UNIT IV
MOTIVATING AND LEADING PEOPLE AT WORK
The term motivation is derived from the word ‘motive”. The word ‘motive’ as a noun means an objective, as a verb this word means moving into action. Therefore, motives are forces which induce people to act in a way, so as to ensure the fulfillment of a particular human need at a time. Behind every human action there is a motive. Therefore, management must provide motives to people to make them work for the organization.
Motivation may be defined as a planned managerial process, which stimulates people to work to the best of their capabilities, by providing them with motives, which are based on their unfulfilled needs.
“Motivation means a process of stimulating people to action to accomplish desired goods.” —William G. Scott
“Motivation is the process of attempting to influence others to do your will through the possibility of gain or reward.” — Flippo
Motivation is, in fact, pressing the right button to get the desired human behaviour.
Motivation is no doubt an essential ingredient of any Organisation. It is the psychological technique which really executes the plans and policies through the efforts of others.
Following are the outstanding Features of the concept of motivation:
1. Motivation is a personal and internal feeling:
Motivation is a psychological phenomenon which generates within an individual.
2. Motivation is need based:
If there are no needs of an individual, the process of motivation fails. It is a behavioural concept that directs human behaviour towards certain goals.
3. Motivation is a continuous process:
Because human wants are unlimited, therefore motivation is an ongoing process.
4. Motivation may be positive or negative:
A positive motivation promotes incentives to people while a negative motivation threatens the enforcement of disincentives.
5. Motivation is a planned process:
People differ in their approach, to respond to the process of motivation; as no two individuals could be motivated in an exactly similar manner. Accordingly, motivation is a psychological concept and a complex process.
6. Motivation is different from job satisfaction:
The process of motivation is illustrated in the figure given below:
|
Figure 15.1 shows an employee has a need or urge for promotion to a higher position. If this need is strong, the employee will fix his goal and find alternatives to reach the goal. The might have two alternatives, namely, (i) hard work and (ii) enhancement of qualification (e.g., getting MBA) and hard work.
The Process of Motivation
He might choose the second alternative and succeed in getting promotion (goal achievement) thus, his need for promotion would be satisfied and he would start again for the satisfaction of a new need.
1. MASLOW’S NEED HIERARCHY THEORY:
It is probably safe to say that the most well-known theory of motivation is Maslow’s need hierarchy theory Maslow’s theory is based on the human needs. Drawing chiefly on his clinical experience, he classified all human needs into a hierarchical manner from the lower to the higher order.
In essence, he believed that once a given level of need is satisfied, it no longer serves to motivate man. Then, the next higher level of need has to be activated in order to motivate the man. Maslow identified five levels in his need hierarchy as shown in figure 17.2.
|
These are now discussed one by one:
1. Physiological Needs:
These needs are basic to human life and, hence, include food, clothing, shelter, air, water and necessities of life. These needs relate to the survival and maintenance of human life. They exert tremendous influence on human behaviour. These needs are to be met first at least partly before higher level needs emerge. Once physiological needs are satisfied, they no longer motivate the man.
2. Safety Needs:
After satisfying the physiological needs, the next needs felt are called safety and security needs. These needs find expression in such desires as economic security and protection from physical dangers. Meeting these needs requires more money and, hence, the individual is prompted to work more. Like physiological needs, these become inactive once they are satisfied.
3. Social Needs:
Man is a social being. He is, therefore, interested in social interaction, companionship, belongingness, etc. It is this socializing and belongingness why individuals prefer to work in groups and especially older people go to work.
4. Esteem Needs:
These needs refer to self-esteem and self-respect. They include such needs which indicate self-confidence, achievement, competence, knowledge and independence. The fulfillment of esteem needs leads to self-confidence, strength and capability of being useful in the organisation. However, inability to fulfill these needs results in feeling like inferiority, weakness and helplessness.
5. Self-Actualization Needs:
This level represents the culmination of all the lower, intermediate, and higher needs of human beings. In other words, the final step under the need hierarchy model is the need for self-actualization. This refers to fulfillment.
The term self-actualization was coined by Kurt Goldstein and means to become actualized in what one is potentially good at. In effect, self- actualization is the person’s motivation to transform perception of self into reality.
According to Maslow, the human needs follow a definite sequence of domination. The second need does not arise until the first is reasonably satisfied, and the third need does not emerge until the first two needs have been reasonably satisfied and it goes on. The other side of the need hierarchy is that human needs are unlimited. However, Maslow’s need hierarchy-theory is not without its detractors.
The main criticisms of the theory include the following:
1. The needs may or may not follow a definite hierarchical order. So to say, there may be overlapping in need hierarchy. For example, even if safety need is not satisfied, the social need may emerge.
2. The need priority model may not apply at all times in all places.
3. Researches show that man’s behaviour at any time is mostly guided by multiplicity of behaviour. Hence, Maslow’s preposition that one need is satisfied at one time is also of doubtful validity.
4. In case of some people, the level of motivation may be permanently lower. For example, a person suffering from chronic unemployment may remain satisfied for the rest of his life if only he/she can get enough food.
Notwithstanding, Maslow’s need hierarchy theory has received wide recognition, particularly among practicing managers. This can be attributed to the theory’s intuitive logic and easy to understand. One researcher came to the conclusion that theories that are intuitively strong die hard’.
2. MCGREGOR’S PARTICIPATION THEORY:
Douglas McGregor formulated two distinct views of human being based on participation of workers. The first basically negative, labeled Theory X, and the other basically positive, labeled Theory Y.
Theory X is based on the following assumptions:
1. People are by nature indolent. That is, they like to work as little as possible.
2. People lack ambition, dislike responsibility, and prefer to be directed by others.
3. People are inherently self-centered and indifferent to organisational needs and goals.
4. People are generally gullible and not very sharp and bright.
On the contrary, Theory Y assumes that:
1. People are not by nature passive or resistant to organisational goals.
2. They want to assume responsibility.
3. They want their organisation to succeed.
4. People are capable of directing their own behaviour.
5. They have need for achievement
|
What McGregor tried to dramatize through his theory X and Y is to outline the extremes to draw the fencing within which the organisational man is usually seen to behave. The fact remains that no organisational man would actually belong either to theory X or theory Y. In reality, he/she shares the traits of both. What actually happens is that man swings from one set or properties to the other with changes in his mood and motives in changing .environment.
3. HERZBERG’S MOTIVATION HYGIENE THEORY:
The psychologist Frederick Herzberg extended the work of Maslow and proposed a replacement motivation theory popularly referred to as Herzberg’s Motivation Hygiene (Two-Factor) Theory. Herzberg conducted a widely reported motivational study on 200 accountants and engineers employed by firms in and around Western Pennsylvania.
He asked these people to explain two important incidents at their jobs:
(1) When did you feel particularly good about your job, and
(2) When did you feel exceptionally bad about your job? He used the critical incident method of obtaining data.
The responses when analysed were found quite interesting and fairly consistent. The replies respondents gave once they felt good about their jobs were significantly different from the replies given once they felt bad. Reported good feelings were generally related to job satisfaction, whereas bad feeling with job dissatisfaction. Herzberg labeled the work satisfiers motivators, and he called job dissatisfies hygiene or maintenance factors. Taken together, the motivators and hygiene factors have become referred to as Herzberg’s two-factor theory of motivation
Herzberg’s motivational and hygiene factors are shown in the Table 17.1
|
According to Herzberg, the other of satisfaction isn't dissatisfaction. The underlying reason, he says, is that removal of dissatisfying characteristics from a job doesn't necessarily make the job satisfying. He believes in the existence of a dual continuum. The other of ‘satisfaction’ is ‘no satisfaction’ and therefore the opposite of ‘dissatisfaction’ is ‘no dis-satisatisfaction’.
According to Herzberg, today’s motivators are tomorrow’s hygiene because the latter stop influencing the behaviour of persons once they get them. Accordingly, one’s hygiene could also be the motivator of another.
However, Herzberg’s model is labeled with the subsequent criticism also:
1. People have a tendency to take credit themselves when things go well. They blame failure on the external environment.
2. The theory basically explains job satisfaction, not motivation.
3. Even job satisfaction isn't measured on an overall basis. it's not unlikely that an individual may dislike a part of his/ her job, still thinks the job acceptable.
4. This theory neglects situational variable to motivate an individual.
Because of its ubiquitous nature, salary commonly shows up as a motivator also as hygiene.
Regardless of criticism, Herzberg’s ‘two-factor motivation theory’ has been widely read and a few managers seem untaminar together with his recommendations. the most use of his recommendations lies in planning and controlling of employees work.
4. Quchi’s Theory
Quchi’s Theory Z has attracted the lot of attention of management practitioners also as researchers. It must be noted that Z doesn't represent anything, is simply the last alphabet within the English.
Theory Z is predicated on the subsequent four postulates:
1. Strong Bond between Organisation and Employees
2. Employee Participation and Involvement
3. No Formal Organisation Structure
4. Human Resource Development
Ouchi’s Theory Z represents the adoption of Japanese management practices (group deciding, social cohesion, job security, holistic concern for workers, etc.)by the American companies. In India, Maruti-Suzuki, Hero-Honda, etc., apply the postulates of theory Z.
Financial Incentives/ Techniques of Motivation:
Financial techniques refer to monetary rewards. Incentives are nothing but the inducements provided to employees in order to motivate them. There should be direct relationship between efforts and rewards, financial reward should be substantial in value and must be in parity with others.
Under -paying staff sends the message that your firm doesn’t value their work. Money is not a prime motivator but this should not be regarded as a signal to reward employees poorly or unfairly.
The financial incentives include:
1. Pay and Allowances:
It includes basic pay, grade pay, and dearness allowance; travelling allowance, pay increments, etc. Good pay and allowances help the organization to retain and attract capable persons.
However, good pay and allowances need not motivate all the people, especially who are enjoying security of job in government organizations and those for whom corruption is a way of life.
Some of the other issues are associated with bad attitudes, grievances, absenteeism, turnover, poor organizational citizenship, and adverse effect on employees’ mental and physical health.
2. Incentive Pay:
Incentive pay plans are meant to increase output, which can be measured quantitatively. For incentive plan targets, the employees must have confidence that they can achieve the targets.
3. Gain Sharing:
It is a reward system in which team members earn bonus for increasing productivity or reduce wastages. To illustrate, if the wastage is reduced from 5% to less the benefits may be shared equally with the team.
4. Profit Sharing:
It means sharing of profits with the employees by way of distribution of bonus. Profit sharing plan has its shortcomings – one, that it has become a regular feature in government departments irrespective of performance and two, it may have no relation with individual efforts.
5. Stock Options:
Many companies use employee stock options plans to compensate, retain, and attract employees. These plans are contracts between a company and its employees that give employees the right to buy a specific number of the company’s shares at a fixed price within a certain period of time.
Employees who are granted stock options hope to profit by exercising their options at a higher price than when they were granted. In India, stock options have primarily been used as a retention tool for a more selective group of employees.
6. Retirement Benefits:
It includes the accumulated provident fund, gratuity, leave encashment and pension. The provision of terminal benefits provides assurance to employees during the service for their future
Non-financial Incentives/Techniques:
Non-financial incentives do not involve money payments. These are also important in motivating employees as they bring in psychological and emotional satisfaction to them.
These include so many techniques. People do work for money-but they work even more for meaning in their lives. In fact, they work to have fun.
Some of the important non-financial incentives include:
1. Job security:
Nothing can motivate a worker, appointed temporarily, better than provision of job security. Even if a temporary worker puts in greater efforts, lack of job security will always pose a threat. If such a worker is given job security, he will be more committed to the organization.
2. Challenging work:
Workers, who are dynamic in nature, do not show preference for routine jobs. They are always ready to accept challenging assignments, challenge can be brought through mentoring, job redesigning – job enlargement and job enrichment. Understand the capabilities of every individual in the organization and accordingly assign him work.
3. Recognition:
It is important that the employer recognizes hard work. Even a word of appreciation from him would motivate the employees to maintain the same level of performance or do even better. Employees ranked a personal ‘thank you’ as the most sought after form of recognition, followed by a handwritten note of appreciation from the boss.
4. Better job Titles:
Job titles do matter. Employees do show preference for certain designations. A salesman, for example, would like to be designated as a sales executive and a sweeper to be Sanitary Inspector.
5. Opportunities for Advancement:
There should never be a stagnation point for any employee during the prime time of his career. The employer must always provide opportunities for his employees to perform well and move up in the hierarchy.
6. Empowerment:
To stimulate an employee is his involvement in certain crucial decisions. For example, if the management decides to buy a new machinery for the factory, the workers’ viewpoints may be secured before making the final decision. The management should avoid unilateral decisions on such matters.
7. Competition:
The management can encourage healthy competition among the employees. This would, certainly, motivate them to prove their capabilities. The management can also rank the employees according to performance. Such of those employees who have performed very well may be given merit certificates.
8. Job Rotation:
By job rotation we mean that the employees will be exposed to different kinds of job. This certainly would break the monotony of employees. For example, in a bank an employee may work in the Savings Bank Section for sometime after which he may be posted to the cash section. Such a change not only motivates the employees to perform well but also prepares him to be versatile.
9. Lead by Example — be passionate and energetic:
Leaders should demonstrate the attitudes, values, actions, and mindsets that they want among their staff. Leaders are always considered as role models.
10. Encourage the use of humour and creativity:
Incorporating humour into the workplace can alleviate stress and create a more positive environment for everyone. Strategies to enhance humour include having a daily cartoon or joke sent to all staff via e-mail, encouraging laughter, finding fun in events that did not turn out as planned or expected etc.
11. Treat your people as human beings – neither inferior, nor superior:
Show trust and respect, motivate them for creativity, create a ‘safe-to-risk environment’, keep them informed of relevant developments inside the organisation, mistakes be treated as learning tools instead of blaming them, act as an advocate for their employees and be a visible champion for them, provide resources and support required by staff to complete their jobs, promote and provide two-way feedback, address stress and burnout, and implement work/life balance initiatives.
Meaning of Leadership
A Leader moves others to act while at the same time coordinating with the help of demonstration. They should be harmonious enough for others to follow their requests, and they should have the basic speculation aptitudes to realize the most ideal approach to utilize the assets available to an association. In business, administration is connected to execution, and any authority definition needs to consider. In this way, while initiative isn't characteristically connected to benefit, the individuals who are seen as compelling Leaders in corporate settings are the ones who increment their organization's main concern. While there are individuals who appear to be normally invested with more administration capacities than others, anybody can figure out how to turn into a Leader by improving specific abilities. History is loaded with individuals who, while having no past initiative experience, have ventured to the front in emergencies and convinced others to follow their recommended game-plan. They had attributes and characteristics that helped them to venture into parts of authority. The terms administration and the managements will in general be utilized conversely, yet they're not the equivalent. Initiative requires characteristics that stretch out past administration obligations. The two chiefs and directors need to deal with the assets available to them, however obvious initiative requires more. For instance, chiefs might possibly be depicted as moving by individuals working under them; however a Leader must move the individuals who follow them. Another distinction among Leaders and chiefs is that Leaders accentuate development regardless of anything else.
THE MAIN LEADERSHIP STYLES:
1. Autocratic or Authoritarian Style:
It is also known as leader centered style. Under this style of leadership there is complete centralization of authority in the leader i.e. authority is centered in the leader himself. He has all the powers to make decisions. There is no two ways communication, only downward communication is used.
It is leader who ran only communicate, he cannot be a communicate. He uses coercive measures. He adopts negative method of motivation. He wants immediate obedience of his orders and instructions. Any breach on the part of subordinates invites punishment. There is no participation from the subordinates in decision making. Leader thinks that he is the only competent person. Under autocratic style no time is wasted in two way communication for seeking opinion or advice. The task gets completed on time.
Edwin. B. Flippo has divided autocratic style of leadership into following three:
(a) Hard Boiled or Strict Autocrat:
He uses negative influence and expects that his orders should be obeyed by the employees immediately. Non compliance of his orders invites punishment. His outlook is “pay for performance”. He makes all decisions and does not reveal anything to anyone.
He is quite rigid on performance. This style is useful for newly employed or the employees having no experience. But this style should not be adopted when employees by nature are hard workers, experienced and understand their responsibility fully.
(b) Benevolent Autocrat:
He uses positive influences and develops effective human relations. He is known as paternalistic leader. He showers praise on his employees if they followed his orders and invites them to get the solutions of the problems from him.
He assumes the status of a parent. He feels happy in controlling all the actions of his subordinates. He wants complete loyalty from his subordinates. He hates disloyalty and punishes disloyal employees. He takes all the decisions and does not want any interference from anyone. This style of leadership is useful only when subordinates do not want to take any responsibility and wants close supervision.
(c) Manipulative Autocrat:
He is manipulative by nature and creates a feeling in the minds of his subordinates and workers that they are participating in decision making process. Like the two other types he also makes all decisions by himself. Non compliance of his orders invites punishment.
2. Democratic or Participative Style:
This style of leadership is also known as group centered or consultative leadership. Under this style leaders consult the group and solicit their opinion and participation from the following in decision making process. Democratic leaders confer authority on the group and after their consultation decisions are taken.
Leaders under this style encourage discussion by the group members on the problem under consideration and arrive at a decision by consensus. Two way communication channels are used. Participation or involvement in decision making process is rewarded. Under this style positive motivation techniques are used.
Exchange of ideas among subordinates and with the leader is given encouragement. Human values get their due recognition. Leaders give more freedom to their subordinates and invite to share responsibility.
Subordinates are asked to exercise self control. Leaders do not delegate authority to subordinates to make decisions but their opinions are sought before arriving at a decision. Under this style subordinates feel that their opinions are honored and they are given importance and not feel neglected. The leaders delegate responsibility according to experience and knowledge of the subordinates.
Cooperation of subordinates are sought that lead to creativity. This increases the productivity too. This is a very effective style where the subordinates are talented and qualified. It develops a sense of confidence among subordinates and they derive job satisfaction by working under participative leader. It improves quality of decision as it is taken after due consideration to valued opinions of the talented subordinates.
This style of leadership is not free from demerits. It takes more time to arrive at a decision. It is less effective if participation from the subordinates is for name sake. Consulting others while making decisions go against the capability of the leader to take decisions. Leader has to waste lot of time in pursuing subordinates. If employees refuse to work as a team with other members of the group renders the style of leadership ineffective.
3. Laissez-faire or Free Rein Style:
Under this style of leadership there is virtual absence of direct leadership. It is, therefore, known “as no leadership at all.” There is complete delegation of authority to subordinates so that they can make decisions by themselves. There is free flow of communication.
Subordinates have to exercise self control. They also have to direct their activities. It is people oriented style of leadership in true sense of the term. Leader gives free hand to his followers or subordinates. Absence of leadership may have positive and sometimes negative effects.
Free rein leadership may be effective if members of the group are highly committed. The negative aspect creates blemishes on the leader himself because of his incompetency in leading his people. It casts aspersions on the leader. However, this style of leadership provides chance for competent members of the group to fulfill and attain self actualization needs.
It gives chance to take initiative to the member. It gives chance for open discussion and creativity to all. It has free work environment. Members feel insecure and develop frustration for lack of specific decision making authority.
This style of leadership suffers a setback when some member of the group refuses to cooperate. It cannot take proper decision. It may lead to chaos and confusion. This style may work effectively when the subordinates are highly competent, able to exercise self control and can have the capacity to take decisions.
4. Bureaucratic Style:
Under this leadership the behaviour of leader is determined by rules, regulations and procedure. These rules and regulations are followed by the leader and the subordinates both. No one can escape. Hence, the management and administration has become a routine matter. This is apathetic to the employees because they know that they cannot do anything in this regard. It is the rules that determine their minimum performance. Rules allow work without participation and without committed to work. A lot of paper work is involved. Rules lead to red tapism. This style of leadership centres round the rules.
5. Manipulative Style:
As the name suggests the leader manipulates the employees to attain his objectives. Manipulative leader is quite selfish and exploits the aspirations of the employees for his gains. He knows very well the needs and desires of the employees but he does very little to fulfill them. He views these needs and desires as a tool to fulfill his aims. Employees do not trust such leader. He has to face the resentment of the employees at times.
6. Paternalistic Style:
The paternalistic style of leadership maintains that the fatherly attitude is the right one for better relationship between the manager and the employees. All are working together like a family. According to this style of leadership more benefits are to be provided to make the employees happy and extract maximum output from them. It believes in the concept that the happy employees work better and harder.
7. Expert Leadership Style:
The expert leadership style emerged as a result of complex structure of modern organisations. The leadership is based on the ability, knowledge and competence of the leader. He handles the situation skillfully with his talent. The employees feel relieved as they are working under a person who is expert and can handle the situation ably without any problem. But the expert may fail to handle the situation which does not belong to the area of his expertise.
Nature
Communications is fundamental to the existence and survival of humans as well as to an organization. It is a process of creating and sharing ideas, information, views, facts, feelings, etc. among the people to reach a common understanding. It is the key to the directing function of management.
The word communication has been derived from the Greek word ‘communis’ which means ‘common’. Thus, it means sharing of ideas in common.
According to Louis A. Allen, “Communication is the sum of all the things one person does when he wants to create understanding in the mind of another. It is a bridge of meaning. It involves a systematic and continuous process of telling, listening and understanding.”
The American Management Association defines communication as, “any behavior that results in the exchange of meaning.”
Koontz and O’Donnell are of the opinion that, “Communication is a way that one organization member shares meaning and understanding with another.”
Thus, communication refers to the whole process of man’s life in relation to the group and includes exchange of information, a system of communicating and a process by which meanings are exchanged among human beings.
Process
The communication process follows the steps given below:
1. Sender: The sender generates the message and conveys it to the receiver. He is the one who starts the communication.
2. Message: It is the information that is generated by the sender and is then intended to be communicated further.
3. Encoding: The message generated by the sender is encoded symbolically in the form of words, pictures, gestures, etc. before it is being conveyed.
4. Media: It is the manner in which the encoded message is transmitted. The message may be transmitted orally or in writing. The medium of communication includes telephone, internet, post, fax, e-mail, etc. The choice of medium is decided by the sender.
5. Decoding: It is the process of converting the symbols encoded by the sender.
6. Receiver: The person who is last in the chain of communication process is the receiver.
7. Feedback: Once the receiver confirms to the sender that he has received the message and understood it, the process of communication is complete.
Barriers to Effective Communication
The barriers prevent effective communication due to which misunderstandings may be created. Therefore, it is essential for a manager to identify such barriers and take appropriate measures to overcome them. The barriers to communication are as follows:
1. Semantic Barriers: It is the problems and obstructions in the process of encoding and decoding of a message into words. Normally, such barriers result due to use of wrong words, faulty translations, different interpretations etc.
2. Psychological Barriers: The state of mind of both sender and receiver of communication reflects in effective communication. Emotional or psychological factors also act as barriers to communication.
3. Organizational Barriers: The factors related to organizational structure, rules and regulations, authority relationships, etc. may sometimes act as barriers to effective communication. Rigid rules and regulations and cumbersome procedures may also become a hurdle to communication.
4. Personal Barriers: The personal factors of both sender and receiver may act as a barrier to effective communication. Personal factors like difference in judgment, social values, inferiority complex, bias, attitude, inability to communicate etc. widen the psychological distance between the communicator and the communicate.
5. Premature Evaluation: Some people have the tendency to form an opinion before listening to the entire message. This is premature evaluation and it acts as a barrier to effective communication.
6. Inadequate attention: Inadequate attention to the message makes communication less effective and the message is likely to be misunderstood.
7. Resistance to change: It is a general tendency of human beings to stick to old and customary patterns of life. When new ideas are being communicated to introduce a change, it is likely to be overlooked or even opposed. This resistance to change creates an important obstacle to effective communication.
8. Other barriers: There may be many other barriers such as unclarified assumptions, lack of ability to communicate, mirage of too much knowledge or closed minds, communication overload, shortage of time etc. which cause distortion or obstruction in the free flow of communication and thus makes it ineffective.
References:
- “Principles of Business Management” by Dan Voich and Daniel A. Wren
- “Principles of Business Management” by Dr. S. C. Saksena
