Unit – 1

‘The Raman Effect’ from the prescribed textbook ‘English for Engineers’ published by Cambridge University Press.

1.1.          The Concept of Word Formation – The Use of Prefixes and Suffixes

Word Formation

Word formation simply means creation of a new word by changing its meaning or by changing its form. 

There are two ways by which new words can be formed, first by adding a prefix to the root of the word which generally changes the meaning of the word completely, sometimes by emphasis and other times by creating antonyms, whereas suffixes usually alter the form of a word, changing its behaviour in a sentence.

Prefixes are a group of letters that are added at the beginning of a word and suffixes are a group of letters that are added at the end of a word

Below are examples of some commonly used prefixes with their meanings:

Below are some examples of the most commonly used suffixes with the change in forms of words:

English vocabulary has been enriched from time to time from other languages. New words are either borrowed or coined. Roughly 70% of the words in English are borrowed or coined. T.C. Baruah says "A word says "A word is the smallest meaningful unit of sound. Every language has its own distinct patterns of combining morphemes to get larger units.

A form to which a rule of word-formation applied is called a base. Once a base has undergone a rule of word-formation the derived word itself may become the base for another, deviation and by re-application. It is possible to derive words of considerable morphological and semantic complexity. There are three major processes by which the base is modified. They are:

1. Affixation
2. Conversion
3. Compounding

There are some other minor devices also called reduplication, clipping blending and acronym.

AFFIXATION: Prefixes and Suffixes
 

Change is the forte of any living language. Affixes are those used to form new words. These affixes are added either before or after the base form. It is of two types. Prefixation and suffixation.

Prefixes

The fixes that are added before the base form are called prefixes. A prefix is a syllable or syllables placed at the beginning of a word to qualify its meaning and form a new word. It has its origin from Greek, Latin and Native English.

The prefixes are classified as follows:

• Negative Prefixes
• Reversative Prefixes
• Pejorative Prefixes
• Prefixes of Degree or size
• Prefixes of Attitude
• Locative Prefixes
• Prefixes of time and order
• Number Prefixes
• Other prefixes
• Conversion prefixes

     Negative Prefixes:

a) The negative prefix'- 'in' is used-with words of Latin origin –‘Un’ is found in English Unfortunate, injustice.

b) The exact opposite meaning is brought by the prefix – dislike, disloyal.

c) Latin and French non-meaning not is used Non-violence, non-committal.

d) A-means lacking, a moral, asymmetry.

     Reversative Prefixes:

a) Un - means to 'reverse action. Added to verbs (Reverse of Action) untie, unseat, unload.

b) de - means to reverse action added to abstract noun defrost, deforestation.

c) dis - to deprive of' is added to verbs, participles and nouns. Disconnect, discoloured, discontent.

     Pejorative Prefixes:

Depreciatory means diminish in value.

a) mis– wrongly
misinform, misconduct, misleading

b) mal - means 'badly
mal treat, mal function, mal formed, malodorous

c) Pseudo means false
Pseudopodia, pseudo-intellectual

     Prefixes of Degree or size:

a) Arch - highest, chief
Archbishop

b) Super - means above, more than, better
superman, super market, supernatural

c) Out - means to do something, faster, longer
Out run, out live

d) Sur - means over and above
surtax

e) Sub - means lower than, less than
sub human, substandard, subordinate

f) Over -too much
over real, over dressed, over confident

g) under - means too little
undertook

h) Ultra - means extremely
ultraviolet, ultra-modern

i) Mini - means small or little
miniskirt

     Prefixes of Attitude:

a) co - with or joint
co-operative, co pilot

b) Counter - means in opposition to
countuant, counter-revolution

c) Anti means against
Antisocial, anticlockwise, antimissile.

d) Pro- means of the side of
Pro-communist

     Locative Prefixes:

Super –Over - super structure

Sub -means beneath - subway subconscious

Inter means between - international interaction

Trans - means across - transplant, translation

     Prefixes of time and order:

Fore - -means before - fore tell

Post - means after - post-war Ex-means former

Pre - means before - pre-war, pre-planned

Ex – means former - ex-minister

Re - means again - rebuild, resettlement, rewrite

     Number Prefixes:

Uni, mono means one - unilateral, monotheism

Bi, di means two - bi lingual, dipole

Tri means three - tripartite

Poly, multi means many - multi racial, poly syllabic

     Other Prefixes:

Semi means half - Semi circle

Vice means deputy - Vice president

Auto means self - Auto biography

Neo means new - neo-gothic

Pan means world wide - Pan-American

Proto means first - prototype.

     Conversion Prefixes:

Be, en and a

Be spectated (Participle adjective)

Bewitch (transitive verb)

Enslave (verb) afloat (adjective)

Below is a list of most prefixes in the English language listed alphabetically:

A
a-, ab-, absent-: from, away from
a-, an-: at, in, on; by way, condition, or condition

a-, an-: not, without, lack
acanth-, acantho-: spiny, thorn
acous-: sensation
s-, acro-: high; the end, the end
aden-, adeno-: gland
adren-, adreno-: adrenal gland
aer-, aero-: air, gas
all-, allo-: other, different
alti-, alto-: up
am-, amb-, ambi-, am-: both sides; all around; about
amyl-, amylo-: starch
has: also; absolutely, absolutely
an-, an-: up, up; back, back
andr-, andro-: man; the male
anem-, anem-: spirit
ant-, ante-: before, before, before; before the
anthrop-, anthropo-: man
anti-, ant-, anth-: against, opposite; to fight, to defend
api-: bee
where-, ap-: away; from; it is related
aqui-, aqua-: water
arbor-, arbori-: a tree
arch-, history-: chief, principal, superior; too much
arche-, archeo-, archaeo-: archaeo-: ancient, ancient
arteri-, arterio-: artery
arthr-, arthro-: combined
star-, astro-, aster-: star
atmo-: steam
audio-: hearing, sound
auto-: to move them
avi-: a bird
az-, azo-: nitrogenous
 

B
bacci-: a bear
bacteri, bacterio-: viruses
bar-, baro-: weight, pressure
bath-, person-, bath-: depth, depth
were: cause, cause; to take from
they were: on, over; against, beyond; completely, excessively
bi-, bio-: life, living
bi-, bis-: double, double, double, double
biblio-: book
blephar-, blepharo-: eyelid, eyelid
bracchio-: arm
brachy-: short
brevi-: short
bronch-, broncho-, bronchi-, bronchio-: throat, lungs
 

C
caco-: evil
calci-: lime
Cardio-: heart
carpo-: fruit
cat-, cata-, cathe-, cato-: down, down, down; against; perfection, absolute, absolute
cen-, ceno-: new, recently
centi-: one hundred
cephal-, cephalo-: head
cerebro-: brain
cervic-, cervico-, cervici-: neck
chiro-: hand
chlor-, chloro-: green
chol-, chole-, cholo-: bile
chondr-, chondri-, chondro-: cartilage
choreo-: dancing
choro-: country
chrom-, chromo-, chromato-: color, colored
chron-, chrono-: time
chrys-, chryso-: gold
Circ-, circ-: round, approx
cirr-, cirri-, cirro-: curl
cis-: in this direction; nearby
cleisto-: closed
con ,, co-, cog-, col-, com-, cor-: and, with; absolutely, absolutely
contradiction-: against, opposed, contrasted, opposite
cosmo-: the atmosphere
counter-: against, and against; hold on
cranio-: skull
cruci-: cross
cry-, cryo-: cold
crypt-, crypto-: hidden
cupro-: copper; of copper
cyst-, cysti-, cysto-: bladder, adj
cyt-, cyto-: cell
dactyl-, dactylo-: finger, toe
 

D
de-: down, from, parting; not; backwards remove; find; taken
deca-, deci-, dec-, deka-, dek-: ten
demi-: half, part of
dent-, dent-, dento-: tooth
dentro-: three
derm-, derma- dermo-: skin
deut-, deuto-, deutero-: second
dextr-, dextro-: right side
di-: two
dia-, di-: through, across
digit-, digiti-: finger
dipl-, diplo-: twice, twice
dis-: remove, delete; do the opposite
dis-, dif-, di-: not, opposite; out; two
dodeca-, dodec-: twelve
dors-, dorsi-, dorso-: back of body
dyna-, dynamo-: power, power
dys-, dis-: bad, hard, hard; evil; extraordinary
Yes
echin-, echino-: spine
ect-, ecto-: out, out
ef-, e-, ec-: out, not, out
el-, em-, en-: in, thing, in, in
en-, em-: cause, to do; to round, to cover
encephal-, encephalo-: brain
end-, endo-: in, in
ennea-: nine
ent-, ento-: in, in
enter-, entero-: intestines
entomo-: insect
that is: early, old
epi-, ep-: on, on, sideways, over; externally, externally; on time
equality: equals, alike
erg-, ergo-: work
erythr-, erythro-: red
ethno-: race, nation
at: good, good; the truth
ex-, exo-: from; out, out, out, out; out; the former
over-: out, out; besides, excessive, extra, different
 

F
febri-: fever
Ferri-, Ferro-: iron
Fibr-, fibro-: similar to fibrous
fissi-: divide
fluvio-: river
because-: not; against, forward; far; prohibited
before-: before, in advance; in front, the front part of
 

G
to achieve:
galact-, galacto-: milk
gam-, gamo-: together; to imitate
gastr-, gastro-, gastri-: stomach, food
ge-, geo-: earth, earth
gem-, gemmi-: hl
geront-, geronto-: aging
gloss-, glosso-: tongue; the language
gluc-, gluco-, glyc-: sweet
glypto-, glyph-: carpentry
gon-, gono-: to be born again
grapho-: to write
exercise-, exercise-: naked
gynec-, gyneco-, gynaec-, gynaeco-: wife
hagi-, hagio-: holy
 

H
hal-, halo-: salt, sea
hapl-, haplo-: simple, single
hect-, hecto-: hundred
heli-, helio-: sun
helic-, helico-: Spinning
hem-, hemo-, haem-, haem-, haem-, hema-: blood
hemi-: half
hepat-, hepato-: liver
hepta-, hept-: seven
hetero-, heter-: unique, opposite, strange, strange; someone else
hexa-, hex-: six
history-, histo-: tissue
hodo-: path, path
hol-, holo-: complete, complete, complete
home-, homo-, homeo-: same, same, same
hydr-, hydro-: water, liquid
hyet-, hyeto-: rain
hygr-, hygro-: wet
hyl-, hylo-: matter
hymeno-: membrane
hyp-, hypo-: under, under; imperfection, under
hyper-: over, over, over, over; over 3 sizes
hypn-, hypno-: to sleep
hypso-: high
hyster-, hystero-: uterus; hysteria
Me
atro-: tree
ichthy-, ichthyo-: fish
igni-: fire
ileo, ileo-: small intestine
ilio-: upper hip bone, flank
in, ig-, il-, im-, ir-: (forms adjs) not, the opposite
in, il-, im-, ir-: (form nouns, verbs) in, in; on
infra-: less, less; inside
inter-: middle; in the middle, in the middle
intra-: in, in, in; out; on time
intro-: inside; to enter, in the middle
is-, iso-: equals, uniform; equality, uniformity
 

J
juxta-: near, near, side by side
 

K
kerat-, kerato-: cornea
kinesi-, kineto-: movement
 

L
labio-: lip
lact-, lacti-, lacto-: milk
laryng-, laryngo-: larynx, voice box
lepto-: young
leuk-, leuko-, leucleuco-: white
lign-, ligni-, ligno-: wood
litho-: Say it yourself
log-, logo-: name, word of mouth
what is: month
lyo-, lysi-: To dissolve, to disperse
 

M
macr-, macro-: large; long
magni-: good
mal-, male-: bad, bad; illness; evil; strange, inadequate
malac-, malaco-: soft
mega-, megalo-, meg-: great, great; million
melan-, melano-: black, black
mero-: part
mes-, meso-: medium, medium
meta-, met-: beyond; back; more; changed / transferred / replaced
metr-: average
metr-, metro-: uterus
micr-, micro-: too small
middle-: middle, mean
mini-: too small, too short
mis-: dull, small, lacking; illness
mis-: to vary; feature; wrong, wrong, bad
mis-, miso-: hate
mon-, mono-: one, one, one, one, one
morph-, morpho-: shape, form
many-, mult-: many, very much
my-, myo-: muscle
myc-, myco-: fungus
myel-, myelo-: spine, context
this-: nose
 

N
birth-: birth
Usa, n-: no, not
Usa, neo-: new, recently; rehabilitation
necr-, necro-: dead corpse
neo-: cloud
nephr-, nephro-: kidney
ner-, neuro-: nerves
nocti-: night
non-: not; backwards it's not important, it's lacking
noso-: ill
not-, not-: back of body
nycto-: night
ob-, oc-, of, o-, op-: in the form of; against; without, excessively
octa-, octo-, oct-: eight
ocul-, song-: eye
odont-, odonto-: tooth
of, op-: against
oleo-: oil
olig-, oligo-: few
ombro-: rain
omni-: all
oneiro-: a dream
ont-, in: being, body
oo-, o-: egg
ophthalm-, ophthalmo-: eye
ornith-, ornitho-: bird
oro-: mouth
orth-, ortho-: straight
oste-, osteo-, ossi-: bone
oto-: ears
out-: pity, pass, pass; more
ov-, ovi-, ovo-: egg
over-: over, over, over, over
oxe-: sharp; oxygen
 

P
pachy-: size
pale-, paleo-, palae-, palaeo-: ancient, ancient
pan-, panto-: everything, everything, group, whole; all around the world
para-, par-: close, side by side; as, likewise
para-, par-: inversely, opposite; unusual, flawed
pari-: equivalent
path-, patho-: suffering, disease
ped-, pedo-: child
penta-, pente-, pent-: five
per-, pel-: through; well; by; because
peri-: round; about, to be internalized
petr-, petri-, petro-: stone; gasoline
phago-: food
phleb-, phlebo-: vein
phon-, phono-: sound, speech
pictures-, photo-: light; photo
phren-, phreno-: mind; stomach
phyll-, phyllo-: leaf
phylo-: species, life form
picr-, picro-: unpleasant
piezo-: pressure
pisci-: fish
plan-, plano-: level; moving
pleur-, pleuro-: side of body, sidelong
pluto-: riches
pluvio-: downpour
pneum-, pneumo-: breath, lungs; air, gas
pneumat-, pneumato-: breath, fume
poly-: many; over the top
post-: after, a while later; behind, after, later
pre-, prae-: previously, prior, ahead of time, preliminary; need
preter-: past, more than
primi-, demure : first
ace : preferring; replacing
ace , por-, pur-: for, in favor of; front, forward, forward; previously, prior
aces : to, towards, close; before
prot-, proto-: first, unique; most reduced
pseud-, pseudo-: bogus, deceptive
psycho-, psycho-: mental; mind, soul, soul
ptero-: wing
pulmo-: lung
pyo-: discharge
pyr-, pyro-: fire, heat
 

Q
quadri-, quadr-, quadru-: four
semi : taking after, appearing to be, virtual
quinque-: five
 

R
re-: once more, back; once more, a subsequent time
recti-: straight
reni-, reno-: kidney
retro-: in reverse, back
rheo-: stream
rhin-, rhino-: nose
rhiz-, rhizo-: root
 

S
sacchar-, sacchari-, sacchro-: sugar
sacr-, sacro-: pelvic; above tailbone
sangui-: blood
sapr-, sapro-: dead, bad; rotting
sarc-, sarco-: tissue, muscle
scelero-: hard
schisto-, shiz-, schizo-: split
se-: aside, separated; isolating
seba-, sebo-: greasy
selen-, seleno-: moon
semi-: half; to some extent, fragmented
septi-: seven
sero-: serum, blood
sex-, sexi-: six
sider-, sidero-: star; iron
sine-: without
somat-, somato-: body
somn-: rest
sperm-, spermo-, sperma-, spermi-, spermat-, spermato-: seed
spiro-: breath
stato-: resting position, balance
stauro-: cross
stell-: star
sten-, steno-: short, thin, close
stere-, sound system : strong; multi-dimensional
stom-, stomo-: mouth
styl-, styli-, stylo-: style
styl-, stylo-: column
sub-, suc-, suf-, sug-, whole , sup-, sus-: under; underneath, underneath; less, about, nearly; optional
subter-: underneath; under
super-, supra-, sur-: above, finished, higher, in overabundance; extraordinary, unrivaled
syn-, sy-, syl-, sym-: with, together, simultaneously
 

T
tachy-: fast
rigid , tauto-: same
tele-, tel-, telo-: inaccessible; electronic correspondence
teleo-: last, reason
land : land, earth
the-, theo-: god
therm-, thermo-: heat
thromb-, thrombo-: blood cluster
topo-: place, point
tox-, toxi-, toxo-: poison
trache-, tracheo-: windpipe
trans-, tra-: through; over, finished, past, on the far side; starting with one spot then onto the next; change
tri-, tris-: three
 

U
ultra-: past; on the opposite side; outrageous
un-: do inverse, turn around; discharge, expel
un-: not; something contrary to
undec-: eleven
under-: lower, underneath; excessively little
uni-: one, single
up-: overhead, on high, upwards
uter-, utero-: uterus, belly
 

V
vari-, vario-: extraordinary, assorted
vas-, vaso-: vein
ventr-, ventro-: stomach, gut
bad habit : helping, subbing, appointee
 

W
with-: from, contradicting
 

X
xen-, xeno-: remote, peculiar
xylo-: wood
 

Z
zo-, zoo-: living, creature
zyg-, zygo-: twofold, pair, association; egg yolk
zym-, zymo-: protein, maturation

Suffixes

The affixes that are added after the base-form are called suffixes. A suffix is a syllable or syllables placed at the end of a word which qualify its meaning and form a new word. Derivational suffixes are used to derive new words from the base form. Inflectional suffixes merely modify a word as in the book - books etc.

Below are the various types of suffixes:

     Occupational suffixes:

Ster - person engaged in - gangster

EER - an occupation - engineer

ER - in habitat - Londoner.

     Diminutive or Feminine:

Let means small - booklet, piglet

ETTE means small - Kitchenette

Compact - Statuette

Imitation- Flannelette

Female - Usherette

Ess means female - Waitress, hostess, etc

y, - means daddy, auntie

     Status, Domain:

HOOD means status - boyhood, childhood

SHIP means status- friendship

DOM means domain - kingdom, stardom

OCR means system of Government - democracy

EYR means behaviour Abode – slavery,

Abode - nunnery

Collectivity – machinery

     Noun/Adjective:

ITE means faction - Israelite, socialite

AN means pertaining to-Indonesian, republican

ESE means nationality - Chinese

IST means occupation-Violinist, Organist

ISM means attitude - idealism Political movement-communism

     Noun Suffixes:

ER, OR means instrumental - driver, actor

ANT means agentive- inhabitant

EE means passive - employee

ATION means institution - organization

MENT means action - amazement

AL means action – refusal

ING means activity– driving

AGE means result of activity - drainage

NESS means quality - happiness

ITY means quality – sanity

     Verb Suffixes:

IFY means causative - simplify

IZE means causative- popularize

EN means become X – eaten

     Adjective suffixes:

FUL - ful means having - useful

LESS - means without - childless

LY means quality- cowardly

LIKE means quality – childlike

Y means covered with- hairy

ISH means belonging to - Turkish

IAN means in tradition - Darwinian

ABLE means 'worthy to - readable

Ed means having – balconied

     Adverb suffixes:

LY means in a……. Manner, aimlessly, lovingly

CE once, twice, thrice - ST amidst, amongst.

LONG - headlong, sidelong

THER -hither, thither, whither

WARDS- backward, upward, (means direction)

WISE - in the manner of, lengthwise, weatherise

Below is a list of most suffixes used in the English language listed alphabetically:

A
competent, observable; it should; provided that equivalent to –ed
ac: one touch with
-ac, -al ,,,,,,,,,,,,, is expressed by
-aceae: Plant families
-intelligent, -small: like something; full
-ing, -ing, -ing, -ing, -ing, -ing, -ing, -an, -ing,, -ing, -ing, -ure, -y: ((nouns) status, status, quality of being; ,, -ate, -dom, -ric, -ship: (forms), position, position, rule
-ade: product; action
-age: location of; house
-age: average of; charge
-age, -ion, -sion, -tion, -ment, -ure: (noun forms) the verb of; something done, a process
-age, -ry: (noun forms) persons or things together; rate of; collection of
-al: action or effect of; process
-algia: pain
-an, -antan, -ar, -ard, -art, -ary, -aster, -ate, -ean, -ee, -eer, -er, -er, -iff, -ist, -ite, -ive , -or, -ster, -yte: (formula nouns) Active person, of course
-an, -ean, -ian: Stick to; a citizen of; the language of; concerning, the character of
-ana, -iana: a collection
-ance, -ancy: status, quality of being; action, process; degree
-androus: a man
-ant, -ent: (forms adjs) having, belonging to; he did
Sovereignty: government
-ary: related, connected to
-ary, -ery, -ory, -ry: (noun forms) place where, place
-ary, -ice, -ment, -mony, -ory: (noun forms) an object which
-ate: salt, acid ester (instead of ic)
-ate, -ense, -to,, hot, -ise, -ing: (verbs verbs) to make; to place; to take; the cause
-ate,-fourth, -date, -ose, -white, -e :-e: adjs forms) full, numerous; having
-ation: process, action; condition
-ative: related, linked to; to guard against
 

B
-biosis: health
-blast: bud, virus, cell
 

C
-Hidden: Fruit
-ask: hollow, tumor
-celli, -cello: a bit
-cephalic, -cephalous: headache
-chrome: color, color
-cide, -cidal: kill, kill
-sun, -sule, -s, -s, -s, ,s, -s, -s, -s,, -s, -s, -s, -s, -s: (nouns)
-coccus: berry-shape
-coele, -coel: A hole
-control / democracy, -crat / -ocrat: government, law; emperor
 

D
-dendron: medicine
- Skin, squash, souvenir: leather, cover
-dom: background, office, power
-Screen: large area; race area
-From: active
Yes
 

E
-Eee: subtitles in botany
-ed: (forms adjs from nouns) being
-ed: past, past participle of ordinary actions
-ee: that which is the object of action
-ee: small type of ~; something that suggests a ~
-Eer: A talented, engaging person
-Imia, -Iemia, -Imia, -Haemia: blood
-en (form verb) causes, to be, to create
-en: (adjs forms) made; that belongs to them
-en: the plural form of some nouns
-en, -n, -ne: past participation in some of the more unusual actions
-ene: belonging; carbon
-er: a bit; often
-er: Comparative type of adjective
-er: being moral
-er: content; a citizen of India
-er, -or: producer, agent; one that is
-HELP: A little
-erly, -ward, -ward: (extension form) path
-Eli: (form of adjs) directory
-ery, -ry: the state or behavior of; location; combine
-escent (adjs), -escence (nouns): grow, become; adoption status, to begin with
-escent: reflects light
-ese: member, natives, style, language of
-ese: from ~
-esque: (adjs) forms of the; like, having buildings, kind of
-ess: Female gender name
-est: unique adjective form; The second person is one gift to perform some of the most unusual acts
third: The third person is the unity of certain strange acts
-ette: compact; to imitate; female
 

F
-fid: divide
-Fuge, fugal: that makes him flee, run away
-ful: holding all that is possible, full; whole number
-ful: to provide ~; written by; to follow
G
Polygamy: marriage; inheritance
-gen, -n natural, -geny, -gony: to give birth, reproduce, give birth; manufacturer
-gnomy, -gnosis: knowledge
-gon: angled
-gonium: seed
-grade: to move
-graph, -graph, -graphay: Writing; record
 

H
Church, cathedral: side, plural
-item: status time, status; membership
-The objects: field
-ia, -iasis: a disease
-ia, -believe: the category, order or nature of plants and animals
-iatrics, -iatry: Treatment
-ic: an acid that contains a lot of oxygen
-ic: Having properties, related, in a way; using ~; affected by ~
-ic: person with a condition of; manufacturer
-ics, -ism, -ry, -ure: something about programming, practice, art, science; personality, character (s)
-idae, -adae, -ides: offspring
-ide, -ides (plural): a chemical compound
-idean, -ides, -eides, -oides: (preceded by o ') to match, match
-Notify, -Properties: (action form) to perform ~; make it the same
-ine: chemical substitution
-ine: a female
-ine: Done
-ing: An important conclusion of common verbs
-ing: something made of such things; activity, process; a noun referring to an action
external: above
-ique: that is
-ish: The person of, the language of
-ish, -like, -ly: (forms adjs) somehow, become; relating to
-isk: a bit
-ism: the practice of; doctrine, action, process condition, condition
-ist: Skilled in, professional; practice ~, a believer
-ite: Acid (-ous) mixture
-ite: body part
-ite: one; adhesive, member, resident; that; product
-ite: Stone, minerals
-istic: Being human
-itis: Inflammation of the organs, infections; fanaticism
Unity: status, status, quality of being; degree
-ive: capable, capable; to make, to move
-Make: a female
-Activities: action, result of doing ~
-ize, -ise: (form tento) to make ~, to subject to ~; make yourself, and be like yourself; Be, Accept the Way
 

K
-kin: small; son of
-City: type; race
-kinesis: division; movement
 

L
singular: often (verb), less (noun)
-Testing: taken, worth it
-less: exception, reduced; it can't
small: insignificant, insignificant; item worn at ~
-like: same, same
-ling: youngest, offspring, one with a quality of ~
-Lite, -lith: Stone, minerals
-logy: the science of, the study of, theory; list
-ly: by the way, of having qualities, such as; to some extent
-ly: repeated
-lysis, -lyte: Elimination; division
 

M
-machy: war, fight
-mancy, -mantic: prediction
-mania, -maniac: craving
-Communications, -Common: part
-Meter, -metry: rate; iron
-morphic, -morphous: Structure
Most importantly: a unique ad form
-mycete: fungus
 

N
-ness: quality, condition
-The idea: the science of, the law of
 

O
-odont: a ~ natural tooth
-Personal: Pain
-oecium, -Ocious: Flowers' stamens and pistils in botany
-Note: it's like, it's like
-oid: to resemble, to resemble
or: a plant
-on: unit, particle
-Only, -only, -on:
-opia: eye, state of sight
-opsia: to see
-Signals: appearance; something like ~
-ous: A mixture of acid with less oxygen (thanic)
-ous, -ious: Having properties of; full
 

P
-Pathy: suffering, disease; type of treatment
-pennale: wing
-phage, -phagous, -phagia, -phagy: Eating, eating
-phany: manifestation
-phobe: fear one ~
-phobia: fear ~
-phobic: fear; consistency exists
-Phone,-Voice: sound, transmits sound
-phonia: speech disorders
-a joint: leafy, leafy
-phyte: a plant; the growth of disease
-plasia, -plasy, -plasis: growth, formation
-plasm: structural matter
-plast: cell
-Plegia: Physical disability
-Plerous: Wing
 

R
-Born: state, state; those
-rrhagia, -rrhagic, -rrhea: flow
 

S
-Assembly: a lizard
-Scope, -scopy: observation; viewing tool
-se: to make
-sect, -statement: to cut, to divide; is divided
-ship: the condition or condition of; position, position; ability; participant group ~
-Read, -But: body
-Text: intelligence, information
-Lermerm, -family: Seed
-ster: the one involved; one that is ~
-stichous: row
-Very look, -neidina: mouth
-stress: a female
 

T
-taxis, -taxy: order
Thirteen: ten, to be added to
-th: state, state; action, process
-tomy: to cut; section
-trophy: feed, nutrition
-Tip: To change; attraction ~
-Important, two-fold: it turns, it turns
-ty: quality, degree; condition
-ty: ten, multiplied by
 

V
-Vorous: Food
-ward, -ward: according to
 

W
-The ways, -the pure: in the way of, in the direction of; how to steal or do it
 

Y

-I: in a way, rather, it is manifested by disillusionment
-y: condition, condition; activity; group
-I, -ey: It's full
 

CONVERSION
 

Conversion is the derivational process whereby an item changes its word class without the addition of either a prefix or suffix. In this process the same word is made to serve different grammatical functions. Many English words belong to more than one part of speech Ex: hope, love, work may be nouns as well as verbs. In addition to this, there is a deliberate transfer of a word from one part of speech to another. He calls it a conversion.

i) Verb - Noun conversion:
a) State - State of mind/sensation/doubt, love etc.

Ii) Adjective - Noun conversion:
He seemed average (adjective)

The average was eighty (noun)

Iii) Noun - Verb conversion:

a)     To put in/on noun bottle (to put into a bottle) corner, floor.

b)    To give or to provide with something coat - to give a coat of paint- mask.

Iv) Adjective Verb conversion:
They were very humble (adjective)

They humbled him (Verb)

v) Adjective - Adverb Conversion:
The poem reads well (adjective)

He reads the poem well (adverb)

Vi) Stress shift:
con ‘duct (n) – ‘conduct (n)

Pro’duce (v) – ‘produce (n)

COMPOUNDS

English has a genius pattern for the formation of very expressing compound words. A compound word is a unit that consists of two or more words. There are no formal criteria that can be used for a general definition of compounds.

Orthographically they are written as one-word (bedroom) sometimes they are hyphenated (tax-free) and sometimes as two words without a hyphen (reading room) compounds may be classified on the basis of their syntax.

A. Noun compounds:
i) Subject and verb compounds:
The sun rises: Sunrise
The day breaks Day break
The girl dances: Dancing girl.

Ii) Verb and object compounds:
x calls the girl: call girl
x chews gum: chewing gum
x pays taxes: Tax payer
x see sights: sight seeing

Iii) Verb and Adverbial compounds:
x swims in the pool: swimming pool
x sits with the baby; baby sitter
x work at home : Home work

Iv) Noun + Noun (Verb compound)
Wind mill, Toy factory, Blood stain, Oak tree, girl-friend, motor cycle, Ashtray

v) Other noun & noun
It names an entire thing by specifying some features.
Paper back - the book has a paper back
- blockhead - pot-belly, blue bell, bird brain, high brow, loudmouth
- pale face, fat head, etc.

B. Adjective compounds:
a) Verb + Object compounds
Man - Eating - x eats man
- heart breaking
- self-defeating
- breath taking

b) Verb + Adverb compounds:
x goes across oceans: Ocean going
x feel it in the heart :Heart felt
x  works hard : Hard working

Reduplicative

Re-duplicative are compounds which have two or more elements either identical or only slightly different.
eg: goody-goody (affectedly good)

The difference between the two elements may be in the initial consonants as in walkie-talkie or in the medial vowels egcriss-cross Most of the re-duplicative are highly informal or familiar.

a) to imitate sounds:
tick-tack, bow-vow, ding-dong, ping-pong, flip-flap

b) to suggest alternative movements
see -saw

c) to identify
tip-top

d) to disparage by suggesting instability, nonsense, insincerity, vacillation, etc.
e.g:

• Humpty – dumpty
• Hurry – burry
• Hanky-panky                                                        
• Higgledy–piggledy
• Pell–mell
• Wishy - washy
• Zig – zag

CLIPPING
 

It is formed by the people who are fond of brevity - the term clipping notes the subtraction of one or more syllable from a word. This is used in informed style.

The shortening may occur at

a)   The beginning of the word:
Telephone – phone
Omnibus - bus
aeroplane– plane

b)  The end of the word :
Mike – Microphone
exam - examination
Movies - Moving pictures
add – advertisement
Photo – Photograph

c)   At both ends of the word:
flu –influenza

BLENDS

In a blend atleast one of the elements is fragmentary; words are coined by combining parts of words. Many blends have only a short life and are very informal.

e.g.
Motel from Motor + Hotel

Smog from smoke + Fog

Transistor from Transfer + Registor

Brunch from breakfast + lunch

Electrocute from Electro + Execute

Telecast from Television + Broadcast

ACRONYMS:

Acronyms are words formed from the initial letters of words. They are abbreviations of words. They are pronounced as a succession of Letters (alphabetisms) as in BBC, TV etc or as words in NATO, SEATO, etc.

A ) Alphabetisms:
C.O.D - Cash on delivery
U.N - United Nations
G.H.Q - General head quarters

b) Words:
UNESCO - United Nations educational scientific and cultural organization
RADAR - Radio Detection and Ranging.

By the process of word formation, the original roots have acquired a variety of meaning.

1.2.          Common Errors in Writing with Reference to Articles and Prepositions

Articles

Articles are words that precede a noun and define the specificity of that noun. In other words, they imply how specific a particular noun is.

There are two types of Articles in the English language, Definite and Indefinite Articles.

1. Definite Article

The definite article is the word ‘the’. This article is only used when a particular place, thing or activity is being referred to. It limits the meaning to one particular thing or activity.

For example, in the sentence “I won’t be attending the party this weekend.” ‘The’ is used before the noun party therefore it refers to a specific party which the subject is talking about. The definite article can be used with both singular and plural words.

Uses of “The”:

1. The definite article can be used to make general things specific, for example, “Please pass me a pen.” when changed to “Please pass me the pen.” Changes the meaning of the sentence entirely. In the former the subject requests for a pen in general whereas in the latter he refers to a specific pen.
2. ‘The’ is used by geographical areas such as rivers, mountains, seas, oceans etc.

“The Middle East”, “The Atlantic Ocean”, “The Himalayas”

c.      Unique things always requite the article ‘the’

“The Sun”, “The Moon”

d.     Musical instruments use ‘the’

“He plays the cello.”

e.     Countries generally don’t use articles in front but if their names are plural they use the article ‘the’

“The Netherlands”, “The United States of America”

f.        Abbreviations and classes of people always use the article ‘the’

“The U.N” “The Poor” “The British” “The IMF”

2.     Indefinite Article

The Indefinite Article is of two types, namely, ‘a’ and ‘an’. The word ‘a’ is used when it precedes a word that starts with a consonant and the word ‘an’ is used when it precedes a word that starts with a vowel. Unlike the Definite Article, the Indefinite Articles refer to a general idea and not a particular one. The Indefinite Article only appears with singular nouns. For example, in the sentences “I would like a good book to read.” Or “I am craving for an apple pie.” The subject talks about books or apple pies in general rather than a specific book or apple pie.

Uses of ‘a’ and ‘an’:

1. Uncountable nouns cannot use either ‘a’ or ‘an’. For example advice is an uncountable noun, therefore a sentence such as “Can you give me an advice.” Does not make sense. Rather “Can you give me some advice.” Is more appropriate.
2. Jobs use Indefinite Articles

“I want to become a teacher” “My dream is to become an actor”

c.      There are a couple of exceptions to the overall rule of employing ‘a’ before words that start with consonants and ‘an’ before words that begin with vowels. The first letter of the word honour, for instance, may be a consonant, but it’s unpronounced. In spite of the way it is spelled, the word honour begins with a vowel. Therefore, we use an. For example, consider the following sentences:
My mother is a honest woman.
My mother is an honest woman.

d.     When the first letter of a word is a vowel but is pronounced with a consonant sound, the article 'a' must be used. For example:

She is an United States senator.

She is a United States senator.

Common Errors While using Articles

     The use of A/An with plural Or uncountable noun:

a fact = OK (singular)

a facts = INCORRECT (plural)

An information = INCORRECT (uncountable)

An advice = INCORRECT (uncountable)

a piece of advice = OK (“piece” is countable)

a pants / a glasses / a scissors = INCORRECT (plural)

a pair of pants/glasses/scissors = OK (“pair” is countable)

a rice = INCORRECT (uncountable)

a grain of rice = OK (“grain” is countable)

a work = INCORRECT (uncountable)

a job / a task / a project = OK (countable)

     The articles ‘A’ and ‘An’ always follow the sound, not the letter

a university (pronounced like you – ni – ver – si – ty)

An umbrella (pronounced like um – brel – la)

a hat (h is not silent)

An hour (h is silent)

An X-ray (pronounced like ex – ray)

An NGO (pronounced like en – gee – oh)

a non-governmental organization (when we say the full words, they start with the N sound)

     The use of A and An without a noun following it.

I am a Japanese. = INCORRECT (“Japanese” is an adjective, not a noun)

I am Japanese. = OK

He is an intelligent. = INCORRECT (“intelligent” is an adjective, not a noun)

He is intelligent. = OK

He is an intelligent man. = OK (now it’s OK because we have the noun “man” after “an intelligent”)

     The use of "The" for Singular or Plural and for Countable or Uncountable nouns, when something specific is being talked about (Not General)

I love pasta. (general)

I love the pasta at that restaurant. (specific)

That store sells furniture. (general)

The furniture in my living room is all new. (specific)

Vegetables are good for you. (general)

The vegetables at the market are always fresh. (specific)

I need advice. (general)

The advice you gave me was very helpful. (specific)

     Use of the article "The" for proper nouns:

• NAMES OF CONTINENTS/COUNTRIES*/STATES/CITIES/STREETS:

We’re traveling around Asia for three months.

I’d like to visit Russia.

Paris is my favourite city in Europe.

Have you ever been to California?

They live on Rosewood Avenue.

*Exceptions: the United States (the U.S.), the United Kingdom (the U.K.), the Philippines, the Czech Republic, the Central African Republic, the Marshall Islands

• COMPANIES & UNIVERSITIES*

My uncle works at Samsung.

Microsoft reported high profits this quarter.

She graduated from Harvard.

New York University is very large.

*Exceptions: If the university’s name BEGINS with “university,” then use “the”:

The University of Pennsylvania, the University of Miami

• LANGUAGES & HOLIDAYS

I’m studying Spanish.

He speaks Italian.

My whole family gets together at Christmas.

The office will be closed on New Year’s Day.

     "The" can be used while referring for certain places:

• DO NOT USE THE WITH INDIVIDUAL LAKES OR MOUNTAINS:

Mount Everest is the highest mountain the world.

We went sailing on Lake Ontario.

• USE THE WITH OCEANS, RIVERS, VALLEYS, DESERTS, MOUNTAIN RANGES, POINTS ON GLOBE:

The Pacific Ocean

The Amazon River

The San Fernando Valley

The Sahara Desert

The Swiss Alps, the Rocky Mountains

The North/South Pole, the Equator

• DO NOT USE THE WITH THE FOLLOWING PLACES:

I’m going home.

She’s at work.

He’s in jail.

We attend church.

My kids went to bed.

My brother’s in high school.

My sister’s in college.

• USE THE WITH THE FOLLOWING PLACES:

I went to the bank.

Let’s go to the movies.

He gets home from the office around 7.

My grandfather’s in the hospital.

I’ll stop by the post office after lunch.

I caught a taxi to the airport.

I’ll pick you up at the train station.

We’re waiting at the bus stop.

We took my son to the doctor.

I’m going to the dentist this afternoon. (in this case, “the doctor” and “the dentist” are short for “the doctor’s office” and “the dentist’s office”)

Prepositions

A preposition is a word that connects the noun/pronoun in a sentence to the other parts of the sentence such as the verbs and adjectives. It determines the relationship between the nouns, pronouns and the other words in a sentence.

They help one understand the relationships of logic, space and sequence between the different parts of a sentence.

Below are few examples of prepositions commonly used in the English language:

1. I just came back from the U.S.
2. The book is inside the drawer.
3. The kid threw a stone into the lake.

A preposition cannot be plural or possessive. Sometimes prepositions can also act as nouns, verbs and adverbs.

Types of Prepositions

1. Prepositions of Time:

These prepositions indicate when something happens, will happen or has happened in any point in time.

Prepositions of time include at, on, in, before, during, after.

Examples:

1. John was born on the 7th of August.
2. David left his job in 2012.
3. Amy ate lots of fruits during her pregnancy.

2.     Prepositions of Place:

These prepositions usually indicate the position of a particular thing or person. The three most common prepositions of time are on, at and in.

These prepositions may also indicate the time along with place but depending on their use it can be easily ascertained what they are referring to.

Examples:

1. The ball is in the court.
2. The clothes are on the top shelf.
3. I was at the supermarket just yesterday.

3.     Prepositions of Direction or Movement:

Prepositions of movement indicate the direction in which a person or an object is moving.

‘To’ is the most commonly used preposition of movement.

Examples:

1. I went to shop for groceries but all the shops were closed.
2. He took his dog to the park.

The other prepositions of direction or movement are across, though, over, down, up, past, around.

4.     Prepositions of Manner:

Prepositions of manner describe the way in which things take place or means by which things happen.

Prepositions of manner include by, in, like, with, on.

Examples:

1. I like travelling by car.
2. She went to the school in a taxi.
3. Jacob sings like a professional.
4. He reacted with pity when he saw the poor cat.

5.     Preposition of Agents or Instruments:

Preposition of Agents or Instruments describe the action conducted by a person or object on another person or object.

Most common prepositions of these types are by and with.

Examples:

1. The song was recorded by James.
2. He cuts his hair with a clipper.

6.     Prepositions of Possession:

Prepositions of Possession indicate the owing or owning of an object. It also can be used when something is own to someone. Prepositions of possession include of, with and to.

Examples:

1. This is the car of my niece.
2. He said he saw a man with a green umbrella.
3. This jacket belongs to my grandfather.

Common Errors with Prepositions

The use of prepositions in sentences can be a difficult task. Propositions are sometimes short and very common (e.g., at, in and on), and may have several uses depending on the context, which can make it difficult to know which preposition to use.

Below are some common errors to avoid with prepositions:

1. Temporal Errors

The use of 'in' and 'at' depends on the time of the day. For example, in sentences we always use the preposition “in” with “morning,” “afternoon,” and “evening.” But the preposition 'at' is used when talking about the night:

• Helen goes running in the morning.
• Tim goes running in the afternoon.
• Shirley goes running in the evening.
• Bob goes running at night.

b.     Spatial Errors (In and at vs. To)

The preposition 'to' can be used to discuss journeys (e.g., “I’m going to Tasmania”). But if the word “arrive,” is present in a sentence we use “in” or “at” to describe reaching a destination. For instance:

• She arrived in Tasmania just after lunch.
• He arrived at the restaurant five minutes late.

The use of “in” or “at” typically depends on the destination:

The preposition “in” for cities, countries or other large areas. While the preposition “at” is used for specific places (e.g., a library, a bar, or someone’s house).

c.      Time, Days, Months, and Years (At, On, and In)

Different prepositions are used in different contexts while referring to time in days, months and years.

If a time of the day is being referred, the correct term is “at”:

• The party starts at 9pm.

If a specific day or date is being referred, we use “on”:

• The party is on Saturday.

While referring to a month or year, the correct preposition is “in”:

• We’re having a party in April.

d.     Helping verbs

With auxiliary verbs such as “should” or “must.”, the preposition "of" is used.

• Exception: I should of gone to bed earlier. ✗

However, this is an error. The correct word here isn’t even a preposition.

Rather, the verb “have,” must be used which sounds a bit like “of” when spoken (hence the confusion). Thus, it should say:

I should have gone to bed earlier. ✓

e.     Present Continuous Tense

If something has been happening from a long time, we use “for” when referring to a length of time (e.g., a period of hours, days, or months):

• I’ve been writing for six hours.

But if a specific time is used as a point of reference, we use “since”:

• I’ve been writing since breakfast.

The difference here is that the first refers to a measure of time, while the second refers to a fixed point in the past when the activity began.

f.        Talking About and Discussing

“Talking” and “discussing” are similar activities, so people often treat these words as interchangeable. However, only the preposition “about” must be used after “talking.” For example:

• We’re talking about extreme sports. ✓
• We’re discussing extreme sports. ✓
• We’re discussing about extreme sports. ✗

1.3.          Reading and its Importance – Techniques of Effective Reading

Reading is the cognitive process of decoding symbols to derive meaning from them. It is the ability to understand text, decode its meaning and compare with what the reader already knows.

Knowledge of grammar and vocabulary are very essential to be a good reader. Attention span, the ability to understand the meaning of a word from context, the ability to co-relate thoughts and ideas, the ability to follow the flow of words, and the ability to identify various literary devices are the fundamental skills required for efficient reading.

Barriers to Reading

Some of the barriers to effective reading are as follows-

Many people cannot read effectively because they fail to decrypt grammatical and lexical units of language in the text. They lack the ability to differentiate and recognize the words, sentences, expressions, used in the text. It hampers the process of reading. The reader may stop reading further if he fails to understand the text grammatically.

Reading for information and knowledge requires motivation and discipline. Many people think reading as boring and time-consuming task. Lack of proper motivation and goal may create barrier to reading.

Many a times a reader finds himself reading a passage or a page and later realizing that he had not understood the meaning of it at all. This happens due to a lack of concentration while reading. One of the main reasons for this is that the reader might be lost in his thoughts while he is reading. Reading is psycho-linguistic process and therefore requires careful attention of the reader.

A reader has to struggle a lot to read in dim light or dark rooms. If proper ventilation is not there in the reading room, reader may feel suffocated or tired.

People often prefer reading texts that they are interested in. If one is reading a topic which is not according to his preferences, he may find himself losing interest gradually.

Many readers have habit to articulate loudly or murmur the words in the text. They buzz each word which creates a barrier to speed reading.

Putting finger, pen or any object on the words and sentences while reading: Many people put their finger or pen on the text while reading. They move the finger or object from word to word which lowers down the process of reading.

Readers often read the text one word at a time with independent eye shift between each and every word. They have narrow eye span. It not only decreases the speed of reading but also affects the comprehension. Shorter the eye span, slower the speed and comprehension. Readers require proper training and techniques to expand their eye span.

Types of Reading: Skimming, Scamming and Fast Reading

Skimming and Scanning are reading techniques that use rapid eye movement to shuffle quickly through the text for relevant information. Although they both use the same technique they are quite different methods of reading.

Skimming is the process of rapidly reading a text in order to get a general overview of the content. Skimming helps comprehend the general information within a text or a particular section of the text.

Before skimming, one should prepare oneself to read rapidly through the pages. One should not read every word; but special attention must be paid to typographical cues-headings, boldface and italic type, indenting, bulleted and numbered lists.

One should be alert for the names of people and places, key words and phrases, dates, nouns, and unfamiliar words.

Skimming involves the following steps:

1. First the table of content or the chapter overview must be read to get the structural overview of the text.

2. Main headings of each chapter must be glanced through. All headings of charts and tables must be read.

3. After glancing through headings, the whole introductory paragraph must be read followed by the first and last lines of each succeeding paragraph. For each paragraph, only the first few words of each sentence must be read to locate the central idea.

4. Words indicated with boldface or italics must always be read.

5.When something significant is found, the whole sentence containing it should be given priority. One should not waste time reading extraneous details while skimming..

6.All chapter summaries must be read at the end if provided.

Skimming may help understand the text at the most basic level but to get the complete idea of a topic it should always be read completely. Skimming is useful for reading news articles, finding source material for research papers, previewing and reviewing or getting a general idea from a long selection of texts.

Although skimming can save hours of work, it is not advisable to skim often. This is because while skimming one may miss important points or finer shades of meaning.

Scanning, like skimming, also uses keywords and organizational cues, but while the objective of skimming is a big picture view of the text, the objective of scanning is to locate and collect particular facts.

It is necessary to skim the text first to decide if it is likely to contain the facts you need. While skimming one should concentrate on table of contents, summaries, indexes, headings, and typographical cues. If after skimming it is established that the text has relevant information, it can be scanned.

Following are some rules to be kept in mind while scanning:

1. It is essential to know what one is looking for. If there is a  keyword or a phrase attached to the topic, one should start with that word or phrase and  begin the scanning process.

1. Only one keyword should be used during one scan. If there is a need for multiple keywords than multiple scans should be conducted.

2. The eyes should rapidly float around the page until the required keyword or phrase is found.

3. After finding the desired keyword, the text surrounding that keyword should be read carefully.

The process of scanning could be tiring as it requires a lot of concentration. One should not let their attention wander while scanning as they might lose track of the keyword or phrase. Scanning is very useful during research projects to find particular facts or fact-heavy topics.

Rapid reading or Fast reading usually involves techniques for moving the eyes faster in order to gather information more quickly. This might include Skimming and Scanning.

How to do Rapid Reading

To begin rapid reading, it is often recommended to start with a book that you find relatively easy to understand with a consecutive story. Have a timer to hand, and read a few pages at your normal speed, and just notice how long you spend on a page.

Then set your timer for half that time, read as quickly as you can down the page and move to the next page each time your timer goes off, and just see how much information you get. The first couple of pages might seems a bit overwhelming, but once the panic subsides, you’ll be amazed at how much you can pick up if you go quickly. And once you’ve doubled your speed, you can double again … and again. You only need to read enough to know what it’s about and to get as much information as you need.

Below are some things that must be done before starting fast reading:

1. Get into a good state – sit up straight, take a deep breath, relax, and smile.

2. Open your peripheral vision by keeping your gaze on the opposite wall while relaxing your eyes and trying to see both ears at the same time. Notice how much more you can see to right and left without moving your eyes.

3. Hold the book at a 45-degree angle in front of you – and a little bit further away than normal.

4. Begin to fast read to speed up your eyes and your brain before you start. That means glancing quickly down each page in 10 seconds or less for several pages. You shouldn’t be understanding what you’re looking at – the aim isn’t to read at that speed (yet), simply to get your eyes and brain working quicker, so when you read more slowly, you seem to have more time – which allows you to read more quickly than you do ‘normally’.

Techniques for Effective Reading

Below are some fundamental techniques for effective reading:

1. Previewing:

Previewing refers to take a quick glance at a text before actually reading it. It enables readers to understand the organizational structure of a text. Previewing includes the process of skimming through the text and looking at the headings, table of contents (if any) and typographical cues to get the general idea of what the text is about.

2. Contextualizing:

Contextualizing refers to the process of placing the text in its appropriate historical, biographical and cultural background. When one reads a text they often tend to look at it through the lenses of one's won background, leading to a misjudged or biased reading of the text.  Contextualizing helps one eradicate this problem by understanding the scenario and purpose for which the text was written.

3. Questioning:

Asking questions while reading a text helps one remember and understand what they have read up to that moment. Questions should be asked after the end of each paragraph and they should deal with the general gist of that paragraph and not with little details contained inside it.

4. Reflecting:

While reading, one's personal beliefs or opinions may be challenged by the text. Here it is important to reflect on one's unconscionably held beliefs and values and how the text affects them. As one is reading the text for the first time, an X should be marked in the margin at each point where they feel a personal challenge to their attitudes, beliefs, or status. A brief note should be made in the margin about what one feels or about what in the text created the challenge. After marking, the text should be read again to find out any patterns one has regarding personal beliefs.

5. Outlining and summarizing:

Summarizing a text is a great way to ascertain if one has grasped the intended meaning of the text. While outlining deals with the general overview of the text, summarizing is the process of writing down what one has understood about the central idea of the text in their own words thereby forming a new text in itself.

Although summarizing begins with outlining, it always ends with creating its own independent text. Outlining focuses on a close analysis of each paragraph, however, summarizing requires creative synthesis. Outlining and summarizing shows how reading critically can lead to deeper understanding of any text.

6. Evaluating an argument:

Evaluating involves the process of testing the logic of a text, its credibility and emotional impact. Writers make assumptions which they want the readers to accept as true, although a critical reader must always evaluate and question what he reads. One should not accept the details within a text as they are presented before him, he should always be prepared to question and assess the text at every step. This will help the reader to grasp any hidden meanings within the text.

7. Comparing and contrasting related readings:

Comparing the text, one reads with other texts helps the reader to get a better understanding of the text. Sometimes authors refer to similar incidents but with different perspectives. Comparing various texts helps the reader shine new light on a particular subject letting him explore it more deeply. This might also lead to a change in the readers opinions regarding the topic.

Importance of Reading

Reading for the main idea:

You should develop skills to identify the main idea or the central idea in what they read. This skill is necessary to get the main idea, identify the theme and get the implied meanings of the paragraph.

Activities to identify the main idea:

• Underlining key words.
• Selecting the topic sentence.
• Writing the title.
• Turning the sub heads or subtitles into a question (The answer to the question may give the main idea of the paragraph)
• Locating the function words that tie the sentence together. e.g then, therefore, but, etc.

Reading for detains:

Along with reading for and stating the main idea you must learn to read for details.

Activities to accomplish reading for details ask the you to;

• Look at a picture and then describe what they see at the picture.
• Note the details in a paragraph after stating the main idea.
• Identify irrelevant sentences.
• Analyse the paragraph to make a formal outline.
• Carryout simple directions on how to do something.
• Respond to directions.
• Elicit answers concerning the details, develop chart, diagram or map of the sequence of events.

Reading for organization:

Good readers will understand the organisation of what is being read. They arrange the ideas in logical order. The key helps to recall the information is organization. Reading the content areas depends upon proficiency in organisation skills. A Good reader knows how paragraphs are organized.

Activities that help you learn in a logical order what you are reading:

• Organizing information about a given subject (eg) characteristics of animals)
• Grouping a series of details about a main idea.
• Developing an outline for a story with heading and subheadings.
• Arranging records, directions or ideas in sequential orders.
• Arranging various bits of information about a selected topic and grouping them into an information story.

Reading for summarising and outline:

Summaries help to pressure the essential facts and ideas in capsule form. They retain important information. So, you should develop summarizing skill. Outlining is another way of organisation. It is closely related to summarising activities to develop summarizing skills. Summarise a message to be sent as a telegram. Selecting the main idea from the choices you give them. Do exercise for writing an outline. Read a small poem and select the best summary from the choices you give them

1.4.          Sentence Structure – Use of Phrases and Clauses in Sentences

Sentence Structure

Structure in English grammar simply means how the different parts of speech are arranged and organised in a sentence so as to form a complete coherent thought. The English language comprises of many parts such as nouns, pronouns, verbs, adverbs conjunctions, prepositions, adjectives etc. It is through the correct use of these elements in a sentence that it becomes meaningful. Therefore, it is essential to understand how each of these parts of speeches has to be structured in a sentence.

There are mainly four types of sentence structures in English language –

1. Simple Sentence:

A simple sentence consists of only a subject and a verb. It may also contain an object but it will always have only one independent clause.

Examples: They Studied.

I used the shaver.

He will not fight.

An independent Clause is a group of words containing a noun and a verb which expresses a complete thought.

2.      Compound Sentence:

Compound sentences are sentences which comprise two or more independent clauses these clauses are often combine using a semi-colon or an appropriate conjunction.

Examples: I took my umbrella to work today but it did not rain.

He organized his files by tags; then, he updated his reference list.

She tried to write a good review and she succeeded in her efforts.

3.      Complex Sentence:

A complex sentence is a type of structure that consists of at least one independent clause and one dependent clause/subordinate clause. Dependent clause is a group of words that contain a subject and a verb but they do not express a complete thought.

In a compound sentence, a dependent clause will usually refer to the subject (who, which) the sequence/time (since, while), or the causal elements (because, if) of the independent clause.

Examples:  Because he did his work so diligently, he was praised by                    everyone in the room.

Jake cried because he couldn’t hit the ball.

He studied for hours and hours with no interest in the subject whatsoever.

4.      Complex-Compound Sentence:

The complex-compound sentence is the combination of complex and compound sentence structures. A complex compound sentence will contain at least two independent clauses and at least one subordinate clause.

Examples:  She did not mean to hurt him, but he wouldn’t listen to reason, so she had no choice.

Bill tried to apologize to the manager but she ignored him, so he quit the job.

I’m not wrong for thinking this way because I have been hurt in the past as I was a naïve young boy.

Types of Sentences

1.  The Statement or Declarative sentence

Many sentences are labelled as declarative sentences because are used in making a declaration or statement about something. Here are some examples to illustrate declarative sentences.

• That car is really old.
• I love honey on toast.
• The girl likes pancakes, but she doesn’t know how to make them.

These statements are simple to construct and have no frills about them. Then these statements do not depend on being facts. They can be stating an opinion as well. The opinion does not necessarily have to be true but just what the subject thinks.

Also, the declarative sentence uses all tenses. Declarative sentences can employ all types of past, present and future tenses easily.

• I went to the store yesterday.
• I am going to the shop now.
• I will go to the ball game tomorrow.

Affirmative and negative sentences

Declarative sentences can either be positive or negative. When they have a positive meaning, they are known as affirmative or positive sentences. When they contain a negative meaning, they known as negative sentences.

A positive sentence or affirmative sentence will contain a positive assertion or remark. A sentence will always negate an assertion or remark. A positive sentence may or may not contain negative words but its final verdict will always be positive. A positive sentence can be converted into a negative one using negative words such as not, none, nobody, and isn’t.

2.     The Question or Interrogative sentence

The purpose of an interrogative sentence is to ask a question in order to obtain an answer. Sometimes an interrogative sentence might be rhetorical in nature, meaning it will ask a question but wont necessarily require an answer. Interrogative sentences in the spoken form may also be sarcastic. Below are some examples of simple interrogative sentences:

• Where are you going?
• What is happening?
• What do you want me to do?
• Do you want me to write something for you?
• Are you going to school today?

There are four types of question sentences. They are:

1. Yes/No Interrogatives
2. Alternative Interrogatives
3. Wh- Interrogatives
4. Tag Questions

Yes/No Interrogatives

1. Questions which require a “yes” or “no” answer, are called Yes/No Interrogatives.

Examples:

• Are you going home?
• Will you come with me?
• The answer to each of the above question will be either a “yes” or “no”

How to form Yes/No Interrogatives:

Yes/No Interrogatives are formed with the help of auxiliary verbs. The typical form of such question is:

Auxiliary verb (be, do or have) + subject + main verb or modal verb + subject + main verb

The auxiliary verbs are inverted with the subject (subject – verb inversion) For example:

• Are you going to school?
• Will Jack come tomorrow?
• Have you finished your homework?
• Do you like folk dance?

If a sentence contains more than one auxiliary verb or modal verb, only one auxiliary verb or model should be put before the subject. For example:

• Have you been working for the whole day? (Only “have” has been put before the subject “you”)

Alternative Interrogatives

Alternative Interrogatives are questions that give a choice among two or more answers. Therefore, these questions are also called choice questions. For example:

• Do you prefer coffee or tea?
• Will you come with me now, or will you go with James afterwards?
• Do you prefer to live in the village or the city?
• Will they buy an apartment or villa?

Alternative Interrogatives are also formed with the help of auxiliary verbs. The form of such a question is: auxiliary verb (be, do or have) + subject + main verb or modal verb + subject + main verb. The auxiliary verbs are inverted with the subject (subject-verb inversion)

In the alternative question to be formed, if the main verb is “be”, additional auxiliary verb need not be used. For example:

• Are those flowers roses or Begonias? (Here the main verb, “are” is used to ask the question)

Wh- Interrogatives

Wh- Interrogatives are questions asked using one of the question words, who, what, where, when, why, and how. Auxiliary verbs also have to be used in these types of questions. For example:

• Where are you going?
• How are you doing?
• Why did you do that?

When you use the ‘wh’ and how question words, the questions demand full sentence answers. For example:

#1. Where are you going?

Ans. I am going to the mall.

#2. How are you doing?

Ans. ‘I am doing great.’

#3. Why did you do that?

Ans: ‘Because I wanted to.’

Although in the above examples, the answers are given in single sentences, depending upon the situation, the answer may require long explanation.

Tag questions

Tag questions or question tags are questions formed by attaching question tags onto the end of a declarative sentence. These tags are commonly created using an auxiliary verb inverted with subject. These question tags change the declarative sentences to interrogative sentences.

Examples:

• You are from USA, aren’t you?
• She is watching a film in the T.V.at home, isn’t she?
• You will go to your home town tomorrow, won’t you?
• She was a kind woman, wasn’t she?
• He is not attending the meeting, is he?

Sometimes a declarative sentence can be used as interrogative sentence by putting a question mark at the end of the sentence. When you ask questions like this orally, the last syllable of the sentence should be given proper intonation so as to make the listener understand that a question is being asked to him.

Indirect questions

Indirect questions are question embedded in a statement. For example:

• I asked him where he was staying.

A question, “Where are you staying?” is embedded in this statement. But it should be clearly understood that an interrogative sentence always ask direct questions and indirect question or embedded questions do not come under the category of” Interrogative sentences.”

3.     Exclamatory sentence

As a child you may have heard these a lot. When a child steps out of line or makes the wrong decision, parents tend to emphasis what they are saying by using exclamatory sentences.

That is the purpose of exclamation sentences. They express very strong emotion. In listening, it is not hard to identify an exclamation sentence. The tone of the person’s voice will convey that information.

In writing, to make an exclamatory sentence you do need to use the exclamation mark. Writing does not have any sound helping it out, so it needs help from its punctuation friends. Here are a few examples of exclamation sentences:

• I said I wanted pizza!
• I want to go now!
• We are the champions!
• What a cute baby!

Depending upon the situation, there are different methods of expressing or writing exclamatory sentences. Some examples of the common categories are given hereunder.

1. Expressing strong emotion

• Many, many sweet returns of the day!
• Happy New Year!
• Happy Christmas!

2. Those begin with “What”:

• What beautiful scenery!
• What a cute baby!
• What a nice behavior!

3. Those begin with “How”:

• How beautifully she sings!
• How brightly it shines!
• How neatly she has kept her house!

4. Exclamatory sentences containing “such”:

• She is such a kind lady!
• He is such a bright student!
• She is such a wonderful writer!

5. Exclamatory sentences containing “so”:

• She is so glamorous!
• He is so handsome!
• That gentleman is so generous!

It is to be remembered that exclamatory sentences express strong emotion and should be used carefully. They are not to be used to write reports or academic purposes.

4.     The Command or Imperative sentence

These are made usually by people who are in authority or are quite bossy. There is no fact and no search for information in these sentences. They also can be used without strong emotion. Imperative sentences are used to command or order people to do something.

Police officers, firemen during a fire, teachers, employers, and parents all use the command sentence quite well. They have the authority to tell people what to do and where to go.

Bossy older brothers and sisters do not have the authority but their place in the family line makes them think they can tell you what to do. Here are a few examples of imperative sentences:

• Get your hands up!
• Do your homework.
• Close the window.
• Go to the bank and make that deposit.
• Go to bed!

In using and hearing the command sentence, again it is the tone of voice by the user that tells you what is meant. In writing, it is the sentence structure as an imperative sentence can use both a period and an exclamation mark.

These sentences normally do not contain a subject. The subject is the person to whom the command is directed towards. To be specific the subject is “you”. It is understood here. That makes imperative sentences second person sentences.

Types of Clauses and Their Use in Sentences

Adjective Clause

As the name suggests, it is a clause that acts as an adjective. These are always dependent. They can't stand on their own as sentences but are instead attached to independent clauses in order to modify nouns.

Take a complex sentence such as "The table that we bought last week is already broken." Here, the clause that we bought last week is an adjective clause that modifies table.

Adjective questions

How can you tell if a clause is an adjective one? It's pretty simple: once you have identified a dependent clause, try to identify the noun it's modifying. Adjective clauses can tell one of several things about that noun:

• What kind?
• How many?
• Which one?

Let us look at the previous example!

• The table that we bought last week is already broken.

In this particular sentence, "that we bought last week" is answering the question "which one?" by telling us which table we're talking about.

Here are a few examples where adjective clauses are in bold and the modified noun - in italics to tell you more about the topic.

• The student who gets the highest grade will receive a prize. (Which one?)
• She gave her extra ticket to the girl whose ticket never arrived. (Which one?)
• They drove by the house where he lives. (Which one?)
• We need to find a car that gets better gas mileage. (What kind?)
• This necklace, which is one of my favorites, will look great with that dress. (What kind?)
• All the cookies that we have are stale. (How many?)

Adjective clause signifiers

You'll notice that all these phrases start with the same few words. These fall into one of two groups: relative pronoun and relative adjective. Looking for these words in sentences can help you locate the needed clauses.

• Relative pronouns: who, whom, whose, that, which.
• Relative adverbs: when, where, why.
• Punctuating adjective clauses

You may also have noticed that in some examples above the adjective clause is set off by commas. How can you tell if it needs to be punctuated or if it can be left alone? The key is to look at what role the clause plays in the sentence. If it's necessary - that is, if the sentence doesn't make sense without it - then you don't need to use commas. By removing the adjective clause from the first example above, we lose a necessary piece of information that changes the meaning of the sentence:

• The student who gets the highest grade will receive a prize. - The student will receive a prize.

On the other hand, when we remove the adjective clause here, the main idea of the sentence remains intact:

• This necklace, which is one of my favourites, will look great with that dress. - This necklace will look great with that dress.

When the adjective clause isn't necessary to the sentence, it should be set apart by commas.

Generally, if the adjective clause is needed to clear up any ambiguity about which noun is being talked about. I.e., we need it in order to know which student will receive the prize - so it's essential. If we already know which specific noun we're talking about (i.e., this necklace), the adjective clause is just adding more information. Meaning it is not essential to the sentence. Often, this distinction is unclear. But, you could make a case either way, so don't worry too much if you have trouble identifying essential and inessential clauses.

Nominal or Noun Clauses

At this point, you can probably guess that a noun clause is a clause that acts as a noun.

Also called nominal clauses, these dependent clauses can function in a sentence just like any other noun. They can be a subject, subject complement, direct object, indirect object, the object of a preposition, or an appositive. I.e., "Why you ate all that cake is a mystery to me." Here, the clause why you ate all that cake is acting as a noun and is the subject of the sentence.

Because nominal clauses act like nouns, there's no set of particular questions they answer, since they're not modifying any other words in the sentence. Below are some examples with the nominal clauses in italics and the function of the noun in parentheses.

• Where you want to go is up to you. (subject)
• Whether you open the present now or later depends on when your parents get here. (subject)
• Your art project can be whatever you want. (subject complement)
• Give the ball to whomever asks for it first. (indirect object)
• Hand whatever papers you have over to the teacher. (direct object)

Noun clause signifiers

Noun clauses start with interrogatives (words that ask questions) or expletives (words that explain relationships).

Interrogatives: who, whom, what, which, why, when, where, whoever, whomever, whatever.

Expletives: that, whether, if.

Adverb Clauses

A close cousin of the adjective clause, the adverbial one, functions in much the same way, except it modifies nouns or adjectives. In the sentence, "I'll be working until we finish the project," the clause until we finish the project is an adverbial clause that modifies the verb phrase be working.

Adverb questions

Adverbial clauses can be identified by several specific questions they answer. They will tell you one of a few things about the verb of the main sentence:

• How?
• When?
• Why?
• Where?
• To what degree?

In the above example - I'll be working until we finish the project - the phrase until we finish the project tells us when we'll be working. Here are a few more examples with the adverbial phrase in bold and the word being modified in italics:

• My sister will come to the party even if she's tired. (How?)
• I'll wash the dishes after I eat dinner. (When?)
• She scrubbed the floor until it was spotless. (When?)
• Because you got here late, you'll need to fill out these forms. (Why?)
• Rather than buying a new car, she chose to have her old one fixed. (Why?)
• Wherever you go, I'll find you. (Where?)
• Alex will enjoy the movie more than his sister will. (To what degree?)
• The hostess wouldn't seat us because the restaurant was closed. (Why?)
• The seeds will take root wherever there is enough light. (Where?)

Adverbial clause signifiers

Adverbial phrases start with subordinate conjunctions. Those are words that join together an independent and dependent clause while indicating which is the subordinate (or secondary) clause.

Subordinate conjunctions:

• After
• Although
• As
• Because
• Before
• Even if
• Even
• Though
• If
• In order
• That
• Once
• Provided
• That
• Rather
• Than
• Since
• So that
• Then
• Though
• Unless
• Until
• When
• Whenever
• Where
• Whereas
• Wherever
• Whether
• While
• Why

Punctuating adverbial clauses

Like adjective clauses, adverbial ones are sometimes set off by commas. However, in this case, it's their placement in the sentence that determines how they're punctuated. Clauses that begin the sentence should be separated from the main clause with a comma. Those added at the end of the main clause do not need one:

• Rather than buying a new car, she chose to have her old one fixed.
• She chose to have her old car fixed rather than buying a new one.

Use of Phrases

Phrases are combinations of two or more words that form the component of a clause. They are meaningful grammatical constructions that expresses a concept and can be used within a sentence.

There are 5 basic types of phrases in the English language:

1. Noun Phrase:

A noun phrase is a type of phrase which consists of one noun and/or a group of words surrounding that noun. These nouns can be proper nouns, common nouns, abstract nouns etc.

Examples: There is a red box on the table.

I saw two lost puppies on the street yesterday.

He bought a new sports car on his birthday.

2.     Verb Phrase:

A verb phrase is a type of phrase which consists of a root verb and its auxiliaries. It is also known as a ‘verb group’.

Examples: They have been working since last night.

I have been waiting for the rain to stop for nearly an hour.

Jack lost the keys to his apartment when he was jogging.

3.     Adjective Phrase:

Adjective phrases are phrases constructed around a single adjective. It may be a single adjective or a group of words surrounding that adjective.

Examples: The film was very boring, wasn’t it?

I ate a very big meal for lunch.

The blue umbrella stood out in a crowd of all red umbrellas.

4.     Adverb phrase:

Adverb phrases consist of a single adverb and a group of supporting words surrounding that adverb.

Examples: They finished the task as fast as possible.

Please do it now, otherwise you’ll regret later.

He spoke very softly in front of his parents.

5.     Prepositional phrase:

A prepositional phrase is a type of phrase which consists of a preposition which is followed by its object which is usually a noun phrase.

Examples: They kept quarrelling over money of all things.

The coin was stuck inside a large black futon.

You shouldn’t go swimming after having a large meal.

1.5.          Importance of Punctuation – Techniques for Writing Precisely

Importance of Punctuation

Marks of punctuation play an extremely significant role in giving proper meaning to the language. Use of incorrect mark of punctuation or even wrong position of mark of punctuation can change the meaning of the sentence totally and sometimes even change the sentence to absolute nonsense.

Punctuation is essential for the following reasons:

• Punctuation separates sentences.
• Punctuation shows us when to pause.
• Punctuation shows us where to place emphasis.
• Punctuation clarifies the meaning of the sentence.

Ambiguous, unpunctuated sentences can change the meaning and confuse the reader.

The comma is considered a real villain among marks of punctuation. Incorrect position of comma can give different meaning to sentence depending upon where it is positioned.

Let us see the following sentences:

• Let us eat, daddy.
• Let us eat daddy.

In the primary sentence daddy is being called for dinner. On the other hand, in the next sentence, daddy himself has become a thing to be eaten. Slip of comma in this case has changed the primary sentence to absolute non-sense.

• Hang him, not let him free
• Hang him not, let him free.

In above sentences, just changing comma by one place has entirely misrepresented the meaning of the sentence.

In 1872, incorrect placement of comma cost millions of dollars in import duties to US government. In a tariff act approved in 1872, list of duty-free items added: “Fruit plants, tropical & semi tropical.”

A government officer put the mark of comma at wrong place, which made the sentence read: “Fruit, plants tropical & semi tropical.”

Importers productively contested in the courts that the course as written meant that all tropical & semitropical plants were free from expense of duty.

Next pairs of can also encourage anybody on the subject of right use of marks of punctuation sentences:

• The murderer protested his innocence an hour after he was hanged.
• The murderer protested his innocence. An hour after, he was hanged.

The primary sentence without comma is an absolute nonsense. It means that the murderer protested his innocence after he was hanged!

1. Private- No swimming allowed.
2. Private? No. Swimming allowed.

In the second sentence, addition of a question mark and full stop has transformed personal possessions to public possessions.

• I am sorry you cannot come with us.
• I am sorry. You cannot come with us.

• The butler stood by the door & called the guests’ names.
• The butler stood by the door & called the guests names.

• The criminal, says the judge, should be hanged.
• The criminal says, the judge should be hanged.

Changing the comma by just one place has entirely misrepresented the meaning of the sentence. In the next sentence, it is not the criminal but the judge who should be hanged.

& finally

• The inspector said, “The teacher is a fool.”
• “The inspector,” said the teacher “is a fool.” (Here the inspector is called a fool)

The above given sentences are to show the significance of use of not only correct mark of punctuation, but their right position also.

Techniques for Writing Precisely

By the term 'text' we refer to a passage consisting of different sentences written in continuous prose. It could be just a paragraph. When we read the paragraph, we can understand what is said and we can be able to follow the thinking of the writer. If we are not able to follow we can say that the concerned paragraph lacks cohesion and coherence.

Writing promotes three types of skills namely lexical skill, grammatical skills, and discourse skill.

Discourse skill:

It is a skill of presenting ideas and arguments of the writer logically. If this skill is developed we come to know what is coherence and cohesion. Every line has a logical link with the previous one in the text or paragraph which is called the link between sentences in a paragraph. They are:

     Topical

     Grammatical

     Logical.

This type of link or inter connectedness is known as cohesion. Topical cohesion is lexical in nature. Logical cohesion is known as coherence.

1. Topical cohesion

In a text only one topic is dealt with. It has collocation of related make use of words. Whenever we are writing on a particular topic we appropriate register. So register is the term used to denote the variety of language which depends on its particular use. But using proper register is a hall mark of advanced mastery of the language. Hence it is sufficient to learn collocation rather than register. Topically connected words and its repetition is seen in the text. Synonyms are freely used.

B.    Grammatical cohesion:

Here sentences can be interconnected by grammar. Grammatical relationship can be brought about by the use of pronouns appositives etc.

C.   Logical cohesion or Coherence:

A sentence in a text should be logically connected. Logical cohesive is achieved by the use of certain words and expressions. There are about a dozen logical devices used to promote cohesion.

• Addition: We add one sentence to another by using linguistic markers like and, besides, in addition, moreover, further, again etc.

e.g: He has a car. In addition, he owns a bike

• Amplification: Amplification means adding details to the text. It is more or less like addition. The same linguistic markers are used here also.

e.g:    He came to see me moreover he brought good news.

• Comparison: Here the first sentence states something. Similar idea is expressed in the second sentence. Markers used are similarly and likewise.

e.g:    Rama got his degree. Similarly, Gopal also got his degree

• Contrast: The second sentence strikes a contrast with the first sentence making use of linguistic markers like 'but, however, whereas, etc.

e.g:     He is poor but he is kind.

• Concession: The second sentence makes a concession on the basis of the sentence. The linguistic markers used are through, although, even though.

e.g:    He is poor. Though he is poor he is kind.

• Condition: The second sentence puts forth a condition-based idea with reference he first sentence if, unless, as long as are used.

e. g: If you work hard, you will pass.

• Cause and effect: The first sentence states the cause or reason. The second sentence covers the effect of that cause. As a result, therefore are used as refers to the linguistic markers.

e.g: He is suffering from fever. Therefore, he has not come to school.

• Enumeration: The sentence making, use of this device draw up a list. The markers used are 'first, to begin, finally' etc.

e.g: He was persistently asking me for a loan. Finally, he went away.

• Exemplification: The second sentence gives an example for what is stated in the first sentence. The linguistic markers used are for example, for instance, etc.

e.g: The government has implemented a number of good schemes.

For example, adult education has been given great importance.

• Temporal Relationship: The second sentence refers to a time factor connected to the first sentence. 'before, after, during, meanwhile etc are used.

e.g: We were discussing the problem.

Meanwhile the problem has worsened.

• Conclusion: The second sentence arises at a conclusion based on the idea expressed in the first sentence. The markers used are" to conclude, to sum up, in brief etc.

e.g: He has no clear alibi, to conclude he is the culprit.

• Reformulation: The second sentence 'remarks the first sentence. The markers used are in the other words, he is dishonest etc.

Defining Coherence in Writing:

Have you ever read something that was difficult to follow, where the author jumped from one idea to another and had no coherence or consistency in connecting words, sentences and paragraphs? That is something you want to avoid in your writing. But how do you do that?

Coherence writing is a logical bridge between words, sentences, and paragraphs. Comprehensive writing uses devices to link ideas within each sentence and paragraph. Key ideas and description can be difficult for the reader to follow when writing is not in line. In this tutorial, you will see some examples and read some tips for making your writing more consistent between words, phrases and paragraphs.

Coherence Between Words:
Between each word, an overlap can be created in parallel. Syntactic structure means using the same grammatical structure between words and sentences. Similarities are very important for words in lists. If you make a list of things that a person likes to do, then each employee on the list should take the same kind of language. For example, if one of the actions in the list takes the 'gaming' form of gerund, the same as 'running', the other items in the list should be in the gerund form.

An informal structure will:
Sara loves jumping, running, and boating.
Instead, the list should be like this:
Sarah loves to jump, run, and walk.

Coherence between Sentences:
Cohesion can be formed between sentences by using replication and transition devices. The repetition of words in every sentence helps to repeat the same thoughts between sentences. One way to use repetition to build consensus is to combine the repetition of the same word or phrase at the end of one sentence and at the end of the next sentence to show how thoughts come together. Here is an example of phrases that create reciprocal harmony:

The most important part of the essay is the thesis statement. The thesis statement introduces the contention of the text. Thesis statement also helps to shape the context.

In this example, the repetition of the word 'thesis statement' helps to combine the three sentences. It is a sentence that completes the first sentence and shifts to the next sentence starting with that sentence.

Another way to build consistency between sentences is transformational devices. There are many types of converging devices that show time and help ideas flow smoothly. Change words, such as 'first', 'later', and 'then', are just a few examples of interchange devices that show time to help ideas flow smoothly. Swap devices are like display signs that tell the reader what happened before and where the conversation is going.

Coherence Between Categories:
Temporary words can also be used between paragraphs. Words such as:

• Therefore
• However
• Thus
• First
• Later
• After that

It can be used not only between sentences, but between paragraphs to connect them. Other ways to build consistency between categories include paragraph structure and visual consistency. The structure of a related paragraph includes a topic sentence, which focuses on the main idea. The topic sentence usually comes first in the paragraph. The topic sentence is followed by supporting sentences that develop the idea and finally the concluding sentence to put it all together. Temporary words then close the gap between paragraphs, and then the structure begins with another topic sentence in the next paragraph.

Establishing Associations
 

It is important to consider the conjunction when writing at the sentence level. However, cohesion shapes the flow of text and must be established.

There are various ways to ensure consistent cohesion:

• Write sentences that flow with varying lengths and structures, use punctuation, and extend your choice of words.
• Use simple modifications, such as "in addition, additionally, and, therefore, the opposite, in the same token, at the same time, in other words, etc."
• Repeat your keywords but beware of excessive repetition.
• Repeat sentence structures, used as a means of livelihood rather than unity to emphasize the similarities between sentences.
• Ensure consistency regarding them
• Begin each sentence or paragraph with information showing the content of the next sentence.

Academic writing is improved in terms of cohesion. Without unity and cohesion, students will become confused and ultimately disinterested in the subject. Your ideas are then lost and the original purpose of writing is lost.

Strategies for coherent writing:

There are six ways to make a cohesive encounter, which you will find useful while researching your manuscript.
Building relationships is not as difficult as it seems, but you will need the right tools and strategies to achieve it.

Lexis creates cohesion using text templates, hyponyms, and superordinates. The use of lexical chains creates variety in writing and avoids monotony.

• The index creates combinations by using noun phrases (e.g. Yours, theirs, etc.), pronouns (e.g. He, I, etc.), and commentators (e.g. Those, these, etc.).
• Submission, which is to use a different name instead of the previously mentioned name (e.g. "I bought a designer bag today. You did the same.")
• Ellipsis removal or omission because its meaning is defined in context (e.g. "You go to yoga classes in the afternoon. I hope I can too.")
• Related nouns are also called umbrella nouns because they summarize many words in one.
• Suffixes include words that write ideas (e.g. First, next, then, last, etc.)

1.6.           Paragraph Writing – Types, Structures and Features of a Paragraph – Creating Coherence - Organizing Principles of Paragraphs in Documents

Structure of a Paragraph

A paragraph is a group of related sentences that support one central idea. Generally, the paragraphs have three parts: the topic sentence, the body sentences, and the conclusion or sentence of the bridge to the next paragraph or paragraph. Paragraphs indicate where the division of a research book begins and ends, and, thus, helps the reader to see the order of the text and to understand its main points.

Business documents - such as letters, emails, reminders and reports - use categories to distinguish different types of information, ideas, and ideas. The sections written in the business format are organized in an orderly, professional and well-organized manner. When writing a business document, we have to look at how the paragraph will appear on the page, the organization of the section and its placement throughout the article. We have to agree on the way our categories are organized. We should use short language and simple style to keep the reader focused on our message.

Structure and Writing Style

Most of the subsections in the book revolve around the formation of three general sections of each section of the research paper, and, by extension, a comprehensive research paper, with an introduction, a body of facts and analysis, and a conclusion. You can see this structure in stages as it relates, describes, compares, compares or analyzes information. Each section of the paragraph plays an important role in conveying the meaning you desire to the reader.

Introduction (The Topic Sentence):

Writers don’t get a second chance to make a first impression. The first sentence or topic sentence of the paragraph will give readers a first impression of the argument, the writing style, and the overall quality of the work. A vague, random presentation, full of errors, a wall, or a developing introduction may create a negative impression. On the other hand, a short, fun, and well-written introduction will start readers not thinking too much about writer's analytical skills, writing, and the paper.

Introduction is an important road map throughout the paper. It conveys a wealth of information to readers. Can let them know what the topic is, why it's important, and how it is planned to continue the discussion. In most academic disciplines, introduction should contain a thesis that will enhance the main argument.

Introduction should also give the reader a sense of the types of information to use to make that argument with the general organization of the paragraphs and pages to follow. After reading introduction, readers should not have any major surprises in store when reading the main body of the paper.

Ideally, introduction will make readers want to read the paper. The introduction should spark the interest of readers, making them want to read the rest of the paper. Opening up with a compelling story, an interesting question, or a clear example can get readers to see why the topic is important and serves as an invitation for them to join you in informative discussions (remember, however, that these strategies will not be appropriate for all papers and advice).

The body: follows the introduction; discusses regulatory logic, uses facts, arguments, analyzes, examples, and other information.

Conclusion: final stage; it summarizes the connection between the information discussed in the body of the paragraph and the governing concept of the paragraph. For longer paragraphs, you may want to include a bridge sentence introducing the next section or section of the paper. In some cases, the sentence of the bridge may be written in the form of a question. However, use this smart device a bit, otherwise, completing most sections with a question to lead to the next level sounds a bit daunting.
 

NOTE: This standard layout does not mean you should not be creative in your writing. Editing when each element fits into a category can make the paper engaging for the reader. However, don't get too creative in trying out the narrative flow of stages. Doing so may jeopardize the central issues of your research and limit the quality of your academic writing.

Topic Sentence

Every paragraph must consist of a topic sentence which identifies the central idea of that paragraph. A topic sentence also expresses the point a writer is trying to make about that subject.

Generally, the topic sentence appears at the beginning of the paragraph as the introductory sentence. It is most often the paragraph’s very first sentence. A paragraph’s topic sentence should be general enough to express the paragraph’s overall subject and specific enough that the reader can understand the paragraph’s main subject and point. A well-organized paragraph will support or develop a single controlling idea within the paragraph, which is expressed in the form of the topic sentence.

There are various important functions served by a topic sentence:

• It substantiates and supports a paragraphs thesis statement
• It directs the order of the sentences and provides unity to the paragraph
• It informs the reader of the subject that is to be discussed in the rest of the paragraph and how the paragraph will discuss it.

The first few sentences generally define the tone, mood, subject matter and perspective of the paragraph. Therefore, it is advisable to put the topic sentence at the very beginning of the paragraph. In some cases, however, its more efficient to input another sentence before the topic sentence—for example, a transitional sentence linking the current paragraph to the previous one, or a sentence providing background information.

Although almost all paragraphs consist of a topic sentence, there are a few situations when a paragraph might not need a topic sentence. For example, a narrative paragraph that describes a series of events might not need a topic sentence, if a paragraph continues developing an idea that was introduced (with a topic sentence) in the previous paragraph, or if all the sentences and details in a paragraph clearly refer or indicate to a main point. The vast majority of your paragraphs, however, must contain a topic sentence.

When choosing a topic sentence, remember these guidelines:

1. The topic sentence should be able to describe the main idea and main theme of the paragraph.
2. To choose an appropriate topic sentence, read the paragraph carefully, collect all the main ideas discussed in it and choose the central idea which relates to all other ideas.
3. The supporting sentences in the paragraph (the sentences other than the topic sentence) must develop and elucidate the topic sentence. To do this, you can read all the supporting details in the paragraph and think about the ideas they discuss.
4. The topic sentence cannot be and must not be too general or too specific. When considering the options, look for a topic sentence that is general enough to show the paragraph’s main idea instead of just one of its details. The answer should be specific enough that the reader understands the main idea of the paragraph.

Organising Principles of Paragraphs in Documents

Business documents - such as letters, emails, reminders and reports - use categories to distinguish different types of information, ideas, and ideas. The sections written in the business format are organized in an orderly, professional and well-organized manner. When writing a business document, we have to look at how the paragraph will appear on the page, the organization of the section and its placement throughout the article. We have to agree on the way our categories are organized. We should use short language and simple style to keep the reader focused on our message.

Block Status:

The general visual format of the sections in the business document is the block format where the section start is missing. Instead, the entire section is separated on its own and left with a reason, which means it corresponds to the left edge of the paper. A blank line is inserted at the back of each section to distinguish it from the next section or item of a document. Semi-block, where each article's beginning is inserted, is rarely used.

Font:

The sections in the business document are typed in traditional font such as 12-point Times New Roman. Avoid using strange fonts that deviate from your text. Use the same font for the rest of the document, except for titles, which can use either a larger font size or a stronger typeface.

Paragraph content:

Each section has to deal with one main idea. Introduce the main idea to a common statement in the first paragraph of a paragraph. Follow this topic sentence with a few sentences that support the main idea. This may contain informative information or debate to defend your view. Wrap up the paragraph with a summary sentence. If the class is running too long, you risk losing the student's attention. Instead, arrange the long section into two or more sections.

Paragraph Order:

A business document, such as a report or letter, begins with a paragraph that informs the title of the book. This is followed by one or more sections that develop the lesson. The concluding paragraph summarizes the information you provided or asked the student to take some action. For example, a letter outlining the reasons for an ad campaign may begin with an introductory paragraph introducing the campaign, followed by three sections each explaining the unique purpose of the campaign and a concluding paragraph asking the reader to approve the campaign. If the document is long, use headers to separate large sections.

Style:

While the tone can be friendly, business texts are written in formal style. Your writing may be read by third parties and kept by the company for many years, so avoid personal comments. Keep your writing up to date using gender-neutral language, as well as grammar and spelling. Keep your sentences short and to the point. Avoid clichés, contraction and slang.

Techniques of Writing a Paragraph

Below are the Techniques of writing a good paragraph:

1. Before you begin to figure out what the composition of a particular role is going to be, you have to look at what the most important concept you are trying to convey to your student. This is a "controlling concept," or thesis statement in which you name the remainder of the paragraph. In other words, your paragraphs should remind your reader that there is a general relationship between your control concept and the information at each stage. The research problem serves as the seed from which your paper, and your ideas, will grow. The whole process of stage development is a work-in-progress progression from seed theory to full-scale research where there is a direct, family-friendly relationship on paper between all of your control ideas and the stages they come from.

• Unified - All sentences in one paragraph should be accompanied by a single control point [usually expressed in paragraph heading].

• Obviously related to the research problem — All sentences should refer to the central idea, or thesis, of the paper.

• Coherent - Sentences should be organized correctly and should follow a detailed development plan.

• Well-Developed - All the ideas discussed in the section should be adequately explained and supported by evidence and data that work together to explain the concept that governs the section.

There are many different ways you can organize a category. However, the organization you choose will depend on the regulatory vision of the sector. Methods of classification in academic writing include:

• Narrative: Tell a story. Go in chronological order, from beginning to end.

• Descriptive: Provide specific information about how something looks or feels. Sort by location, chronological, or topic.

• Procedure: Explain step by step how the object works. Maybe you are following in order - first, second, and third.

• Classification: Divide into groups or describe different parts of a topic.

4.     Devote one paragraph to one idea

One paragraph should develop one idea. This will help you see two important issues you will have to correct:

(1) The ideas in the paragraph which do not relate to the main idea – this means their position should be changed; and

(2) you have several sentences with the same main idea – this means you have to remove repetitive content.

5.     Use of Active Voice

It is advisable to change all of the passive sentences into active voice (the exclusions may be the methodology section in scientific papers). Active voice improves clarity of sentences and makes the paper more engaging. Scientists and engineers might use passive voice to avoid the use of personal pronouns. However, all scientific and engineering journals now encourage authors to use I and We. You should also use personal pronouns – they do not make the writing biased; on the contrary, they make authors assume responsibility for their inferences and decisions.

However, students should try avoiding personal pronouns, but this does not mean you should use passive voice. When you look critically at your writing, you will see that in many cases the passive tone is not necessary and you can simply reverse it to active with no loss in meaning.

6.     Use semicolons, colons, dashes and parentheses to effectively combine and separate ideas

Proper use of punctuation will provide more clarity to your ideas and will help you organize them better.

Semicolons can solve the issue of two short sentences following each other. They also help to separate an idea from the previous one while holding some form of connection. For example: “A short sentence may emphasize and make a reader pause; several short sentences in a row break this connection.” Colons help to cut clutter when enumerating. Dashes and parentheses can both be used to put a clause aside and ease reading. However, use them carefully, as dashes emphasize what they separate, while parentheses – deemphasize it (actually, what is found in the parenthesis can be simply skipped by a reader).  

Features of a Paragraph - Unity, Coherence and Emphasis

Paragraph Unity means that the sentences in a paragraph should be united as a whole. It means that all the sentence a paragraph should be directly supportive of the topic sentence.

They unity of a paragraph can only be said to be established when all the sentences in that paragraph connect to the main idea. Many times while writing, the topic may be ambiguous, insufficient materials or resources may be available, or the purpose might be indefinite, which can lead to a diversified paragraph lacking unity.

Unity in a paragraph always starts with the topic sentence. Every paragraph must contain one single, controlling idea which must be expressed in its topic sentence, which is usually the first sentence of the paragraph. A paragraph must be then written in such a way that it is unified around this main idea, with the supporting sentences providing detail and discussion. In order to write a good topic sentence, think about your main theme and all the points you want to make in your paragraph. Decide which are the driving points, and then write the main one as your topic sentence.

Paragraph Coherence means that each and every sentence in a paragraph are linked together in a continuous line of thought and are organised in such a way so as to form a unity of idea. The sentences in a paragraph must always connect to each other and should work together as a whole with no gaps in the logical process.

Using transition words is one of the best methods of achieving coherence. These words act as bridges that connect sentences. Transition words that show order (first, second, third); spatial relationships (above, below) or logic (furthermore, in addition, in fact) are very useful for connecting sentences. Also, in writing a paragraph, using only one tense throughout and using only one perspective for descriptions are important ingredients for coherency.

There are some techniques which may be helpful with forming coherence in the paragraph:

• First is to think of a very clear topic sentence, the topic sentence must contain the central idea of the paragraph.
• Second is to use question and answer pattern in writing down the topic sentence. The question and answer pattern may be in the form of problem-solution or in general to particular to general format.
• Third is by positioning the topic sentence in the paragraph. Topic sentence is usually placed as the first sentence of the paragraph or sometimes it might serve as a transitional information before the paragraph. It may also be possible to put the topic sentence in the last sentence of the paragraph if it is not explicitly stated but is being implied.
• Another technique is to structure the paragraph using an ordering pattern such as the question-answer pattern, the problem-solution pattern and the topic-illustration pattern.

The third most important requirement of a well ­constructed paragraph is Emphasis. Emphasis in literal terms means “force” or “stress.” You may have a fairly well structured, coherent and unified paragraph but it might be lacking emphasis which is a common mistake among writers. Emphasis means that the main idea of the paragraph must be stressed in every sentence. A paragraph must not seem like a mass of useless details and unnecessary explanations. By keeping the same subject in every sentence, you can be sure that you are emphasising the main idea, whenever this is possible. In this way you are likely to improve the unity because it will not be so easy to go off the track. You are much less likely to introduce unrelated ideas if you are not changing subjects.

There are some techniques which might be useful in emphasising the paragraphs main idea:

You can establish emphasis by position, by repetition by climactic order.

• In establishing emphasis by position, it should be considered that the most significant ideas should be put in the introduction, in the conclusion, or in both parts within the paragraph. The paragraph should be filled with relevant statements not excluding minor details depending upon the need. Ending the paragraph by a summary of recapitulation is also beneficial.
• In establishing emphasis by repetition, the central idea can be repeated by using different words which will stress its importance. This strategy usually impresses the readers most emphatically with what the writer is trying to explain.
• In establishing emphasis by climactic order, the details in the paragraph must be arranged gradually beginning with the simple or least significant and ending with the most complex or most significant.