Unit-3

Religion and Philosophy

3.1 Religion and Philosophy in ancient India

RELIGION

Religion is the science of soul. Morality and ethics have foundation on religion. Religion played an important role in the lives of the Indians from the earliest times. It assumed numerous forms in relation to the different groups of the people associated with them. Religious ideas, thoughts and practices differed among these groups, and transformations and developments took place in the various religious forms in course of time. Religion in India was never static in character but was driven by an inherent dynamic strength.

Indian spirituality is deeply rooted in the ancient philosophical and religious traditions of this land. Philosophy arose in India as an enquiry into the mystery of life and existence. Indian sages called Rishis or ‘seers’, developed special techniques of transcending the sense and the ordinary mind, together called yoga. With the help of these techniques, they developed deep into the depths of consciousness and discovered important truths about the true nature of humans and the universe.

The sages found that the true nature of the human being is not the body or the mind, which are ever changing and perishable but the spirit which is unchanging, immortal and pure consciousness. They called it the Atman.

The Atman is the true source of human’s knowledge, happiness and power. The rishis further found that all individual selves are parts of infinite consciousness which they called as Brahman. Brahman is the ultimate reality, the ultimate cause of the universe. Ignorance of human’s true nature is the main cause of human suffering and their bondage. By gaining correct knowledge of Atman and Brahman, it is possible to become free from suffering and bondage and attain a state of immortality, everlasting peace and fulfillment known as Moksha

Religion in an ancient India meant a way of life which enables a human to realize his true nature and attain the Moksha

Thus philosophy provided a correct view of reality, while religion showed the correct way of life; philosophy provided the vision, while religion brought about the fulfillment; philosophy was the theory, and religion was the practice. Thus in ancient India, philosophy and religion complemented each other.

PRE-VEDIC AND VEDIC RELIGION

From the archaeological findings in the pre and proto-historic sites it seems that these people believed in the sanctity of the creative force and venerated the male and female aspects of divinity. It appears that they were worshippers of the forces of nature like the sun and the moon. This belief is partly substantiated by the early literature of the Aryans. The nature of the religious beliefs and practices of the Aryans is also known from the Rigveda, they believed in many god’s examples Indra, Varuna, Agni, Surya and Rudra. Sacrifices, and ritual offering of food and drink to fire in honor of the Gods, constituted the religious practices. The Sama Veda and the Yajur Veda elaborated the different aspects of the sacrificial acts and this ritualism was further elaborated in the Brahmanas. The Atharvaveda contained a great deal of animistic beliefs. The seers entertained doubts about the utility and the efficacy of the Vedic ritualism. Polytheism was challenged by monotheistic ideas and the various deities were introduced as different ways of naming one eternal entity.

The Aranyaka and Upanishad sections of the Vedic literature envisage a progressive outlook. The Upanishads, represent the early stage in the origin and development of the religions met a physical concept which were used later by the religious leaders and reformers of ancient and medieval India. Some of them followed the traditional lines while others proceeded along the paths of unorthodoxy.

UNORTHODOX RELIGIOUS MOVEMENTS

The religious movements associated with persons like Mahavira and the Buddha in about the middle of the first Millennium BC fall under this category. There were many other creeds during this time as well. The creeds preached by some of them contained elements that were not keeping with the Vedic tradition. They ignored the infallibility and supernatural origin of the Vedas. Unlike the Vedic seers who were Brahmin sages, many of these new teachers were Kshatriya. Both Buddhism and Jainism were atheistic creeds in the beginning. However, Buddhism endorsed the doctrine of the Law of Karma and upheld the belief in rebirths of the embodied skandhas and the inevitability of suffering in the very existence of beings. Many of these viewpoints are found in the major Upanishads.

THEISTIC RELIGIONS

Creeds of the theistic character evolved simultaneously with the non-theistic religions. The important deities of these religions were not primarily Vedic ones but those came from unorthodox sources. Influence of pre-Vedic and post-Vedic folk elements were most conspicuous in their origin. The primary factor that motivated these creeds was Bhakti, the single-souled devotion of the worshipper to a personal god with some moral link. This led to the evolution of different religious sectors like Vaishnavism, Shaivism and Saktism, which came too regarded as components of orthodox Brahminism. These sects in course of time came to have a significant impact on the popular forms of Buddhism and Jainism.

FOLK CULTS

The worship of Yakshas and Nagas and other folk deities constituted the most important part of primitive religious beliefs, in which the Bhakti had a very vital role to play. There is evidence about the prevalence of this form of worship among the people in early literature as well as in archaeology

Vasudeva/Krishna Worship: A Sutra in Panini’s Ashtadhyayi refers to the worshippers of Vasudeva (Krishna). The Chhandogya Upanishad speaks of Krishna, the son of Devaki, a pupil of the sage Ghora Angirasa who was a sun-worshipping priest. A large number of people worshipped Lord Vasudeva Krishna exclusively as their personal God and they were at first known as Bhagavatas. The Vasudeva-Bhagavatas cult grew steadily, absorbing within its fold other Vedic and Brahminic divinities like Vishnu (primarily an aspect of the sun) and Narayana (a cosmic God). From the late Gupta period the name mostly used to designate this Bhakti cult was Vaishnava, indicating the predominance of the Vedic Vishnu element in it with emphasis on the doctrine of incarnations (avatars).

VAISHNAVA MOVEMENT IN THE SOUTH

The history of the Vaishnava movement from the end of the Gupta period till the first decade of the thirteenth century AD is concerned mainly with South India. Vaishnava poet-saints known as alvars (a Tamil word denoting those drowned in Vishnu-bhakti) preached single-minded devotion (ekatmika bhakti) for Vishnu and their songs were collectively known as prabandhas.

SHAIVISM

Unlike Vaishnavism, Shaivism had its origin in antiquity. Panini refers to a group of Shiva worshippers as Shiva-Bhagavatas, who were characterized by the iron lances and clubs they carried and their skin garments. Shaiva Movement in the South: The Shaiva movement in the South flourished in the beginning through the activities of the 63 saints known in Tamil as Nayanars (Siva-bhakts). Their appealing emotional songs in Tamil were called Tevaram Stotras, also known as Dravida Veda and ceremonially sung in the local Shiva temples. The Nayanars hailed from all castes. This was supplemented on the doctrinal side by a large number of Shaiva intellectuals whose names were associated with several forms of the Shaiva movements like Agamanta, Shudha and the Vira-shaivism.

MINOR RELIGIOUS MOVEMENTS

Worship of the female principle (Shakti) and of the Surya did not achieve equal importance as the other two major brahminical cults. The female aspect of the divinity might have been venerated in the pre-Vedic times. In the Vedic age respect was shown to the female principle as the Divine Mother, the Goddess of abundance and personified energy (Shakti). But, clear reference to the exclusive worshippers of the Devi is not to be found until a late period. As mentioned earlier, Surya has been venerated in India from the earliest times. In Vedic and epic mythology, Sun and his various aspects played a very important part. The East Iranian (Shakadvipi) form of the solar cult was introduced in parts of northern India in the early centuries of the Christian era. But it was only at a comparatively late period that god figured as the central object in the religious movements.

VEDIC PHILOSOPHY

Religion of the Rig Vedic people was very simple in the sense that it consisted mainly of worship of numerous deities representing the various phenomena of nature through prayers. It was during the later Vedic period that definite ideas and philosophies about the true nature of soul or Atman and the cosmic principle or Brahman who represented the ultimate reality were developed. These Vedic philosophical concepts gave rise to six different schools of philosophies called shada darshana. They fall in the category of the orthodox system as the final authority of the Vedas is recognized by all of them. Let us now learn more about these six schools of Indian philosophy

Samkhya System

The Samkhya philosophy holds reality is constituted of two principles one female and the other male i.e. Prakriti, Purusha respectively. Prakriti and Purusha are completely independent. According to this system, Purusha is mere consciousness, hence it can’t be modified or changed. Prakriti on the other hand is constituted of three attributes, thought, movement and the change or transformation of these attributes brings about the change in all objects. The Samkhya philosophy tries to establish some relationship between Purusha and Prakriti for explaining the creation of the universe. The profounder of this philosophy was Kapila, who wrote the Samkhya sutra.

In fact, Samkhya School explained the phenomena of the doctrine of evolution and answered all the questions aroused by the thinkers of those days.

Yoga

Yoga means the union of the two principal entities. The origin of yoga is found in the Yoga sutra of Patanjali believed to have been written in the second century BC. By purifying and controlling changes in the mental mechanism, yoga systematically brings about the release of purusha from prakriti. Yoga techniques control the body, mind and sense organs. Thus this philosophy is also considered a means of achieving freedom or mukti. This freedom could be attained by practicing self-control (Yama), observation of rules (niyama), fixed postures (asana), breath control (pranayama), choosing an object (pratyahara) and fixing the mind (dharna), concentrating on the chosen object (dhyana) and the complete dissolution of self, merging the mind and the object (Samadhi). Yoga admits the existence of God as a teacher

Nyaya

Nyaya is considered as a technique of logical thinking. According to Nyaya, valid knowledge is defined as the real knowledge, which is, one knows about the object as it exists. For example, it is when one knows a snake as a snake or a cup as a cup. Nyaya system of philosophy considers God who creates, sustains and destroys the universe. Gautama is believed to be the author of the Nyaya Sutras.

Vaisheshika

Vaisheshika system is considered as the realistic and objective philosophy of all universe. The reality according to this philosophy has many bases or the categories which are substance, attribute, action, genus, distinct quality and the inherence. Vaisheshika thinkers believe that all objects of the universe are composed of 5 elements that is earth, water, air, fire and ether. They believe God is the guiding principle. The living beings were rewarded or punished according to the law of karma, based on actions of merit and demerit. The Creation and destruction of the universe was a cyclic process and took place in an agreement with the wishes of God. Kanada wrote the basic text of the Vaisheshika philosophy

A number of treatises were written on this text but the best among them is the one written by Prashastapada in the 6th century AD. The Vaisheshika School of philosophy explained the phenomena of the universe by the atomic theory, the combination of atoms and molecules into the matter and explained the mechanical process of formation of Universe.

Mimamsa

Mimamsa philosophy is basically the analysis of interpretation, application and the use of the text of the Samhita and Brahmana portions of the Veda. According to Mimamsa philosophy Vedas are eternal and possess all knowledge, and religion means the fulfilment of duties prescribed by the Vedas. This philosophy encompasses the Nyaya-Vaisheshika systems and emphasizes the concept of valid knowledge. Its main text is known as the Sutras of Gaimini which have been written during the third century BC. The names associated with this philosophy are Sabar Swami and Kumarila Bhatta. The essence of the system according to Jaimini is Dharma which is the dispenser of the fruits of one’s actions, the law of the righteousness itself. This system lays stress on the ritualistic part of Vedas.

Vedanta

Vedanta implies the philosophy of the Upanishad, the concluding portion of the Vedas. Shankaracharya wrote the commentaries on the Upanishads, the Brahma sutras and the Bhagavad Gita. Shankaracharya’s discourse or his philosophical views came to be known as Advaita Vedanta. Advaita literally means non-dualism or belief in only one reality. Shankaracharya expounded that ultimate reality is being the Brahman.

According to the Vedanta philosophy, ‘Brahman is the true, the world is false and self and Brahman are not different, Shankaracharya believes that the Brahman is existent, unchanging, the highest truth and the ultimate knowledge. He also believes that there is no distinction between the Brahman and the self. The knowledge of Brahman is the essence of all things and the ultimate existence. The Ramanuja was another well-known Advaita scholar.

Among different schools of philosophy was found one philosophy which reached the climax of philosophic thought that the human mind can possibly reach, and that is known as the Vedantic philosophy. Vedanta philosophy has ventured to deny the existence of the apparent ego, as known, and in this respect Vedanta has its unique position in the history of philosophies of the world. Vedanta is a philosophy and a religion. As a philosophy it inculcates the highest truths that have been discovered by the greatest philosophers and the most advanced thinkers of all ages and all countries.

Key Takeaways:

• Indian spirituality is deeply rooted in the ancient philosophical and religious traditions of this land. Philosophy arose in India as an enquiry into the mystery of life and existence
• Worship of the female principle (Shakti) and of the Surya did not achieve equal importance as the other two major brahminical cults
• According to Mimamsa philosophy Vedas are eternal and possess all knowledge, and religion means the fulfilment of duties prescribed by the Vedas.
• Vedanta philosophy has ventured to deny the existence of the apparent ego, as known, and in this respect Vedanta has its unique position in the history of philosophies of the world

3.1.2 Religion and Philosophy in Medieval India

THE SUFI MOVEMENT

Background-Rise of Islam

You will recall that Islam is founded by Prophet Muhammad. Islam saw the rise of many religious and spiritual movements in it. These movements were centered on the interpretation of the Quran. There were two major sects that arose within Islam - the Sunnis and Shias. Our country has both the sects, but in many other countries like Iran, Iraq, Pakistan etc. you will find followers of only them. Among the Sunnis, there are four principal schools of Islamic Law, these are based on the Quran and Hadis (traditions of the Prophet’s saying and doings). Of these the Hanafi school of the eighth century was adopted by the eastern Turks, who after came to India.

The greatest challenge to orthodox Sunnism came from the rationalist philosophy or Mutazilas, who professed strict monotheism. According to them, God is just and god has nothing to do with man’s evil actions. Men are endowed with free will and are responsible for their actions. The Mutazilas were opposed by the Ashari School. Founded by Abul Hasan Ashari (873-935 AD), the Ashari School evolved its own rationalist argument in defense of the orthodox doctrine (kalam). The school believes that God knows, sees and speaks. The Quran is eternal and uncreated. The greatest exponent of this school was Abu Hamid al-Ghazali (1058-1111 AD), who is credited with having reconciled orthodoxy with mysticism. He was a great theologian who began to lead a life of a Sufi in 1095. He is deeply respected by orthodox elements and Sufis. Al-Ghazali attacked all non-orthodox Sunni schools. He said that positive knowledge cannot be gained by reason but by revelation. Sufis owed their allegiance to the Quran as much as the Ulemas did.

The influence of the ideas of Ghazali was greater because of the new educational system set up by the state, it provided for setting up of higher learning (called madrasas) where scholars were familiarized with Ashari ideas. They were taught how to run the government in accordance with orthodox Sunni ideas. These scholars were known as ulema. Ulema played a vital role in the politics of medieval India.

The Sufis

Contrary to the ulema were the Sufis. The Sufis were mystics. They were pious men who were shocked at the degeneration in political and the religious life. They opposed the vulgar display of wealth in public and the readiness of the ulema to serve “ungodly” rulers. Many began to lead the retired ascetic life, having nothing to do with the state. The Sufi philosophy also differed from the ulema. The Sufis laid emphasis on free thought and liberal ideas. They were against formal worship, rigidity and fanaticism in the religion. The Sufis then turned to meditation in order to achieve religious satisfaction. Like the Bhakti saints, the Sufis too interpreted religion as ‘love of god’ and service of humanity. In the course of time, the Sufis were divided into different silsilahs (orders) with each silsilah having its own pir (guide) called Khwaja or Sheikh. The pir and disciples lived in a khanqah (hospice). A pir nominated a successor or wali from his disciples to carry forward his work. The Sufis organized samas to arouse mystical ecstasy. Basra in Iraq became the center of Sufi activities. It should be noted that the Sufi saints were not setting up a new religion, but were preparing a more liberal movement within the framework of Islam. They owed their allegiance to the Quran as much as the ulema did.

Sufism in India

The advent of Sufism in the India is said to be in the 11th and 12th centuries. One of the early Sufis of eminence, who settled in India, was the Al-Hujwari who died in 1089, popularly known as the Data Ganj Baksh (Distributor of Unlimited Treasure). In the beginning, the main centres for the Sufis were Multan and Punjab. By the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries, the Sufis had spread to Kashmir, Bihar, Bengal and the Deccan. It may be mentioned that Sufism had already took on a definite form before coming to India. Its fundamental and moral principles, teachings and orders, system of fasting, prayers and practice of living in khanqahs had already been fixed. The Sufis came to India via Afghanistan on their own free will. Their emphasis upon a pure life, devotional love and service to humanity made them popular and earned them a place of honor in Indian society. Abul Fazl while writing in the Ain-i-Akbari speaks of 14 silsilahs of the Sufis. In this lesson we shall outline only some of the important ones. These silsilahs were divided into two types: Ba-shara and Be-shara. Ba-shara were those orders that followed the Islamic Law (Sharia) and its directives such as namaz and roza. Chief amongst these were the Chishti, Suhrawardi, Firdawsi, Qadiri and Naqshbandi silsilahs. The beshara silsilahs were not bound by the Sharia. The Qalandars belonged to this group

The Chishti Silsilah

The Chishti order was founded in a village called Khwaja Chishti (near Herat). In India, the Chishti silsilah was founded by Khwaja Muinuddin Chishti (born c. 1142) who came to the India around 1192. He made Ajmer the main center for his teaching. He believed that serving mankind was the best form of the devotion and therefore he worked among the downtrodden. He died in Ajmer in 1236. During Mughal times, Ajmer became a leading pilgrim center as the emperors regularly visited the Sheikh’s tomb. The extent of his popularity can be seen by the fact that even today, millions of Muslims and Hindus visit his dargah for fulfillment of their wishes. Among his disciples were both Sheikh Hamiduddin of Nagaur and Qutubuddin Bakhtiyar Kaki. The former lived the life of a poor peasant, cultivated land and refused Iltutmish’s offer of a grant for villages. The khanqah of Qutubuddin Bakhtiyar Kaki was also visited by people from all walks of life. Sultan Iltutmish dedicated the Qutub Minar to this Saint. Sheikh Fariduddin of Ajodhan (Pattan in Pakistan) popularized the Chishti silsilah in Haryana and Punjab. He opened his door of love and generosity to all. Baba Farid, was respected by both Hindus and Muslims. His verses are written in Punjabi, are quoted in the Adi Granth.

Baba Farid’s most famous disciple Shaikh Nizamuddin Auliya (1238-1325) was responsible for making Delhi an important center of the Chishti silsilah. He came to Delhi in 1259 and during his 60 years in Delhi, he saw the reign of 7 sultans. He preferred to shun the company of rulers and the nobles and kept aloof from the state. For him renunciation meant distribution of food and clothes to the poor. Amongst his followers was the noted writer Amir Khusrau. Another famous Chishti saint was Sheikh Nasiruddin Mahmud, popularly known as Nasiruddin Chirag-i-Dilli (The Lamp of Delhi). Following his death in 13 56 and the lack of a spiritual successor, the disciples of the Chishti silsilah moved out towards eastern and southern India.

THE BHAKTI MOVEMENT

The development of Bhakti movement took place in the Tamil Nadu between the 7th and 12th centuries. It was reflected in the emotional poems of the Nayanars (devotees of Shiva) and Alvars (devotees of Vishnu). These saints looked upon religion not as a cold formal worship but as a loving bond based upon love between the worshipped and worshipper. They wrote in local languages, Tamil and Telugu and therefore able to reach out too many people. In course of time, the ideas of the South moved up to the North but it was a slow process. Sanskrit, which was still the vehicle of thought, was given a new form. Thus we find that the Bhagavata Purana of 9th century was not written in the old Puranic form. Centered on the Krishna’s childhood and youth, this work uses Krishna’s exploits to explain philosophy in simple terms. This work became a turning point in the history of the Vaishnavism movement which was an important component of the Bhakti movement. A more effective method for spreading of the Bhakti ideology was the use of local languages. The Bhakti saints has composed their verses in local languages. They also translated Sanskrit works to make them understand to a wider audience. Thus we find Jnanadeva writing in Marathi, Kabir, Surdas and Tulsidas in Hindi, Shankaradeva popularizing Assamese, Chaitanya and Chandidas spreading their message in Bengali, Mirabai in Hindi and Rajasthani. In addition, devotional poetry was composed in Kashmiri, Telugu, Kannad, Oriya, Malayalam, Maithili and Gujarati.

The Bhakti saints believed that salvation can be achieved by all. They made no distinction of caste, creed or religion before God. They themselves came from diverse backgrounds. Ramananda, whose disciples included Hindus and Muslims, came from a conservative brahman family. His disciple, Kabir, was a weaver. Guru Nanak was a village accountant’s son. Namdev was a tailor. The saints stressed equality, disregarded the caste system and attacked institutionalized religion. The saints did not confine themselves to purely religious ideas. They advocated social reforms too. They opposed sati and female infanticide. Women were encouraged to join kirtans. Mirabai and Lalla (of Kashmir) composed verses that are very popular even today.

Kabir (1440-1518) is said to have been the son of the Brahman widow, who abandoned him. He was brought up in the house of a Muslim weaver. Kabir believed that the way to God was through personal experienced bhakti or devotion. He believed that the Creator is One. His God was called by many names - Rama, Hari, Govinda, Allah, Rahim, Khuda, etc. No wonder then that the Muslims claim him as Sufi, the Hindus call him Rama-Bhakta and the Sikhs incorporate his songs in the Adi Granth. The external aspects of religion were meaningless for Kabir. His beliefs and ideas were reflected in the dohas composed by him. One of his dohas conveyed that if by worshipping a stone (idol) if one could attain God, then he was willing to worship a mountain. It was better to worship the stone flour-grinder because that could at least fill the stomachs. Kabir emphasized simplicity in religion and said that bhakti was the easiest way to attain God. He refused to accept any prevalent religious belief without a prior reasoning. For him, a man could never achieve success without hard work. He advocated performance of the actions rather than renunciation of duty. Kabir’s belief in the unity of God led Hindus and Muslims both to become his disciples.

Kabir’s ideas were not restricted to religion. He attempted to change the narrow thinking’s of society. His poetry was forceful and direct. It was easily understood and much of it has passed into our everyday language. Another great exponent of the Nankana School was the Guru Nanak (1469-1539). He was born at Talwandi (Nakana Sahib). From an early age, he showed leanings towards the spiritual life. He was helpful to the poor and needy. His disciples called themselves Sikhs (derived from Sanskrit sisya, disciple or Pali sikkha, instruction). Guru Nanak’s personality combined in itself simplicity and the peacefulness. Guru Nanak’s main objective was to remove the existing corruption and degrading practices in society. He showed the new path for the establishment of an egalitarian social order. Like Kabir, Guru Nanak was also the social reformer as he was the religious teacher. He called for improvement in the status of women. He said that women who give birth to the kings should not be spoken ill. His vani (words) along with those of other Sikh Gurus have been brought together in the Guru Granth Sahib, the holy book of the Sikhs.

The Vaishnavism Movement

You have read that saints such as Kabir, Namdev and Guru Nanak had preached devotion toward a nirankar form of God. During this period, another movement based upon devotion towards a sakar form of God had also developed. This movement, called the Vaishnavism movement, centered on the worship of Rama and Krishna, who were seen as incarnations (avatars) of Lord Vishnu. Its main exponents are Surdas, Mirabai, Tulsidas and Chaitanya. Their path to salvation was expressed through the medium of poetry, song, dance and kirtans. Surdas (1483-1563) was a student of the famous teacher, Vallabhachara. He was a blind poet, whose songs are centered on Krishna. His Sursagar counts the exploits of Krishna during his childhood and youth with gentle affection and the delightfulness.

The love for Krishna was also expressed through the songs of Mirabai (l 503-73). Widowed at an early age, she believed in a spiritual marriage with her god. Her poems have the quality of their own and are popular even today. The Vaishnavism movement spread in the east through the efforts of Chaitanya (1484- 1533). Chaitanya considered Krishna not as a mere incarnation of Vishnu but as the highest form of God. The devotion for Krishna was expressed through Sankirtans (hymn session by devotees) which took place in the homes, the temples and even street processions. Like other Bhakti saints, Chaitanya too was willing to welcome everyone, irrespective of caste, into the fold. The saints thus promoted a sense of equality amongst the people. The worship of Rama was popularized by saints like Ramananda (1400-1470). He considered Rama as the supreme God. Women and outcastes were welcomed. The famous of the Rama bhaktas was Tulsidas (l532-1623) who wrote the Ramacharitmanas. The Vaishnavism saints developed their philosophy within the broad framework of the Hinduism. They called for reforms in religion and love amongst fellow beings. Their philosophy was broadly humanist.

The importance of the bhakti and Sufi movements

You will recall the Bhakti movement was a socio-religious movement that opposed religious bigotry and social rigidities. It emphasized good character and pure thinking. At a time when society had become a stagnant, the Bhakti saints infused new life and the strength.

They awakened a new sense of confidence and attempt to redefine social and the religious values. Saints like Kabir and Nanak stressed upon the reordering of society along egalitarian lines. Their call to social equality attracted downtrodden. Although Kabir and Nanak had no intention of founding new religions but following their deaths, their supporters grouped together as Kabir panthis and Sikhs respectively. The importance of the Bhakti and Sufi saints lies in the new atmosphere created by them, which continued to affect the social, religious and political life of India even in later centuries. Akbar’s liberal ideas were a product of this atmosphere in which he was born and brought up. The preaching of Guru Nanak was passed down from generation to generation. This resulted in the growth of a separate religious group, with its separate language and the script Gurmukhi and the religious book, Guru Granth Sahib. Under Maharaja Ranjit Singh, the Sikhs grew into the formidable political force in the politics of the North India.

The interaction between the Bhakti and Sufi saints had an impact upon the Indian society. The Sufi theory of the Wahdat-al-Wujud (Unity of Being) was similar to that in the Hindu Upanishads. Many Sufi poet-saints preferred to use Hindi terms rather than Persian verses to explain concepts. Thus we find Sufi poets such as the Malik Muhamniad Jaisi composing works in the Hindi. The use of terms such as Krishna, Radha, Gopi, Jamuna, and the Ganga etc. became so common in such literature that an eminent Sufi, Mir Abdul Wahid wrote a treatise Haqaiq-i-Hïndi to explain Islamic equivalents. In later years this interaction continued as Akbar and Jahangir followed a liberal religious policy. The popular verses and songs of the Bhakti saints also served as forerunners of a musical renaissance. New musical compositions were written for the purpose of the group singing at the kirtans. Even today Mira’s bhajans and Tulsidas’s chaupais are recited at prayer meetings.

Key Takeaways:

• The greatest challenge to orthodox Sunnism came from the rationalist philosophy or Mutazilas, who professed strict monotheism. According to them, God is just and god has nothing to do with man’s evil actions
• The Bhakti saints believed that salvation can be achieved by all. They made no distinction of caste, creed or religion before God. They themselves came from diverse backgrounds
• The interaction between the Bhakti and Sufi saints had an impact upon the Indian society. The Sufi theory of the Wahdat-al-Wujud (Unity of Being) was similar to that in the Hindu Upanishads
• One of the early Sufis of eminence, who settled in India, was the Al-Hujwari who died in 1089, popularly known as the Data Ganj Baksh (Distributor of Unlimited Treasure).

3.1.3 Religious Reform Movements in Modern India 

Common characteristics of religious and social reform movements

From the late 19th century a number of European and Indian scholars started the study of ancient India’s history, philosophy, science, religions and literature. This growing knowledge of the India’s past glory provided to the Indian people a sense of pride in civilization. It also helped the reformers in the work of religious and social reform for their struggle against all type of the inhuman practices, superstitions etc. Since they had become associated with the religious beliefs, therefore most of the movements of social reform were of the religious character. These social and religious reform movements arose among all communities of the Indian people. They attacked bigotry, superstition and the hold of the priestly class. They worked for abolition of castes and untouchability, purdah system, sati, child marriage, social inequalities and the illiteracy. Some of these reformers were in support directly or indirectly by the British officials and some of the reformers also supported reformative steps and regulations framed by the British Government

Brahmo Samaj and raja ram Mohan Roy

Men and women enjoy certain rights and the freedom today. But do you know that they were given to us by the major efforts made by certain reformers. Amongst the great reformers of this period, Raja Rammohan Roy deserves special mention. He presented the fine combination between East and the West. A man of great literary talent and well versed in an Indian culture, he also made special effort to study Christianity and Islam so that he could deal with understanding. He felt great revulsion for many practices prevailing in India that enjoyed religious approval.

His main pre-occupation was how to rid the Hindu religion of both image worship, sacrificial rites and other meaningless rituals. He condemned the priestly classes for encouraging these practices. He opined that all the principal ancient texts of the Hindus preached monotheism or worship of one God. His greatest achievement in the field of religious reform was a setting up in 1828 of the Brahmo Samaj. The Brahmo Samaj was an important organization of the religious reforms. It forbade the idol-worship and discarded meaningless rituals. The Samaj also forbid its members from attacking any religion. It believed in the basic unity for all the religions. Raja Rammohan Roy believed that man should adopt truth and the goodness and should give up things based on the falsehood and superstition.

Raja Rammohan Roy was not merely a religious reformer but a social reformer also. His greatest achievement was the abolition of Sati in 1929. Raja Rammohan Roy realized that the practice of Sati was due to the extremely low position of Hindu women. Therefore, he started working as a stout champion of women’s rights. He worked very hard for years to stop this practice of ‘Sati’. In the early 1818 he set out to rouse public opinion on the question of Sati. On the one hand he showed by citing the authority of the oldest sacred books that the Hindu religion at its best was opposed to the practice and on the other, he appealed to reason and humanity and compassion of the people. He visited the burning Ghats of Calcutta to try and persuade the relatives of widows to give up their plan of self-immolation. His campaign against Sati aroused the opposition of the orthodox Hindus who bitterly attacked him.

Raja Rammohan Roy was also deeply opposed to the caste system that prevailed in Indian society. A humanist and democrat to the core, he wrote and talked against the caste system. Another important area that concerned him was Hindu theology. Study of the Vedas and Upanishads gave him ground to show that monotheism was the original Hindu belief and hence he denounced polytheism and idolatry. In fact, the philosopher did not insist on the creation of a new religion but merely endeavored to ‘purify’ the Vedic religion from the crude and most ignorant superstitions. He proclaimed that there is only one God for all religions and for all humanity. He wrote in Bengali and English. He was an ardent promoter of English education. He was also well versed in the Persian language and some of his most liberal and rational ideas were expressed in his early writings in that language.

He advocated the abolition of polygamy (a practice of man having more than one wife) and child marriage. He wanted women to be educated and given the right to inherit property. He condemned the subjugation of women and opposed the prevailing ideas that women were inferior to men in intellect or in a moral sense. He advocated the rights of widows to remarry

Prarthana Samaj and Ranade

The Prarthana Samaj was established in Bombay by Dr. Atma Ram Pandurang (1825- 1898) in 1876 with the objective of rational worship and social reform. The two great members of this Samaj were Shri R.C. Bhandarkar and Justice Mahadev Govind Ranade. They devoted themselves to the work of social reform such as inter-caste dining, intercaste marriage, widow remarriage and improvement of the lot of women and depressed classes. Mahadev Govinda Ranade (1842-1901) devoted his entire life to Prarthana Samaj. He was the founder of the Widow Remarriage Association (1861) and the Deccan Education Society. He established the Poona Sarvajanik Sabha as well. To Ranade, religious reform was inseparable from social reform. He also believed that if religious ideas were rigid there would be no success in social, economic and political spheres. MG Ranade was the leader of social reformation and cultural renaissance in Western India. Ranade’s great message to the persons who were involved in social service was “Strength of numbers we cannot command, but we can command earnestness of conviction, singleness of devotion, readiness for self-sacrifice, in all honest workers in the cause.” Although Prarthana Samaj was powerfully influenced by the ideas of Brahmo Samaj, it did not insist upon a rigid exclusion of idol worship and a definite break from the caste system. It did not regard the Vedas as the last word, nor did it believe in the doctrine of transmigration of the human soul and incarnation of God. Its central idea was one positive belief in the unity of God.

Derozio and young Bengal movement

Come from Scotland to sell watches in Calcutta, but later made the spread of modern education in Bengal as his life’s mission. Derozio promoted radical ideas through his teaching and by organizing an association for debate and discussions on literature, philosophy, history and science. He inspired his followers and students to question all authority. Derozio and his famous followers, known as the Derzians and Young Bengal, were fiery patriots. They cherished the ideals of the French Revolution (1789 A.D.) and the liberal thinking of Britain. Derozio died of cholera at the young age of 22. The Young Bengal Movement continued even after Derozio’s dismissal and his sudden death. Though deprived of leadership, the members of this group continued preaching radical views through teaching and journalism.

Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar

Another outstanding reformer in Bengal was Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar (1820-1891 A.D.). A scholar of great depths, he dedicated himself to the cause of the emancipation of women. It was due to his sincere efforts that obstacles to the marriage of widows were removed through a law in 1856. He played a leading role in promoting education of girls and started and helped the setting up a number of schools for girls. Vidyasagar did not concern himself much with religious questions. However, he was against all those who opposed reforms in the name of religion.

SPREAD OF THE REFORM MOVEMENTS IN WESTERN AND SOUTHERN INDIA

After Bengal, the most important region where the movement for reforms spread was the western India. Bal Shastri Jambekar was one of reformers in Bombay. He attacked the Brahminical orthodoxy there and tried to reform popular Hinduism. In 1849, the Parmahansa Mandali was founded in Pune, Satara and other towns of the Maharashtra. Its followers had faith in one God and they opposed caste system. In its meetings, members took food cooked by low-caste people. They favored education of women and supported the widow remarriage. Mahadev Ranade believed that without social reforms it was not possible to achieve any progress in the political and economic fields. He was a great advocate in Hindu-Muslim unity. Two other great reformers in the Western India were Gopal Hari Deshmukh Lokahitwari and Jotirao Govindrao Phule popularly known as Jotiba Phule. They worked for the upliftment of women, took up the cause of women and the downtrodden masses. Jotiba with his wife started a girl’s school in Pune, in 1857. He opened a school for the children of the depressed classes. Jotiba Phule was also a pioneer of the widow remarriage movement in Maharashtra. He challenged the dominance of Brahmins and worked for activating the masses. He championed the cause of villagers and actively worked for the rural development in the Maharashtra. Jotiba was given the tile of ‘Mahatma’ for his work for the cause of the oppressed. He founded the Satya-Shodhak in 1873, to give strength to his movement and make it popular. In the southern parts of the country. Kandukuri Veeresalingam (1848-1919) pioneered the movement in support of widow remarriage and girl’s education in the Andhra Pradesh. Veda Samaj founded in Madras in 1864 advocated discarding of caste distinctions and promotion of widow remarriage and women’s education. It condemned the superstitions and rituals of orthodox Hinduism and propagated belief in one God. Chembeti Sridharalu Naidu was the most popular leader of the Veda Samaj. He translated books of the Veda Samaj in Tamil and Telugu languages. An important movement particularly significant for the emancipation of the so-called backward and oppressed sections of an Indian society was started by Shree Narayana Guru (1854-1928) in the Kerala. In 1903 he founded the Shree Narayana Dharma Paripalana Yogam (SNDP) to carry on the work of the social reform. Shree Narayana Guru considered differences based on caste and religion as meaningless and advocated what he called ‘One Caste, one Religion and on God’ for all.

REFORM MOVEMENTS AMONG PARSIS

Religious reform begun among the Parsis in Mumbai in the middle of the 19th century. In 1851, the Rehnumai Maz’dayasan Sabha or Religious Reform Association was founded by the Nauroji Furdonji, Dadabhai Nauroji, S.S. Bengalee and others. They started a journal Rast Goftar, for the reason of social-religious reforms among the Parsis. They also played an important role in the spread of education, especially among the girls. They campaigned against the entrenched orthodoxy in the religious field and initiated the modernization of Parsi social customs regarding the education of girl’s and the marriage and the social position of women in general. In course of time, the Parsis became the most socially westernized section of Indian society

RELIGIOUS REFORM AMONG SIKHS

Religious reform among the Sikhs was started at the end of the 19th Century when the Khalsa College started at Amritsar. Through the efforts of the Singh Sabhas (1870) and with British support, the Khalsa College was founded at Amritsar in 1892. This college and schools set up as a result of similar efforts, promoted Gurumukhi, Sikh learning and Punjabi literature. After 1920 the Sikh momentum gained popular momentum when the Akali Movement rose in the Punjab. The chief object of the Akalis was to improve the management of the Gurudwaras or Sikh Shrines that were under the control of priests or Mahants who treated them as their private property. In 1925, a law was passed in which right of managing Gurudwaras were given to the Shiromani Gurudwara Prabandhak Committee

IMPACT OF THE REFORM MOVEMENT

The British wanted to appease the orthodox upper section of the society. As a result, only two important laws were passed. Some legal methods were introduced to raise the status of women. For example, Sati was declared illegal (1829). Infanticide was declared illegal. Widow remarriage was permitted by a law passed in 1856. Marriageable age of girls was raised to ten by a law passed in 1860. A law passed in 1872, which sanctioned inter-caste and inter-communal marriages. The other law passed in 1891, aimed at discouraging of the child marriage. For preventing child marriage, the Sharda Act was passed in 1929. According to it a girl below 14 and a boy below 18 could not get married. In the 20th century and especially after 1919 the Indian national movement became the main propagator of social reform. The reformers took recourse to propaganda in the Indian language to reach the masses. They also used novels, dramas, short stories, poetry, the Press and in the thirties (1930’s), the cinema too spread their views. Numerous individuals, reform societies, and religious organizations worked hard to spread the education amongst the women, to prevent marriage of young children, to bring women out of the purdah, to enforce monogamy, and to enable middle class women to take up professional or public employment. Due to all these efforts Indian women played an active and important role in the struggle for the country independence. As a result, many superstitions were disappeared and many others were on their way out.

Key Takeaways:

• From the late 19th century a number of European and Indian scholars started the study of ancient India’s history, philosophy, science, religions and literature.
• This growing knowledge of the India’s past glory provided to the Indian people a sense of pride in civilization
• The Brahmo Samaj was an important organization of the religious reforms. It forbade the idol-worship and discarded meaningless rituals. The Samaj also forbid its members from attacking any religion.
• Widow Remarriage was permitted by a law passed in 1856. Marriageable age of girls was raised to ten by a law passed in 1860.

Reference books:

1. Kapil Kapoor, “Text and Interpretation: The India Tradition”,ISBN: 81246033375, 2005

2. “Science in Sanskrit”, Samskrita Bharti Publisher, ISBN 13: 978-8187276333, 2007