an extracellular signal-regulated kinase signal
- F:
F F, degree (s) Fahrenheit
FACS, fluorescence-activated cell sorting
F-actin, Actin filters
FBS, fetal bovine serum
Fc, immortalized fragments [of the immunoglobulin molecule]
FCS, baby calf serum
FDA, Food and Drug Administration
FDR, false discovery rate
FFPE, formalin-fixed, paraffin-embedded
FGF, fibroblast growth factor
FISH, fluorescence in hygridization
FITC, fluorescein isothiocyanate
fl, worried
Fox, Forkhead box
ft, foot, feet
FWER, smart family error rate
- G:
g, gram (s)
g, units (s) of gravity
GABA, γ-aminobutyric acid
GAP, a GTPase-activating protein
GAPDH, glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase
GEF, a guanine nucleotide growth factor
GFP, a light green protein
GM-CSF, a granulocyte macrophage colony-growth factor
GMP, guanosine monophosphate (GDP, GTP)
GPCR, a G protein-coupled receptor
GWAS, a multidisciplinary relationship / case study
Gy, gray (s)
- H:
h, hour (s)
HA, hemagglutinin
HBSS, Hanks' salty solution
HBV, hepatitis B virus
HDL, high lipoprotein
H&E, hematoxylin and eosin
HEPES, N-2-hydroxyethylpiperazine-N'-2-ethanesulfonic acid
HGF, a hepatocyte protein
HIF, an inaccessible hypoxia-factor
HIV, human immunodeficiency virus (HIV-1, HIV-2)
HLA, human leukocyte antigen
HMG, 3-hydroxy-3-methyl-glutaryl
HPLC, liquid chromatography is efficient
HPV, a person's papilloma virus
HR, risk ratio
HRP, peroxidase
HSA, album serum
hsp, a heat shock protein
HUVEC, the vena umbilicalis endothelial cell body
- I:
i, electrical current
IACUC, Committee on Animal Care and Institution
IB, immunoblot
IC50, 50% inhibitory concentration
ICAM, a molecule of intracellular adhesion
ICOS, an inaccessible cost moleculei.c.v., intracerebroventricular (ly)
ID50, 50% inappropriate dose
IDL, a medium-density lipoprotein
IFN, interferon
Ig, immunoglobulin (IgE, IgG)
GF, growth as insulin
IHC, immunohistochemistry
IQB, an inhibitor of NF-κB (IvanoBi, IvanoBβ)
IL, interleukin (IL-12)
e.g., intramuscular (ly)
MDM, Iscove'smodul within the center
in., inch (es)
i.n., intranasal (ly)
INSERM, Institut National de la Santé et de la Recherche Médicale
IP, immunoprecipitation
i.p., intraperitoneal (ly)
QR, filter range
IRB, institutional review board
ISH, in hybridization
IU, units overseas
i.v., intravenous (ly)
- J:
JAK, Janus kinase
JNK, c-Jun NH2-terminal kinase
JUN, Jun protooncogene
- K:
K, degree (s) KelvinKA, regular association
kb, kilobase (s)
kcal, kilocalorie (s)
KD, constant isolation
kDa, kilodalton (s)
KI, regular blocking
Km, Michaelis-Menten Regular
KO, knockout
- L:
L, liter (s)
LD50, 50% deadly dose
LDL, low lipoprotein
accommodation, a measure of discomfort
LPS, a lipopolysaccharide
LUC, luciferase
- M:
m, meters
M, molar
mAb, monoclonal Ab
MALDI, a laser desseltion / ionization designed for a matrix
MAPK, a mitogen-activated protein kinase
Mb, database
2-ME, 2-mercaptoethanol
MEK, MAPK kinase
MEM, Small Eagle Medium Suitable
mEq, milliequivalent (s)
MFI, mean fluorescence intensity
MHC, a posh histocompatility complex
minutes, minutes (minutes)
miRNA, microRNA
mmHg, millimeter (of) of the zebra
MMP, matrix metalloproteinase
mo, month (s)
MOI, recurrence (ies) of infection
mol, im (s)
MOPS, 3- (N-morpholino) propanesulfonic acid
Mr., a relative of cells
MRI, resonance imaging
mRNA, messenger RNA
ms, millisecond (s)
mTOR, a mammalian target of rapamycin
MTT assay, 3- (4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl) -2,5 diphenyl tetrazolium bromide assay
MW, relative molecular mass
Myc, V-mycmyelocytomatosis viral oncogene homolog (avian)
- N:
N, [common] solution
n, number in group
N, total sample sizeNA, it doesn't work
NAD, nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide
NADH, lower the NAD
NADPH, reduced NAD phosphate
NF-κB, a nuclear factor
NIH, World Health Centers
NK, natural killer [cell]
NKT, natural killer T [cell]
NLR, a Nod-like receptor
NMDA, N-methyl-ᴅ-aspartate
NMR, nuclear magnetic flux
no, a number
NOD, a nonobese diabetic
NOR, nonobese resistance
NOS, NO synthase
NP-40, Nonidet P-40
NS, not important
NSAID, an antiinfrance resistant drug
nt, nucleotide (s)
- O:
OCT, correct temperature
OD, optical for humans
OR, the size of the matter
ORF, open reading frame
osm, osmole (s)
OVA, ovalbumin
- P:
P, phosphate (PO4)
P, possible
P1, postnatal day 1 (P2, P3)
PAGE, polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis
PBMC, a blood mononuclear cell
PBS, phosphate-buffered salt
PCR, polymerase chain reaction
PDGF, a platelet-derived protein
PDGFR, PDGF receptor
PECAM, a molecule of platelet-endothelial cell adhesion
PEG, polyethylene glycol
PET, positron emission tomography
PFU, units that make plaques
pg, pics
pH, proton concentration
pI, isoelectric point
PI3K, phosphatidylinositol-3-kinase
PIPES, piperazine-N, N'-bis (2-ethanesulfonic acid)
PKC, protein kinase C (PKA, PKB)
PLC, phospholipase C
PMA, phorbol myristate acetate
PMN, a polymorphonuclear cell
- U:
U, unit(s)
UCD, University of California, Davis
UCLA, University of California, Los Angeles
UCSD, University of California, San Diego
UCSF, University of California, San Francisco
UMP, urophine monophosphate (UDP, UTP)
UTR, unread region
UV, ultraviolet
- V:
V, volt (s)
VCAM, a cell adhesion molecule
VEGF, a vascular endothelial growth factor
VEGFR, a VEGF receptor
VLDL, a very low lipoprotein
Vmax, high speed
vol, volume
vWF, von Willebrand factor
- W:
W, watt (s)
WBC, white blood cell
WHO, World Health Organization
wk, week (s)
WNT, a family type of wireless MTT integration site
wt, weight
WT, wild type
- Y:
yr, year (s)
Redundancies
Redundancies refer to the use of two or more words together that carry the same meaning thus making them repetitious and unnecessary. Redundant words often make communication longer but definitely not better and therefore, must be strictly avoided. In some specific contexts however, some of these phrases may serve a purpose. Although more often than not, these phrases weigh down our writing with unnecessary words and jargon.
Below are some common redundancies in the English language, the words in parentheses are to be omitted to make the phrase correct in meaning:
A
(absolutely) essential
(absolutely) necessary
(actual) facts
Advance (forward)
(advance) planning
(advance) preview
(advance) reservations
(advance) warning
Add (an additional)
Add (up)
(added) bonus
(affirmative) yes
(aid and) abet
(all-time) record
Alternative (choice)
A.M. (in the morning)
(and) etc.
(anonymous) stranger
(annual) anniversary
(armed) gunman
(artificial) prosthesis
Ascend (up)
Ask (the question)
Assemble (together)
Attach (together)
ATM (machine)
Autobiography (of his or her own life)
B
Bald(-headed)
Balsa (wood)
(basic) fundamentals
(basic) necessities
Best (ever)
Biography (of his--or her--life)
Blend (together)
(boat) marina
Bouquet (of flowers)
Brief (in duration)
(brief) moment
(brief) summary
(burning) embers
C
Cacophony (of sound)
Cameo (appearance)
Cancel (out)
(careful) scrutiny
Cash (money)
Cease (and desist)
Circle (around)
Circulate (around)
Classify (into groups)
(close) proximity
(closed) fist
Collaborate (together)
Combine (together)
Commute (back and forth)
Compete (with each other)
(completely) annihilate
(completely) destroyed
(completely) eliminate
(completely) engulfed
(completely) filled
(completely) surround
(component) parts
Confer (together)
Connect (together)
Connect (up)
Confused (state)
Consensus (of opinion)
(constantly) maintained
Cooperate (together)
Could (possibly)
Crisis (situation)
Curative (process)
(current) incumbent
(current) trend
D
Depreciate (in value)
Descend (down)
(desirable) benefits
(different) kinds
Disappear (from sight)
Drop (down)
During (the course of)
Dwindle (down)
E
Each (and every)
Earlier (in time)
Eliminate (altogether)
Emergency (situation)
(empty) hole
Empty (out)
(empty) space
Enclosed (herein)
(end) result
Enter (in)
(entirely) eliminate
Equal (to one another)
Eradicate (completely)
Estimated at (about)
Evolve (over time)
(exact) same
(exposed) opening
Extradite (back)
F
(face) mask
Fall (down)
(favorable) approval
(fellow) classmates
(fellow) colleague
Few (in number)
Filled (to capacity)
(final) conclusion
(final) end
(final) outcome
(final) ultimatum
(first and) foremost
(first) conceived
First (of all)
Fly (through the air)
Follow (after)
(foreign) imports
(former) graduate
(former) veteran
(free) gift
(from) whence
(frozen) ice
(frozen) tundra
Full (to capacity)
(full) satisfaction
Fuse (together)
(future) plans
(future) recurrence
G
Gather (together)
(general) public
GOP (party)
GRE (exam)
Green [or blue or whatever] (in colour)
Grow (in size)
H
Had done (previously)
(harmful) injuries
(head) honcho
Heat (up)
HIV (virus)
Hoist (up)
(hollow) tube
Hurry (up)
I
(illustrated) drawing
Incredible (to believe)
Indicted (on a charge)
Input (into)
Integrate (together)
Integrate (with each other)
Interdependent (on each other)
Introduced (a new)
Introduced (for the first time)
(ir)regardless
ISBN (number)
J
Join (together)
(joint) collaboration
K
Kneel (down)
(knowledgeable) experts
L
Lag (behind)
Later (time)
LCD (display)
Lift (up)
(little) baby
(live) studio audience
(live) witness
(local) residents
Look (ahead) to the future
Look back (in retrospect)
M
Made (out) of
(major) breakthrough
(major) feat
Manually (by hand)
May (possibly)
Meet (together)
Meet (with each other)
(mental) telepathy
Merge (together)
Might (possibly)
Minestrone (soup)
Mix (together)
Modern ______ (of today)
(mutual) cooperation
(mutually) interdependent
Mutual respect (for each other)
(number-one) leader in ________
N
Nape (of her neck)
(native) habitat
(natural) instinct
Never (before)
(new) beginning
(new) construction
(new) innovation
(new) invention
(new) recruit
None (at all)
Nostalgia (for the past)
(now) pending
O
Off (of)
(old) adage
(old) cliche
(old) custom
(old) proverb
(open) trench
Open (up)
(oral) conversation
(originally) created
Output (out of)
(outside) in the yard
Outside (of)
(over) exaggerate
Over (with)
(overused) cliché
P
(pair of) twins
Palm (of the hand)
(passing) fad
(past) experience
(past) history
(past) memories
(past) records
Penetrate (into)
Period (of time)
(personal) friend
(personal) opinion
Pick (and choose)
PIN (number)
Pizza (pie)
Plan (ahead)
Plan (in advance)
(Please) RSVP
Plunge (down)
(polar) opposites
(positive) identification
Postpone (until later)
Pouring (down) rain
(pre)board (as an airplane)
(pre)heat
(pre)record
(private) industry
(present) incumbent
Present (time)
Previously listed (above)
Proceed (ahead)
(proposed) plan
Protest (against)
Pursue (after)
R
Raise (up)
RAM (memory)
Reason is (because)
Reason (why)
Recur (again)
Re-elect (for another term)
Refer (back)
Reflect (back)
(regular) routine
Repeat (again)
Reply (back)
Retreat (back)
Revert (back)
Rise (up)
Round (in shape)
S
(safe) haven
(safe) sanctuary
Same (exact)
(sand) dune
Scrutinize (in detail)
Self-______ (yourself)
Separated (apart from each other)
(serious) danger
Share (together)
(sharp) point
Shiny (in appearance)
Shut (down)
(single) unit
Skipped (over)
Slow (speed)
Small (size)
(small) speck
Soft (in texture) [or (to the touch)]
Sole (of the foot)
Spell out (in detail)
Spliced (together)
Start (off) or (out)
(still) persists
(still) remains
(sudden) impulse
(sum) total
Surrounded (on all sides)
T
Tall (in height)
Tall (in stature)
(temper) tantrum
Ten (in number)
Three a.m. (in the morning)
(three-way) love triangle
Time (period)
(tiny) bit
(total) destruction
(true) facts
(truly) sincere
Tuna (fish)
(twelve) noon or midnight
(two equal) halves
U
(ultimate) goal
Undergraduate (student)
(underground) subway
(unexpected) emergency
(unexpected) surprise
(unintentional) mistake
(universal) panacea
(unnamed) anonymous
UPC (code)
(usual) custom
V
Vacillate (back and forth)
(veiled) ambush
(very) pregnant
(very) unique
Visible (to the eye)
W
(wall) mural
Warn (in advance)
Weather (conditions)
Weather (situation)
Whether (or not)
(white) snow
Write (down)
Clichés
Clichés are those words or phrases which have been used repeatedly over time and because of this overuse they have lost their impact.
The word cliché can be traced to its French origin, which is why you'll often see it with an accent over the "e," but you can also write it as "cliche" in English. When printing presses were used, the cast iron plate that reproduced the words, phrases, or images was called a stereotype. The noise that casting plate made sounded like "cliché," meaning click, to French printers, so this onomatopoeia word became printer's jargon for the stereotype. Thus, cliché came to mean a word or phrase that gets repeated often.
Just because a phrase is overused doesn't mean it's a cliché, and because a phrase is a cliché doesn't mean it isn't true. A cliché will convey meaning but often loses its point along the way through over-usage. Below are some common English Clichés:
Common Cliché Sayings
All that glitters isn't gold
Don't get your knickers in a twist
All for one, and one for all
Kiss and make up
He has his tail between his legs
And they all lived happily ever after
Cat got your tongue?
Read between the lines
Someone woke up on the wrong side of the bed
We're not laughing at you we're laughing with you
Clichés that Describe Time
Only time will tell
In the nick of time
Lost track of time
Lasted an eternity
Just a matter of time
A waste of time
Time flies
In a jiffy
The time of my life
At the speed of light
Clichés that Describe People
As old as the hills
Fit as a fiddle
Without a care in the world
A diamond in the rough
Brave as a lion
Weak as a kitten
Had nerves of steel
Ugly as sin
Clichés that Describe Life, Love, and Emotions
Opposites attract
Every cloud has a silver lining
Don't cry over spilled milk
The calm before the storm
Laughter is the best medicine
Love you more than life itself
Scared out of my wits
Frightened to death
All is fair in love and war
All's well that ends well
Haste makes waste
The writings on the wall
Time heals all wounds
What goes around comes around
When life gives you lemons, make lemonade
Head over heels in love
Gut-wrenching pain
Heart-stopping fear
Below are the disadvantages of using clichés:
Clichés are normally now not suitable in educational writing, despite the fact that a few may be effective in each day conversation and less formal writing. Examine the context of your writing and be aware that you’re creating a desire when you use them.
Clichés make you seem uninteresting. Through the usage of a cliché, you’re telling your reader that you lack originality, making them want to yawn and prevent analysing your paper.
Clichés make your writing and argument interchangeable with absolutely everyone else’s. Make sure that your argument and writing are specific to you and your writing venture.
Clichés are indistinct. It is best to apply the most particular wording so that it will present proof and aid your arguments as genuinely as viable. Particular info and motives make better proof than generalizations and trite phrases.
Clichés make you appear lazy. They're a hedge when you don’t want to do innovative paintings.
Clichés make you lose credibility. Your reader will not trust you as an authoritative supply if you can’t give you a higher description than a cliché.
Clichés are terrible substitutes for actual proof. Because clichés aren't particular, they do no longer provide robust enough commentary to prove your point. Make certain that every sentence of your paper is operating in the direction of a aim with the aid of eliminating meaningless terms.
Intensive Reading
Intensive reading is a type of reading where testing, evaluating and increasing knowledge is the primary focus. Understanding the literal meaning of what’s being read is vital. The process of intensive reading often includes note-taking and paying attention to subtle details.
Intensive reading consists of emphasis on deconstructing sentences to understand grammar and syntax rules as well as to extricate the details of the topic. Reading comprehension is also tested through intensive reading, such as finding answers to specific questions.
Types of intensive reading materials may include reports, contracts, news articles, blog posts and short pieces of text such as short stories.
Extensive Reading
There is a vast difference between Intensive reading and extensive reading.
Extensive reading implies readying just for the joy of reading. Like riding a bicycle or dancing, when you know it won’t matter if you don’t get the gears shifted perfectly or your dance steps don’t hit every downbeat.
Extensive reading is essentially reading for pleasure. And it involves reading it as frequently as possible.
Unlike Intensive reading, fluency and total comprehension aren’t necessary for extensive reading. It is advisable to read below a comfortable level of understanding in extensive reading. Most of the time, an unfamiliar word can be deciphered by the surrounding text and if not, that’s fine, too. It’s not essential in extensive reading to understand every single word in order to get the general idea of a particular passage. It’s a general assumption that 90-95% of the words should be familiar in order to read comfortably in any language. And therefore, it may not even be difficult to understand a text without having all that vocabulary in our toolboxes. Guessing or trying to understand the meaning of words and phrases, especially when reading extensively, may be beneficial as well.
The idea behind extensive reading is that increased exposure leads to stronger language skills. Think of the vocabulary you’re being exposed to when you read a lot. And seeing the structure, idioms and cadence of a language leads to familiarity, which leads to reading competence.
When extensive reading is concerned, it’s all about practice. The more you read the better you get.
Types of extensive reading material include magazines, graded readers, novels and even comic books.
Writing Introduction and Conclusion
The introductions and conclusions can be hard to write, but worth the time to invest. They can have an important impact on your student's readership of the paper. Since introduction serves as a bridge that transports the readers from their lives to the “point” of analysis, conclusion can provide a bridge to help students make the transition back to their daily lives.
The introductions and conclusions play a special role in any form of writing, and often draws the attention of the reader. A good introduction should identify the topic, provide important context, and indicate the specific focus on the essay. It also requires engaging students’ interest. A strong ending will provide a sense of closure to the story while also bringing the ideas to a wider context.
INTRODUCTION
Role of Introduction
Introductions and conclusions can be the most difficult parts of a paper to write. Usually when you sit down and respond to an assignment, at least have some idea of what you want to say in the body of the paper. You may choose a few examples that you want to use or have an idea that will helps to answer the main question of your assignment; these parts, therefore, may not be difficult to write. And it's nice to book it first! But in your final draft, these pieces of paper may come out of thin air; they need to be presented and behaved in a way that makes sense to the student.
Introduction and conclusion serve as bridges that move your readers into their lives in the “realm” of analysis. If students take the paper about education in Frederick Douglass's autobiography, example, they need a revolution to help them leave the world of Chapel Hill, television, email, and the Daily Tar Heel and help them temporarily enter the nineteenth-century American world of slavery. By providing an introduction that helps readers make the transition between their world and the issues written about, giving readers the tools, they need to get into the topic and care about what is said. Similarly, once wrapping the students with an introduction and provided evidence to prove the thesis, conclusion can provide a bridge to help students make the change back into their daily lives.
Note that what constitutes a good introduction may vary depending on the type of paper written and the academic discipline written for it. If not sure what kind of introduction is expected, ask the instructor.
Importance of a Good Introduction
The first paragraph of the paper will give readers a first impression of the argument, the writing style, and the overall quality of the work. A vague, random presentation, full of errors, a wall, or a developing introduction may create a negative impression. On the other hand, a short, fun, and well-written introduction will start readers not thinking too much about writer's analytical skills, writing, and the paper.
Introduction is an important road map throughout the paper. It conveys a wealth of information to readers. Can let them know what the topic is, why it's important, and how it is planned to continue the discussion. In most academic disciplines, introduction should contain a thesis that will enhance the main argument.
Introduction should also give the reader a sense of the types of information to use to make that argument with the general organization of the paragraphs and pages to follow. After reading introduction, readers should not have any major surprises in store when reading the main body of the paper.
Ideally, introduction will make readers want to read the paper. The introduction should spark the interest of readers, making them want to read the rest of the paper. Opening up with a compelling story, an interesting question, or a clear example can get readers to see why the topic is important and serves as an invitation for them to join you in informative discussions (remember, however, that these strategies will not be appropriate for all papers and advice).
Techniques for writing an effective introduction:
The entire article will be the answer to this question, and presentation is the first step to that. Your specific answer to the assigned question will be your thesis, and your opinion will be at the center of your introduction, so it is a good idea to use the question as an exit point.
Try writing your introduction eventually. You may think that you should write your introduction first, but that's not true, and it's not the most effective way to create a good introduction. You may find that you do not know exactly what to argue at the beginning of the writing process. It is best to start thinking that you want to argue a point but intensify the argument with something very small or very different when you have written a lot of paper. The writing process can be an important way of organizing your ideas, thinking about complex problems, refining your ideas, and developing complex issues. However, the introduction written at the beginning of that acquisition process will not reflect what you experience in the end. You will need to review your paper to make sure that the introduction, all the evidence, and conclusion reflect the argument you intend. Sometimes it is easy to write all your evidence first and then write the introduction at the end - thus making sure the introduction will fit the body of the paper.
Don’t be afraid to write a tentative introduction first and change it over time. Some people find that they need to write some kind of introduction in order for the writing process to begin. Okay, but if you're one of those people, make sure you go back to your original introduction later and rewrite if necessary.
Open with something that will draw readers in. Consider these options (bearing in mind that they may not be suitable for all types of paper):
A fascinating example - Douglass, for example, writes about a young woman who first taught her but then supported her teaching as she learned more about slavery.
A controversial quote that is closely linked to your argument - for example, Douglass writes that "education and slavery were incompatible." (Famous quotes, inspirational quotes, etc. They may not work well for a reading paper; in this case, the rating is from the author himself.)
A bright and perhaps unexpected anecdote - for example, "While studying slavery in the history of American history at Frederick Douglass High School, students learn the roles of slaves, the impact of slavery on their families, and the laws that govern their lives. Mary, raising her hand and asking, 'But when did they get to school?' Those high school students of today who cannot afford to exclude an American child without formal education speak volumes about the value of education for American youth today and also highlights the importance of education reduction in previous generations. "
A thought-provoking question - for example, given all the freedoms denied to enslaved people in the American South, why did Frederick Douglass focus on his most important line in education and writing?
Pay close attention to your first sentence. Start with the right foot of your readers by making sure that the first sentence is actually saying something useful and that you did it in a fun and easy way.
CONCLUSION
The Role of Conclusion
A good conclusion will help readers see why all the analysis and information should be important to them after they have put the text down.
Your conclusion is your chance to have the final word on the matter. The conclusion allows you to have the final say on the issues you raised on your paper, to combine your thoughts, to show the importance of your ideas, and to give your reader a fresh look at the subject. It is also your chance to make a good final impression and end on a positive note.
Your conclusion should make your readers happy that they are reading your paper. Your conclusion offers your reader something to remove that will help them to see things differently or to inform your topic in appropriate ways. It can promote broad outcomes that will not only please your student, but also enrich your student's life in some way. It is your gift to the reader.
Features of a Conclusion
- A conclusion is not just a summary of your points or a statement of your thesis. If you wish to summarize - and often should - do so in a new language. Remind the reader how the evidence you have contributed has contributed to your goals.
- The conclusion, like the rest of the paper, involves critical thinking. Consider the significance of what you wrote. Try to convey the thoughts in the end about the great consequences of your argument.
- Focus your attention a bit on the end of the article. A good last sentence leaves your reader with something to think about, in some way illuminated by what you wrote on the paper.
- In many books, one well-formed paragraph is sufficient for a conclusion. In some cases, the conclusion of two or three paragraphs may be appropriate. As a presentation, the length of the conclusion should reflect the length of the description.
Techniques for Writing an Effective Conclusion:
- Play the “So” game. If you are frustrated and feel that your destiny is nothing new or exciting, ask your friend to read it with you. Every time you make a statement in your conclusion, ask a friend, "Now what?" or "Why should anyone care?"
Here's how it could go: You: Basically, I'm just saying that education is important to Douglass. Friend: So what? You: Well, it was important because it was important for her to feel a free and equal citizen. Friend: Why should anyone care? You: That is important because plantation owners try to prevent slaves from being educated so that they can control. When Douglass received his education, he undermined that control himself. You can use this strategy yourself, wondering "So what?" as you develop your ideas or framework.
- Return to the theme or theme in the introduction. This strategy brings a full circle of students. For example, if you start by describing a situation, you may end up with the same situation as evidence that your article is helping to build new understanding. You can also refer to the introductory section by using keywords or similar concepts and images that you have used in the introduction.
- Synchronize, without limiting. Include a brief summary of the main points of the paper, but you can simply duplicate the contents of your paper. Instead, show your reader how the points you used and the support and examples you have used relate to each other. Pull it all together.
- Include a billing insight or quote from the research or study you created for your paper.
- Suggest a course of action, a solution to a problem, or a question of learning progress. This can redirect your student's learning process and help him apply your insights and ideas to his life or to see wider results.
- Point to general meetings. For example, if your paper examines Greensboro sit-ins or any other event in the Civil Rights Movement, you can mention its impact on the Civil Rights Movement as a whole. A paper about the style of author Virginia Woolf may reveal her influence on other writers or on later women.
- Do’s and Don’ts’s of Writing a Conclusion
- Starting with unnecessary, overused words such as "end," "summarize," or "close." Although these insurances may apply to speeches, they do come across as wooden and deceit in writing.
- Emphasize the thesis for the first time in the conclusion.
- Introducing a new idea or subtopic into your conclusion.
- Try keeping with a rewritten thesis statement without major changes.
- Don’t make emotional arguments that are not relevant to the rest of the review paper.
- Include proofs (quotes, statistics, etc.) that were on the body of the paper.
Essay Writing
Dimension of Essay Writing
There are many types of essays and papers you can write as a student. The content and length of the essay varies depending on your level, subject of study, and the requirements of a particular course.
However, many subject bodies share the same goal. They aim to convince students of a position or perspective through informed, evidence-based, analytical and interpretive debates.
In addition, every story has an introduction, body and ending that always do the same or few things.
Essay Writing Process:
The essay writing process consists of three stages: preparation, writing and revision. These categories apply to each article or paper. However, the time and energy spent in each category depends on the sort of essay, for instance a private statement, a press release of intent, a high school essay or a grad school essay.
Preparation:
- Understand the assignment
- Understand your audience
- Select a topic
- Do some initial research
- Name the thesis statement
- Create an outline
Writing:
- Write an introduction
- Organize your arguments and give evidence
- Write the conclusion
Review:
- Analyse the organization
- Review the content of each paragraph
- Proofread for language errors
- Check for plagiarism
Introduction of an Essay:
The introduction is important to both capture the reader's interest and inform them of what will be found in the story. The introduction usually contains 10-20% of the text. To learn how to write an article introduction, first become familiar with its most important objectives.
- Move your student by chasing curiosity and curiosity:
The first sentence of the introduction should draw your student's wish. This sentence is sometimes referred to as a hook. It can be a question, quote, a surprising number, or a bold statement that emphasizes the importance of a topic.
Let's say you write an article about the development of Braille (a literacy program used by the visually impaired). A boat can be something like:
The introduction of Braille marked the biggest turning point in the history of disability.
- Provide background and context for your topic:
After you dismiss the student, it is important to provide context that will help your student understand your argument. This may include providing background information, providing an overview of important academic work or arguments on a topic, as well as explaining difficult words. Do not give too many details in the introduction - you can adequately describe the content of your essay.
- Explain the purpose and create a thesis statement:
Next, you have to explain your basic argument or thesis statement. The thesis statement provides focus and reflects your position on the topic. Usually one or two sentences long. An example of a thesis statement from Braille essay can be seen as follows:
The idea of orthopaedics was not entirely new; Louis Braille adapted simple ways to create the first system for writing to the blind. But its success depended on the reception of people who had sinned before the social status of blindness was reversed, and the process was shaped by widespread debates about the place of people with disabilities in society.
- Provide a content map:
Finish the introduction with an overview of your site structure. An overview should give the reader a general idea of what each paragraph of your article is examining.
The Body of the Essay:
The theme of your article is when you make arguments that support your thesis statement, provide evidence, and develop your ideas. His main purpose is to present, interpret and analyse the information and sources you have gathered to support your argument.
- Length of body text:
The length of the body depends on the type of description. On average, the body comprises 60-80% of your material. In a high school essay, this can be just three paragraphs, but with a 6,000-word graduate essay, the body can take 8-10 pages.
- Section layout/Paragraph Structure:
In order to give your essay a clear structure, it is important to use paragraphs and topics. This makes the content unwanted and easy to digest. Each section should focus on a point of view or a single point of view.
The purpose of each paragraph is presented using topic sentences. The topic clause creates a transition from the previous paragraph and informs the argument to be made in this paragraph. Change words can be used to create smooth transitions between sentences.
After the topic sentence, demonstrate evidence by providing the reader with data, examples or quotes. Be sure to interpret and explain the evidence, and show how the paragraph helps improve your overall argument.
Conclusion of an Essay:
Conclusion The last paragraph of the article or paper. It takes about 10-20% of your article. Strong conclusion:
- Draws connections between the arguments made in the body of the story.
- State the consequences of your argument.
- Emphasize the importance and importance of a thesis statement of policy, education or the wider world.
- Evaluates key findings and the importance of the topic
A good conclusion should end with a memorable or impactful sentence that emphasizes the importance of your work and leaves the reader with a strong final impression.
What you should not do is enter the end
To make the end of your article as strong as possible, there are a few things you should avoid including. The most common errors are:
Includes new argument or evidence.
Minimize your conflicts (e.g. "This is one way for many").
Concluding phrases such as “Cheating…” or “Conclusion…” are used.
How to write an essay
- The story begins with a hook that catches your reader's interest.
- Introduction provides background and context that help your reader understand the topic.
- The introduction contains a thesis statement that provides focus and reflects your position on the topic.
- Paragraphs and titles are used for story planning.
- Each paragraph deals with a single idea, debate or issue.
- Subject sentences are used to create a smooth transition between paragraphs.
- The conclusion is not only brief, but draws a link between issues.
- The significance of the thesis statement is emphasized in the conclusion.
- Conclusion does not contain new ideas, arguments or evidence.
Precis Writing
The term precis comes from a French word “précis”, which can be translated as "precise, clear, up to the point”. Therefore, the word precis in the context of writing means a summary of any writing piece, be it a book, an article, or a novel. What is typical while writing a precis is the outline of the main points and arguments presented in the given text. A precis does not contain a deep or critical analysis of the text, but it nevertheless objectively explains the situation narrated in a text.
Precis vs. Summary
A precis and a summary are quite similar to each other but they do contain certain major differences which set them apart. Below are the two main differences between a precis and a summary:
- A summary consists of a number of brief statements which covers the main points of the text. It has no pre-defined word limit. A precis on the other hand, has its own title and should be 1/3 of the total words of the original passage.
- A summary is a sort of general overview of the contents of a passage. Here only the main events in the passage are discussed. A precis, however, focuses on every detail and analyses a particular situation.
Rules
Below are the fundamental rules to be followed while writing a precis:
- Understand the theme of the passage
The first and the most important thing is to thoroughly read and comprehend the purpose of the passage. Once you understand the theme, it is easier to grasp the key ideas in the passage, which will help you remember them while writing the precis.
b. No copying from the passage
It is important in precis writing to use your own words and not copy from the passage. If you find certain sentences in the passage that you would like to incorporate in your precis, you need to understand them and then craft that sentence in your own words. Key words can be used but entire sentences should always be avoided.
c. Carry clarity and conciseness
One of the most fundamental rules of writing a precis is clarity. The sentences should be clear, concise, meaningful and too the point. They should reflect the central ideas from the passage.
d. A reflection of your intelligence
The precis should be written in such a way that it flaunts your writing skills. The use of language, vocabulary and structure of sentences should be perfect. A good precis will provide the readers a good impression of your writing skills and it will also make the precis comprehensible to the readers.
e. Be original
Each and every sentence in the precis should be one's own creation with no plagiarism whatsoever. If you find a significant idea or motif from the passage that you want to include in your precis, read the passage again and again and try to re-construct the idea from your memory using your own words.
f. Use of indirect speech
A precis must always be written in indirect speech since it employs the perspective of a third person. Direct speech leaves a personal impact and should be avoided while writing a precis.
g. Use facts and statistics
To maintain the credibility of the text, try to include all the numbers and facts you read in the text. It will also help you enhance the quality of your writing and will build the interest of the reader in your precis. Therefore, any of the facts and numbers should not be missed while writing the Precis.
h. An analysis of the various sections
Divide the text into sections and try to analyse each section carefully. A careful analysis of each section will let you draw in closer to the main themes and concepts in the text. Further, you can only mention the crucial content of the passage, if you have read it thoroughly and have identified the areas which carry high proportional value.
i. An interpretation of the original passage
Always conclude the passage by providing your own understand instead of the writer's perspective. The conclusion has to be from your own point of view but should still be in the third person as if spoken by a third party. It is your interpretation of the text that gives meaning to the precis.
j. The size of the precis
The size of a precis should always be one third of the original passage. While writing the precis one should always be aware of the word count but one should also be able to retain the individuality of the passage in the prescribed word limit.
Precis Format
A precis should be short and concise and comprises of three parts: The introduction, the main body and the conclusion.
The Introduction
- The introductory sentence of a precis should mention the author’s name along with the article/book title. It should also include the date of publishing in parenthesis. After that, the topic that you want to discuss in your precis has to be elaborated using a few key words. Extravagant detailing of the topic should be avoided.
- In the introduction, try to include a rhetorical verb outlining the author’s primary purpose (e.g., “assert,” “argue,” “deny,” “refute,” “prove,” disprove,” “explain”). This will give a strong definition to the facts and concepts you are about to present in the main body of your precis.
- It is important to include the thesis statement of the text in the introduction. A thesis statement is the main idea or crux of a particular text. This thesis statement will be elaborated in the main body by providing facts and evidences in its favour.
The Main Body
- The main body should include clarification of how the author formulates and further explains the main themes in the text. It should be informative enough to incite the reader's interest and short enough to retain that interest.
- It should include a sentence that states the purpose of the author in writing the text. Phrases such as “in order” are helpful in developing this sentence.
- Describe how the author establishes his connection with the readers. Always keep the audience for whom you are writing in mind while writing a precis. This includes the using vocabulary and structuring sentences according to the needs of your audience.
- All key points and arguments must be contained in this section.
The Conclusion
- Present a finishing remark of 2-3 sentences to shed light on the author’s intended idea for the book or passage.
- Give a 1-sentence restatement of the major claim which the author used to develop their evidence in the reading.
Steps for Writing a Precis
Below are the steps involved in writing a precis
Step 1: As discussed, the very first step of Precis writing is to form a clear understanding of the passage. You should fully acquaint yourself with the subject first in order to get the meaning behind a passage before starting to write a precis.
Step 2: While reading the content, make sure you highlight the important points of the passage. It will help you in keeping track of the important information that needs to be written in your Precis. Also, you should omit the information, which you feel is not important for your Precis.
Step 3: Further, you need to remember that logical ordering is highly important when it comes to precis writing. Additionally, a logically organised text helps in making things much clearer to your audience and they tend to understand your take in a processed way.
Step 4: If you have some names to be mentioned in your Precis, remember, they should be with the designations, as it helps to increase the credibility of the content. In case, the designations are not mentioned in the passage, you can write the first name.
Step 5: Moving on, the word count of the passage should be considered, because one- third of the same has to be written in Precis. Therefore, conducting a word count before beginning the precis could be beneficial.
Step 6: Now, prepare the draft of your Precis by jotting all the important points together. While writing always remember to maintain the flow of your concepts and you should not miss any important information you have gathered while reading the passage.
Step 7: Before finally submitting your Precis, make sure you review all the details carefully. Also, you must do a thorough check of your grammatical and structural errors. Furthermore, one thing not to miss is to mention the total count in a bracket after the end point of your Precis.