Unit 1
Concept of Research
Research, usually to answer a question or issue, is looking for and collecting information. The word research is derived from the word 'recherché' in French, which means 'to go searching.' The word research consists of two "re" and "search" syllables. = Research involves creative work undertaken on an organized basis to enhance the knowledge bank, including human, cultural and societal knowledge, and to make use of this knowledge bank to formulate new applications. It is used to generate or confirm facts, reconfirm previous work results, solve new or existing issues, support theorems, or develop new theories. An extension of past work in the relevant field may also be a research project. Research is a continuous process and, particularly in business, is useful in decision-making. In a number of distinct ways, research has been defined.
According to Martyn Shuttleworth, any collection of information, data and facts for the advancement of knowledge is research. "Research is a process of steps used to gather and analyse information to increase our understanding of a topic or problem," Creswell says.
Research is an organized enquiry, according to Fred Kerlinger, designed and carried out to provide information for solving a problem.
- To get insights about problem.
- To find solutions for a problem.
- To test existing laws or theories.
- To develop new ideas, concepts and theories.
- To test hypothesis of a causal relationship between variables.
- To identify areas where research could make the difference.
- To predict future of events
Following are the assumptions of scientific method-
1. Nature is orderly, and the laws of nature describe that order.
When we speak of the orderliness of nature, we speak in terms of regularity, pattern, and structure. For example, when we look at a herd of wildebeest migrating, we assume that it’s not just random behaviour. We justify this assumption through observation by noting the patterns of behaviour, the structure of the herd etc, and thereby come to conclusions explaining their behaviour. The same applies to other natural phenomena. Before Newton’s law was formulated, the motions of the planets were unexplained. We knew they were moving in specific patterns, but we didn’t know why. Newton unravelled the mystery by making an assumption: he assumed that gravity would hold true not just here, but elsewhere too. A universal law that applied everywhere. Of course, we haven’t seen every single star in the universe, or every planet, but Newton’s law has held true at every single star we have observed, and in every single test we have devised, so we can safely assume that Newton’s law is universal.
2.We can know nature.
We assume that we can learn about nature and natural law through observing it. This might seem self-evident, but it isn’t. Until you make the logical assumption that you can learn about something by observing it, you can’t begin to reason about it. Once again, we’re assuming that something is universally true. If I can learn about wildebeest by observing them, can I also learn about, say, the past by looking at the ruins of an ancient city? We assume that we can, and so we do it, and thus far, it’s yielded very good results.
3. All phenomena have natural causes.
We assume that nothing we see is unnatural. If it occurs within nature, then it is a natural occurrence, and if it’s a natural occurrence, we assume that that it obeys some natural law, and that by observing it, we can learn about it. Thus far, this too have held true, and so it was a pretty decent assumption.
4. Nothing is self-evident.
“Thunder causes sour milk. Any idiot knows that.” If I told you that, how would you know whether I was telling the truth or not? Would you just accept my word for it? Or would you challenge me about it? Or would you place a glass of milk on your table during a thunderstorm and test my statement? The advancement of knowledge requires that we assume something we know could be wrong, and if that is the case, we should test it to see if it’s true.
5. Knowledge is derived from acquisition of experience.
Learning through observation. We observe the herd of wildebeest migrating every year, and so we predict that, based on their past behaviour, they will continue to migrate. If comes back to observation giving you knowledge.
6.Knowledge is superior to ignorance.
This is a motivational assumption. Knowing more is better than knowing less. This is why we have schools and universities and the like.
These are the basic assumptions science is based on. They’re pretty common sensible, and they’ve held true over the years, so we assume that they’re a solid base to build on. After all, if those assumptions were untrue, then science itself could not have been successful in generating knowledge.
Of course, these are only the broad assumptions that science is based on. There are other, far more specific assumptions that come into play in specific situations.
Scientific assumptions pre-supposes that if something is true, something else will happen in a predictable fashion. Science is a reflection of reality, a model thereof. It is a representation of one small bit of reality to help up understand the whole. Because we’re not looking at the whole in totality, we have to make certain assumptions when we make observations or conduct experiments. We assume, for example, that using a red marker instead of a green marker to label a test tube doesn’t affect the chemical reaction taking place inside. We can test this assumption, and then we assume that it will continue to hold true. We assume that because agar was a good growth medium for bacteria today, it will be a good growth medium tomorrow. We assume that the laws governing bacterial growth will not have changed between now and tomorrow. The assumptions that we make can all be tested, and have been tested. We simply assume that they continue to hold true. If they didn’t hold true, then science would come to a grinding halt. Don’t think that just because a scientist says “Assuming that...”, the assumption he made was pulled out of thin air. It wasn’t.
Steps-
The aim of all scientific methods is the same, that is, to analyse the observation made at the beginning but there are various steps adopted as per the requirement of any given observation. However, there is a generally accepted sequence of steps of scientific methods.
- Observation and formulation of a question: This is the first step of a scientific method. In order to start one, an observation has to be made into any observable aspect or phenomena of the universe and a question needs to be asked pertaining to that aspect. For example, you can ask, “Why is the sky black at night? or “Why is air invisible?”
- Data Collection and Hypothesis: The next step involved in the scientific method is to collect all related data and formulate a hypothesis based on the observation. The hypothesis could be the cause of the phenomena, its effect, or its relation to any other phenomena.
- Testing the hypothesis: After the hypothesis is made, it needs to be tested scientifically. Scientists do this by conducting experiments. The aim of these experiments is to determine whether the hypothesis agrees with or contradicts the observations made in the real world. The confidence in the hypothesis increases or decreases based on the result of the experiments.
- Analysis and Conclusion: This step involves the use of proper mathematical and other scientific procedures to determine the results of the experiment. Based on the analysis, the future course of action can be determined. If the data found in the analysis is consistent with the hypothesis, it is accepted. If not, then it is rejected or modified and analysed again.
It must be remembered that a hypothesis cannot be proved or disproved by doing one experiment. It needs to be done repeatedly until there are no discrepancies in the data and the result. When there are no discrepancies and the hypothesis is proved beyond any doubt, it is accepted as a ‘theory’.
The characteristics of Research are-
1. Uses Scientific Methods: In order to discover facts, research uses scientific methods and tries to offer solutions to specific problems. To carry out research, researchers follow organized processes. Scientific methodology for carrying out investigations is used to obtain better results.
2. Continuous Process: It is a continuous process, as existing facts are studied and new facts are also developed. Research also attempts to distinguish the interaction between variables.
3. Multipurpose Activity: Research is a multi-purpose activity, as it includes not only Data collection, however, also includes forecasting the future, establishing relationships between variables, finding solutions to problems, and developing new theories, instruments, and concepts.
4. Maintains Objectivity and Eliminates Impartiality: Research is based on procedures that are appropriate. To understand research problems, it collects suitable, accurate and objective data. Researchers’ process data, analyze it and arrive at appropriate solutions after data collection.
5. Empirical Nature: Empirical research can be undertaken to study situations in which research can be conducted using methods such as observation, experimentation or survey.
6. Generalization: Conclusions from research can be applied to a large population. Research can be carried out on a sample of respondents representing the universe, where it is possible to apply the conclusions generated by research to the entire universe.
7. Researchers Controlled Movement of the Research Procedure: There are many variables in social research that have an effect on outcomes. Some of them can be considered as controlled variables due to different factors, while others can be tested for possible consequences. However, it is difficult to perform controlled experiments in social research, while controlled experiments in pure science are easy to perform.
8. Development of Concepts and Theories: Research helps to create new concepts and theories where such innovations can be useful on a large scale for the improvement of society.
Objectives-
1. To find out the real facts-
As we know, every type of research has its own object but the basic aim of the research is always to find out or obtained the information from the markets and societies and their number of respondents. A researcher evaluates or finds the real or exact information for our problem-related questions.
2. To achieve the new thoughts-
In this objective of the research, anybody can find new thoughts from the research. Research is the process of finding the exact information through proper observation, optimization, and experiments.
These are the scientific methods to find out or evaluate the information which is very necessary for evaluating the problem task.
3. To evaluate the information-
The first aim of the research is to find out the information and then evaluate them in an appropriate or efficient manner so that they can easily design the research problem and solve them also.
A researcher evaluates the information through various scientific approaches and methods, statistical analysis and procedures, and another type of tables and graphs.
4. To test a hypothesis-
In this objective of the research, the researcher does the causal relationship between the variables (it can also be said that the hypothesis testing research studies). The hypothesis testing study represents the number of actions like these terms:
(a) Making a formal statement,
(b) Selecting a significance level,
(c) Deciding the distribution use,
(d) Selecting a random sample and computing an appropriate value,
(e) Calculation of the probability,
(f) Comparing the probability.
5. To design or implement the research-
After the collection of all information, the researcher prepares the structure of a research design for the company so that they can easily describe or identify the structure of a particular research theme. The research designs can be broadcasted into two forms such as experimental designs and non-experimental designs.
After the structure of the research design, the researcher implements them in a problem and find out the optimum factor to solve them.
6. To improve the understanding-
In this objective of the research, the researcher helps to improve the understanding of a particular topic by asking what else needs to be evidenced before the research is purposeful, or what knowledge could be assembled from a more focused investigation, or scrutiny of the existing findings.
1. Research expands your knowledge base
The most obvious reason to do research is that you’ll learn more. There’s always more to learn about a topic, even if you are already well-versed in it. If you aren’t, research allows you to build on any personal experience you have with the subject. The process of research opens up new opportunities for learning and growth.
2. Research gives you the latest information
Research encourages you to find the most recent information available. In certain fields, especially scientific ones, there’s always new information and discoveries being made. Staying updated prevents you from falling behind and giving info that’s inaccurate or doesn’t paint the whole picture. With the latest info, you’ll be better equipped to talk about a subject and build on ideas.
3. Research helps you know what you’re up against
In business, you’ll have competition. Researching your competitors and what they’re up to helps you formulate your plans and strategies. You can figure out what sets you apart. In other types of research, like medicine, your research might identify diseases, classify symptoms, and come up with ways to tackle them. Even if your “enemy” isn’t an actual person or competitor, there’s always some kind of antagonist force or problem that research can help you deal with.
4. Research builds your credibility
People will take what you have to say more seriously when they can tell you’re informed. Doing research gives you a solid foundation on which you can build your ideas and opinions. You can speak with confidence about what you know is accurate. When you’ve done the research, it’s much harder for someone to poke holes in what you’re saying. Your research should be focused on the best sources. If your “research” consists of opinions from non-experts, you won’t be very credible. When your research is good, though, people are more likely to pay attention.
5. Research helps you narrow your scope
When you’re circling a topic for the first time, you might not be exactly sure where to start. Most of the time, the amount of work ahead of you is overwhelming. Whether you’re writing a paper or formulating a business plan, it’s important to narrow the scope at some point. Research helps you identify the most unique and/or important themes. You can choose the themes that fit best with the project and its goals.
6. Research teaches you better discernment
Doing a lot of research helps you sift through low-quality and high-quality information. The more research you do on a topic, the better you’ll get at discerning what’s accurate and what’s not. You’ll also get better at discerning the grey areas where information may be technically correct but used to draw questionable conclusions.
7. Research introduces you to new ideas
You may already have opinions and ideas about a topic when you start researching. The more you research, the more viewpoints you’ll come across. This encourages you to entertain new ideas and perhaps take a closer look at yours. You might change your mind about something or, at least, figure out how to position your ideas as the best ones.
8. Research helps with problem-solving
Whether it’s a personal or professional problem, it helps to look outside yourself for help. Depending on what the issue is, your research can focus on what others have done before. You might just need more information, so you can make an informed plan of attack and an informed decision. When you know you’ve collected good information, you’ll feel much more confident in your solution.
9. Research helps you reach people
Research is used to help raise awareness of issues like climate change, racial discrimination, gender inequality, and more. Without hard facts, it’s very difficult to prove that climate change is getting worse or that gender inequality isn’t progressing as quickly as it should. The public needs to know what the facts are, so they have a clear idea of what “getting worse” or “not progressing” actually means. Research also entails going beyond the raw data and sharing real-life stories that have a more personal impact on people.
10. Research encourages curiosity
Having curiosity and a love of learning take you far in life. Research opens you up to different opinions and new ideas. It also builds discerning and analytical skills. The research process rewards curiosity. When you’re committed to learning, you’re always in a place of growth. Curiosity is also good for your health. Studies show curiosity is associated with higher levels of positivity, better satisfaction with life, and lower anxiety.
Following are the types of research-
1. Basic Research
- It is also known as pure or fundamental research.
- This study is primarily carried out to improve the knowledge base. It is purely motivated by interest and a desire to expand our knowledge. This type of research tends not to be directly applicable to the real world in a direct way, but enhances our understanding of the world around us.
- Pure study can be exploratory, explanatory or descriptive.
- In various fields, basic research generates new ideas, principles and theories.
- Basic study concentrates on fundamental principles and theories of testing.
- It is sometimes implicitly said that there are no practical applications for fundamental research. For example, a study examining whether students from illiterate families cheat more often than students from literate families may be designed by someone conducting fundamental research on cheating behaviour.
- Note that the study is not conducted to decrease cheating or help people who cheat or any other "applied" aspect, but to raise awareness of cheating behavior.
2. Applied Research
- Instead of focusing on expanding knowledge, applied research is primarily associated with solving practical issues.
- It is mainly used to find solutions to issues that arise on a daily basis and to create innovative new technologies.
- The main aim of applied research is to provide better technology for human beings to enhance their standard of living.
- Example: Examining which approach to treatment is most effective for the treatment of cancer patients, while researching which strategies work best to motivate staff.
3. Quantitative Research
- Quantitative research is generally related with the positivist concept.
- It typically involves collecting and converting data into numerical form in order to be able to make statistical calculations and draw conclusions.
- Objectivity is very vital in quantitative research.
- They also examine their techniques and outcomes for any potential bias.
- The aim of quantitative research is the development of phenomenon-related mathematical models and theories. In social sciences, quantitative research is used primarily.
4. Qualitative Research
- Qualitative research is the approach generally associated with the concept of social constructivism, emphasizing the socially constructed nature of reality.
- It is about recording, analysing and trying to reveal the meaning of the debt and trying to disclose it.
- Human behaviour and experience, including conflicting beliefs, behaviours, and emotions, are important.
- Instead of what and when, the qualitative method tries to answer why and how to make decisions.
- The data collection and analysis approach are logical, but enables greater flexibility than quantitative research.
- On the basis of observation and communication with the participants, data is collected in textual form, such as through participant observation, in-depth interviews and focus groups.
- It is not converted into numerical form and is not statistically analysed.
5. Descriptive Research
- To describe the characteristics of an observable fact being studied, descriptive research is used.
- Descriptive studies are structured in such a way that they cannot be frequently altered, so they can be said to be rigid in nature.
- They cannot detect the relationship of cause and effect between variables.
- Questions like who, when, where, what and how are answered by descriptive research.
- This type of study describes what exists and can help to disclose new facts and meanings.
- Descriptive research has the purpose of observing, describing and documenting.
6. Exploratory Research
- For a problem which has not been clearly defined, exploratory research is conducted.
- The primary objective of this study is to collect initial information that helps to define problems and recommend hypotheses.
- Exploratory research helps to decide on the best research design, method of collecting data and subject selection.
- Exploratory research is often based on secondary research, such as the review of available research.
- Literature, or qualitative approaches through in-depth interviews, focus groups, projective approaches, case studies or pilot studies, such as informal discussions with customers, employees, management or competitors, and more formal approaches.
- Exploratory research can be carried out primarily when researchers lack a clear understanding of the problem.
- Exploratory research findings are generally not useful for decision-making, but they can provide significant insight into a given situation.
7. Historical Research
- It is defined as the type of research that looks at past events or combinations of events to take into account what has happened in the past.
- Historical research is carried out to discover the unknown; to answer questions, to recognize the relationship that the past has with the present; to record and evaluate the activities of individuals, agencies, or institutions; and to help understand the culture in which we live.
- Historical research can show patterns that have occurred in the past and over time, which can make it easier for us to see where we came from and what kinds of solutions we used in the past.
- Usually, we will find that what we do today is specifically rooted in the past. Historical research involves the collection and reading process of the collected research material, and the writing of the document from the collected data.
8. Experimental Research
- In sciences such as sociology and psychology, physics, chemistry, biology, medicine, etc., it is commonly used
- It is a set of research designs that use tampering and controlled testing to
- Understand basic processes.
- Typically, one or more variables are tampered with to determine their impact on a dependent variable.
- Experimental research is primarily used when: in a causal relationship there is time priority (cause precedes effect) or in a causal relationship there is uniformity (a cause will always lead to the same effect) or the magnitude of the correlation is large.
The following steps outline a simple and effective strategy for writing a research paper. Depending on your familiarity with the topic and the challenges you encounter along the way, you may need to rearrange these steps.
Step 1: Identify and develop your topic
Selecting a topic can be the most challenging part of a research assignment. Since this is the very first step in writing a paper, it is vital that it be done correctly. Here are some tips for selecting a topic:
- Select a topic within the parameters set by the assignment. Many times, your instructor will give you clear guidelines as to what you can and cannot write about. Failure to work within these guidelines may result in your proposed paper being deemed unacceptable by your instructor.
- Select a topic of personal interest to you and learn more about it. The research for and writing of a paper will be more enjoyable if you are writing about something that you find interesting.
- Select a topic for which you can find a manageable amount of information. Do a preliminary search of information sources to determine whether existing sources will meet your needs. If you find too much information, you may need to narrow your topic; if you find too little, you may need to broaden your topic.
- Be original. Your instructor reads hundreds of research papers every year, and many of them are on the same topics (topics in the news at the time, controversial issues, subjects for which there is ample and easily accessed information). Stand out from your classmates by selecting an interesting and off-the-beaten-path topic.
- Still can't come up with a topic to write about? See your instructor for advice.
Once you have identified your topic, it may help to state it as a question. For example, if you are interested in finding out about the epidemic of obesity in the American population, you might pose the question "What are the causes of obesity in America?" By posing your subject as a question you can more easily identify the main concepts or keywords to be used in your research.
Step 2: Do a preliminary search for information
Before beginning your research in earnest, do a preliminary search to determine whether there is enough information out there for your needs and to set the context of your research. Look up your keywords in the appropriate titles in the library's Reference collection (such as encyclopaedias and dictionaries) and in other sources such as our catalogue of books, periodical databases, and Internet search engines. Additional background information may be found in your lecture notes, textbooks, and reserve readings. You may find it necessary to adjust the focus of your topic in light of the resources available to you.
Step 3: Locate materials
With the direction of your research now clear to you, you can begin locating material on your topic. There are a number of places you can look for information:
If you are looking for books, do a subject search in the Alephcatalog. A Keyword search can be performed if the subject search doesn't yield enough information. Print or write down the citation information (author, title, etc.) and the location (call number and collection) of the item(s). Note the circulation status. When you locate the book on the shelf, look at the books located nearby; similar items are always shelved in the same area. The Aleph catalogue also indexes the library's audio-visual holdings.
Use the library's electronic periodical databases to find magazine and newspaper articles. Choose the databases and formats best suited to your particular topic; ask at the librarian at the Reference Desk if you need help figuring out which database best meets your needs. Many of the articles in the databases are available in full-text format.
Use search engines (Google, Yahoo, etc.) and subject directories to locate materials on the Internet. Check the Internet Resources section of the NHCC Library web site for helpful subject links.
Step 4: Evaluate your sources
See the CARS Checklist for Information Quality for tips on evaluating the authority and quality of the information you have located. Your instructor expects that you will provide credible, truthful, and reliable information and you have every right to expect that the sources you use are providing the same. This step is especially important when using Internet resources, many of which are regarded as less than reliable.
Step 5: Make notes
Consult the resources you have chosen and note the information that will be useful in your paper. Be sure to document all the sources you consult, even if you there is a chance you may not use that particular source. The author, title, publisher, URL, and other information will be needed later when creating a bibliography.
Step 6: Write your paper
Begin by organizing the information you have collected. The next step is the rough draft, wherein you get your ideas on paper in an unfinished fashion. This step will help you organize your ideas and determine the form your final paper will take. After this, you will revise the draft as many times as you think necessary to create a final product to turn in to your instructor.
Step 7: Cite your sources properly
Give credit where credit is due; cite your sources.
Citing or documenting the sources used in your research serves two purposes: it gives proper credit to the authors of the materials used, and it allows those who are reading your work to duplicate your research and locate the sources that you have listed as references. The MLA and the APA Styles are two popular citation formats.
Failure to cite your sources properly is plagiarism. Plagiarism is avoidable!
Step 8: Proofread
The final step in the process is to proofread the paper you have created. Read through the text and check for any errors in spelling, grammar, and punctuation. Make sure the sources you used are cited properly. Make sure the message that you want to get across to the reader has been thoroughly stated.
References:
- Research for Marketing Decisions Paul E. Green, Donald S. Tull
- Marketing Research- Text and Cases Harper W. Boyd Jr. , Ralph Westfall.
- Research methodology in Social sciences, O.R.Krishnaswamy, Himalaya Publication
