Unit-4
Fine Arts in India (Art, Technology& Engineering)
ANCIENT PERIOD: ORIGIN
Painting as an art form has flourished in India from terribly early times as is evident from the remains that are discovered in the caves, and therefore the literary sources. The history of art and painting in India begins with the pre-historic rock painting at Bhimbetka caves (M.P.) wherever we have drawings and paintings of animals. The cave paintings of Narsinghgarh (Maharashtra) show skins of spotted deer left drying. Thousands of years ago, paintings and drawings had already appeared on the seals of Harappan civilization. Each Hindu and Buddhist literature refer to paintings of varied types and techniques for instance, Lepyacitras, lekhacitras and Dhulitcitras. The first was the illustration of folklore, the other was line drawing and painting on textile whereas the third one was painting on the floor.
The Buddhist text Vinayapitaka (4th–3rd century) describes the existence of painted figures in several royal buildings. The play Mudrarakshasa (5th Century A.D.) mentions various paintings or patas. The sixth Century AD text on Aesthetics-Kamasutra by Vatsyayana has mentioned painting amongst sixty-four forms of arts and says that it had been based on scientific principles. The Vishnudharmottara purana (7th century A.D.) has a section on painting called Chitrasutra that describes the six organs of painting like variety of form, proportion, lustre and portrayal of colour etc. Thus, archaeology and literature testify to the flourishing of painting in India from pre-historic times. The best specimens of Gupta paintings are those at Ajanta. Their subject was animals and birds, trees, flowers, human figures and stories from the Jataka. Mural paintings are done on walls and rock surfaces like roofs and sides. Cave no. Nine depicts the Buddhist monks going towards a stupa. In cave no. Ten Jataka stories are depicted. However, the most effective paintings were done in the fifth – sixth centuries AD during the Gupta age. The murals chiefly depict laic} scenes from the life of Buddha and the Buddhist Jataka stories however we tend to also have secular scene. Here we see the depiction of all aspects of Indian life. We see princes in their palaces, ladies in their chambers, coolies with loads over their shoulders, beggars, peasants and ascetics, along with all the many beasts, birds and flowers of India.
Materials used in the paintings
Different materials were used in differing types of paintings. Mention of chitra shalas (art gallery) and Shilpasashtra (technical treatises on art) are made in literary sources. However, the principal colors used were red ochre (dhaturaga), vivid red (kum or sindura), ocher (haritala), indigo (blue) lapis lazuli blue, atomic number 6 (kajjala), chalk white (Khadi Mitti) terra verte (geru mati) and green. Of these colors were regionally available except lapis lazuli that came from Pakistan. Mixed colors e.g. Gray was used on rare occasions. Use of colours were decided by the theme and native atmosphere.
Remains of Buddhist paintings have also been found at the Buddhist caves at Bagh in the North and at numerous Deccan and southern sites of sixth and ninth centuries. Although the theme of those paintings is religious but in their inner meanings and spirit, nothing could be a lot of secular, courtly and sophisticated. Although only alittle part remains of these paintings however they depict a crowded world of Gods and goddess’s semi divine being like kinnars and apsaras, a rich and varied flora and fauna, gaiety, love, grace and charm. Example can be seen in cave three at Badami (Karnataka), at temples of Kanchipuram, at Jain caves of Sittanavasal (Tamil Nadu) and the Kailasa and jain caves at Ellora (eighth and ninth centuries). Several other South Indian temples like Brihadeshwara temple at Tanjavur are decorated with wall paintings on themes from epics and mythology. If Bagh, Ajanta and Badami represent the classical tradition of the North and Deccan at its best, Sittana vassal, Kanchipuram, Malayadipatti and Tirunalaipuram show the extent of its penetration in the south. The paintings of Sittanavasal (abode of the Jaina Siddhas) are connected with jaina themes whereas the other 3 are Saiva or Vaishnava in theme and inspiration. Despite having a very traditionally secular style and theme the paintings of those times started showing the impact of medieval influences i.e. flat and abstract surfaces on the one hand and linear and somewhat angular designs on the other.
ART IN MEDIEVAL India
During the period of Delhi country, mural painting has been reported from the royal palaces and royal bed-chambers and mosques. These chiefly depict flowers, leaves and plants. Throughout the time of Iltutmish (1210-36) we've references of paintings. During the time of Aladdin Khalji (1296-1316) we've mural painting, miniature painting (of illustrated manuscripts) and paintings on cloths. During the period amount, we tend to notice the Persian and Arabic influences on Indian painting. We’ve references of the coming of Persian and Arabic illustrated manuscripts from Iran and therefore the Arab world for the Muslim elites. Throughout this era, we've paintings from other regional states. The decorative paintings of the palace of the Gwalior king Man Singh Tomar impressed each Babur and Akbar
During fourteenth – fifteenth centuries A.D. Miniature painting emerged as a powerful movement in Gujarat and Rajasthan and spread to Central, North and eastern India due to the patronage of rich Jain merchants. Mandu in M.P., Jaunpur in eastern Uttar Pradesh and Bengal in eastern India were other great centers of manuscripts illustrated with paintings. In eastern India, in Bengal, Bihar and Orissa, during the Pala kingdom in the ninth – tenth century A.D., a brand new kind of painting developed known as the miniature painting. The miniature, as the name suggests, were little works that were made on perishable materials. In this category, Buddhist, Jain and Hindu manuscripts were illustrated, on palm leaves. They resemble the Ajanta style, however on a miniature scale. These were created on the request of the merchants, who donated them to the temples and monasteries. Painting as an art form has flourished in India from terribly early times as is evident from the remains that are discovered in the caves, and therefore the literary sources. The history of art and painting in India begins with the pre-historic rock painting at Bhimbetka caves (M.P.) wherever we have drawings and paintings of animals. The cave paintings of Narsinghgarh (Maharashtra) show skins of spotted deer left drying. Thousands of years ago, paintings and drawings had already appeared on the seals of Harappan civilization. Each Hindu and Buddhist literature refer to paintings of varied types and techniques for instance, Lepyacitras, lekhacitras and Dhulitcitras. The first was the illustration of folklore, the other was line drawing and painting on textile whereas the third one was painting on the floor.
The Buddhist text Vinayapitaka (4th–3rd century) describes the existence of painted figures in several royal buildings. The play Mudrarakshasa (5th Century A.D.) mentions various paintings or patas. The sixth Century AD text on Aesthetics-Kamasutra by Vatsyayana has mentioned painting amongst sixty-four forms of arts and says that it had been based on scientific principles. The Vishnudharmottara purana (7th century A.D.) has a section on painting called Chitrasutra that describes the six organs of painting like variety of form, proportion, lustre and portrayal of colour etc. Thus, archaeology and literature testify to the flourishing of painting in India from pre-historic times. The best specimens of Gupta paintings are those at Ajanta. Their subject was animals and birds, trees, flowers, human figures and stories from the Jataka. Mural paintings are done on walls and rock surfaces like roofs and sides. Cave no. Nine depicts the Buddhist monks going towards a stupa. In cave no. Ten Jataka stories are depicted. However, the most effective paintings were done in the fifth – sixth centuries AD during the Gupta age. The murals chiefly depict laic} scenes from the life of Buddha and the Buddhist Jataka stories however we tend to also have secular scene. Here we see the depiction of all aspects of Indian life. We see princes in their palaces, ladies in their chambers, coolies with loads over their shoulders, beggars, peasants and ascetics, along with all the many beasts, birds and flowers of India.
From the thirteenth century onward, the Turkish Sultans of northern India brought with them necessary features of Persian court culture. In the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries illustrated manuscripts of Persian influence were produced at Malwa, Bengal, Delhi, Jaunpur, Gujarat and also the Deccan. The interaction of Indian painters with Persian traditions resulted within the synthesis of the 2 styles evident in the works of the sixteenth century. During the first sultanate period, important contribution to the art of painting was made by the Jain community of Western India. Illustrated manuscripts of Jain scriptures were given to temple libraries. These manuscripts depicted the lives and deeds of the Tirthankara. The art of textual illustration got a brand new look under the Mughals. Akbar and his successors brought revolutionary changes to painting and sensual illustrations. From this era book illumination or individual miniatures replaced wall painting because the most important form of art. Emperor Akbar patronized artists from Kashmir and Gujarat; Humayun brought 2 Persian painters to his court. For the first time painters’ names were recorded in inscriptions. Some great painters of this era were Abd-us-Samad Dasawanth and Basawan. Stunning illustrations are found on the pages of Baburnama and Akbarnama. Within a few years an integrated and dynamic style resulted from the synthesis of Persian and Indian style and also the independent style of Mughal painting was developed. Between 1562 and 1577 a series of nearly 1400 cloth paintings were made representing the new style and were placed within the imperial studio. Akbar additionally encouraged the art of making portraits.
The art of painting reached its climax during the period of Jahangir who himself was a good painter and connoisseur of art. Artists began to use vibrant colors like peacock blue and red and were able to give 3 dimensional effects to paintings. Mansur, Bishan Das and Manohar were the foremost gifted painters of Jahangir’s time. Mansur had created an outstanding portrait of the artist Abul Hasan and specialized in paintings of birds and animals. Though shah jahan was more interested in architectural splendors, his eldest son Dara Shikoh patronized painting like his gradfather. His most popular preferred natural elements like plants and animals in his painting. But withdrawal of royal patronage to painting under Aurangzeb led to the dispersal of artists to different places in the country. This helped in the development of the art of painting in Rajasthan and also the Punjab hills giving rise to distinct schools of paintings, for instance, Rajasthani and Pahari schools.
These works were painted on a small surface and were called miniature painting. They painted themes drawn from epics, myths and legends. Other themes were Barahmasa (seasons) and Raga mala (melodies). Miniature painting was also developed at native centers like Kangra, Kulu, Basoli, Guler, Chamba, Garhwal, Bilaspur, and Jammu. The rise of the bhakti movement in India within the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries also inspired illustrative texts on the themes of vaishnava devotional cults. In the pre-Mughal era mural paintings on the walls of temples gained prominence within the northern part of India.
Art within the trendy amount
In the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries paintings comprised semi westernized native styles that were patronized by British residents and visitors. Themes were usually drawn from Indian social life, popular festivals, and Mughal monuments. These reflected the improvised Mughal traditions. Shaikh Zia-ud-Din’s bird studies for lady Impey and the portrait paintings of Ghulam Ali Khan for William Fraser and Colonel Skinner are the samples of some excellent paintings of this era. In the later nineteenth century art schools on the European model were established in major Indian cities like Calcutta, Mumbai and Madras. Oil paintings of Raja Ravi Varma of Travancore depicting mythological and social themes became extremely popular at this point.
Rabindranath Tagore, Abanindranath Tagore, E.B. Havell and Ananda Kehtish Coomaraswamy played a very important role in the emergence of the Bengal school of Art. The Bengal school had a great flowering at Shantiniketan where Rabindranath Tagore set up the Kala Bhavan. Talented artists like Nandalal Bose, Binod Behari Mukherjee and Ramkinkar Baij rendered coaching to aspiring artists. Nandalal often derived inspiration from Indian folk art and also from Japanese painting whereas Binod Behari Mukerjee was deeply interested in oriental traditions. Jamini Roy, another great painter of this era, drew inspiration from Qrissa’s pata painting and Kalighat painting of Bengal. Amrita Shergil, a great painter received education in Paris and Budapest. Considered a prodigy from a Sikh father and Hungarian mother, she painted on Indian themes in bright colors especially Indian women and peasants. Though she died terribly young, she left behind a rich legacy of Indian paintings.
Gradually some deeper changes took place in the thinking of the English educated urban middle class that began to be reflected in the expressions of the artists. Increasing awareness about British rule, ideals of nationalism and also the desire for a national identity led to creations that were distinct from earlier art traditions.
Another important development was the formation of the Progressive Artists cluster in Mumbai in 1948 under Francis Newton Souza. The group also included S.H. Raza, M.F. Hussain, K.M. Ara, S.K. Bakre and H.A. Gode. This cluster broke away from Bengal college of Art and represented the modern forceful art of independent India. In the Seventies artists began to critically survey their environment. Daily encounters with poverty and corruption, the political morass of the country, the explosive communal tension, and other urban issues became the themes or material of their works. The Madras school of Art under Debi Prasad Roy Chowdhury and K.C.S Paniker emerged as an important art center in post-independence amount and influenced a new generation of recent artists. Some of the artists who made their mark as modern Indian artists are Tyeb Mehta, Satish Gujral, Krishan Khanna, Manjit Bawa, and K.G. Subramaniyan Ram Kumari, Anjolie ela Menon, Akbar Padamsee, Jatin Das, Jehangir Sabavala and A. Ramachandran
Two government institutions are created to promote art, music etc in India. The National Gallery of modern Art has the largest collection of modern art underneath one roof. The second one which Lalit Kala Akademi that recognizes and patronizes artists in all fields.
Decorative art
The artistic expression of the Indian people isn't limited to painting on canvas or paper decorative. Ornamental painting on walls of homes even in rural areas may be a common sight. Rangoli or decorative designs on floor are created for auspicious occasions and pujas whose stylized designs are passed on from one generation to the other. The designs are known as rangoli in the North, alpana in Bengal, aipan in Uttaranchal, rangavalli in Karnataka, Kollam in Tamil Nadu and mandana in Madhya Pradesh. Sometimes rice powder is used for these paintings however coloured powder or flower petals are also used to create them additional more. Adorning walls of houses and huts is also an old tradition. The following are some of the examples of folk art of this sort.
Mithila painting
Mithila painting also referred to as Madhubani folk art is the traditional art of the Mithila region of Bihar. They’re produced by village women who create 3 dimensional images using vegetable color with few earthen colors and finished in black lines on cow dung treated paper. These pictures tell tales particularly about Sita’s exile, Ram-Laxman’s forest life, or depict the pictures of Lakshmi, Ganesha, Hanuman and others from Hindu mythology. Except these women also paint celestial subjects like sun and moon. Tulsi, the holy plant is also to be found in these paintings. They also show court scenes, wedding and social happenings. Drawings in Madhubani pictures are very conceptual. First, the painter thinks and then she “draws her thought”. No pretence is there to explain the figures accurately. Visually pictures that speak in lines and colours and are drawn for some rituals or festivals on household and village walls to mark the seasonal festivals or special events of the life cycle. Intricate flora, animal and bird’s motifs also can be found together with geometrical designs to fill up the gap. In some cases, it's a special practice for mothers to make these art items prior to for their daughters as a marriage gift. These paintings also convey advice on ways in which to lead a good married life. There is also a social variation in subjects and use of colors. One will identify the community to that the painting belongs from the colours that are used in them. Paintings made by the upper, more affluent classes are colorful whereas those created by the lower caste people use red and black line work. However, the technique of painting is safely and zealously guarded by the women of the village to be passed on by the mother to the daughter. Nowadays Madhubani art is being used as decorative gift items, greeting cards and has become a source of income for native women folk.
KALAMKARI PAINTING
The literal meaning of Kalamkari is a painting done by kalam (pen). This art got enriched because it came down from one generation to another. These paintings are made in Andhra Pradesh. Its hand painted as well as block printing with vegetable dyes applied on cloth. Vegetable dyes are used for colour in the Kalamkari work. Alittle place Sri-Kalahasti is the best known center of Kalamkari art. This work is also found at Masaulipatnam in Andhra Pradesh. This art is mainly related to decorating temple interiors with painted cloth panels that was developed in the fifteenth century under the patronage of Vijay agar rulers. Subjects are adopted from the Ramayana, the Mahabharata and Hindu religious mythology. This art form may be a continuous legacy from father to son. After deciding the topic of the painting, scène after scene is painted. Each scene is surrounded by floral decorative patterns. These paintings are created on cloth. They very sturdy durable in size and made according to theme. Figures of deities have a very rich border embellishments and were created for the temples. Owing to Muslim rulers in Golconda, the Masulipatnam kalamkari was and designs influenced by Persian motifs and styles. The outlines and main features widely done using hand carved blocks. The finer details are later done using the pen. This art was started on garments, bed covers and curtains. The artists use a bamboo or date palm stick pointed at one finish with a bundle of fine hair attached to the other end to end brush or pen. The kalamkari dyes are obtained by extracting colors from plant roots, leaves, along with salts of iron, tin, copper, alum etc.
Orissa Patachitras
Similar to Kalighat Pats, one comes across another kind of Pats that are found within the state of Orissa. The Orissa patachitras, mostly painted on cloth are additional detailed and more colorful and most of those depict stories of Hindu gods and goddesses.
Phad Paintings
Phad may be a type of scroll painting. The paintings portrayal exploits of local deities are usually carried from place to place and are accompanied by traditional singers, who narrate the theme depicted on the scrolls. This kind of painting is a most noted painting of Rajasthan, mainly found in the Bhilwara district. Phad painting depicts the heroic deeds of a heroic figure, the daily life of a peasant, rural life, animals and birds, flora and fauna. These paintings are created using bright colors and subtle colors. The outlines of the paintings are first drawn in black and later filled with colors. The main themes of the phad paintings depict the deities and their legends and the stories of erstwhile Maharajas. Raw colors are used for these paintings. The unique features of phad paintings are the daring lines and a 2 dimensional treatment of figures with the entire composition arranged in sections. Two government institutions are created to promote art, music etc. in India. The National Gallery of modern Art has the largest collection of modern art underneath one roof. The second one which Lalit Kala Akademi that recognizes and patronizes artists in all fields. The art of painting the phads is approximately 700 years old. It is said that it was originated in Shapira, some 35 kms from Bhilwara in Rajasthan. The continuous royal patronage gave a decisive impetus to the art which has survived and flourished for generations.
Gond Art
A very extremely sophisticated and abstract form of Art works also are produced by the Santhals in India. The Gond tribe of the Godavari belt who old as recent as the Santhals produce figurative works.
WARLI PAINTING
Warli painting derives its name from a small tribe inhabiting the remote, tribal regions of Maharashtra. These are decorative paintings on floors and walls of ‘gond’ and ‘kol’ tribes’ homes and places of worship. Trees, birds, men and women collaborate to make a composite whole in a Warli painting. These paintings are made mostly by the women as part of their routine at auspicious celebrations. Subjects are predominantly religious with simple and local materials like white color and rice paste and native vegetable glue on a plain contrasting background, made in a geometric pattern like squares, triangles, and circles. Dots and crooked lines are the units of those composition. Flora and fauna and people’s day to day life also form a part of the painted. The paintings are expanded by adding subject after subject in a spiraling manner. The rhythm of the Warli means of life is superbly captured in simple images. Unlike other tribal art forms, Warli paintings don't use laic} iconography and is a more secular art form.
Kalighat painting
Kalighat painting derives its name from its place of origin Kalighat in Calcutta. Kalighat could be a bazaar near the Kali temple in Kolkata. Patua painters from rural Bengal came and settled in Kalighat to make images of gods and goddesses in the early nineteenth century. These paintings on paper made with water colors comprise clear sweeping line drawings using bright colours and a transparent background. Subjects are images of Kali, Lakshmi, Krishna, Ganesha, Shiva, and other gods and goddesses. In this method, artists developed a unique new form of expression, and effectively portray a wide range of subjects commenting on the social life of Bengal. Similar kind of pata paintings is also found in Orissa. This painting type has its roots within the culture upheaves of nineteenth century colonial Bengal. As its market grew, the artists began to liberate themselves from the routine depiction of Hindu deities and began to explore the world of contemporary social events in their paintings. The genre derived much inspiration from the introduction of photography, western the rise theatrical performances, the increase of babu culture in Bengal as a result of the impact of British colonial and administrative system. The emergence of the unique style of the nouveau riche of Kolkata in response to those diverse influence also inspired these paintings. Of these stimuli gave birth to a new imagery that occupied the center stage of Bengali literature, theatre and visual arts of the period. Kalighat paintings became the best mirror of this cultural and aesthetic shift. Based on their preexisting models of the Hindu deities, the artists created a full repertoire of images, courtesans, actresses, heroines, pompous babus and conceited dandies, resplendent in their fancy attire and hair styles, smoking pipes and playing the sitar. Kalighat paintings are often referred to as the first works of art that came from Bengal.
Key Takeaways:
- Painting as an art form has flourished in India from terribly early times as is evident from the remains that are discovered in the caves, and therefore the literary sources
- Remains of Buddhist paintings have also been found at the Buddhist caves at Bagh in the North and at numerous Deccan and southern sites of sixth and ninth centuries
- Kalighat painting derives its name from its place of origin Kalighat in Calcutta. Kalighat could be a bazaar near the Kali temple in Kolkata. Patua painters from rural Bengal came and settled in Kalighat to make images of gods and goddesses in the early nineteenth century
- The literal meaning of Kalamkari is a painting done by kalam (pen). This art got enriched because it came down from one generation to another.
India is a virtual treasure house of the most exquisite handicrafts. Simple objects of daily life are crafted with delicate design that give expression to the creativity of the Indian artisan. Each state of India will boast of some unique creation that is special to the region, for example, Kashmir is famous for embroidered shawls, carpets, namdar silk and walnut wood furnishings. Rajasthan is famous for its tie-and-dye (bandhnï) fabrics, jewelry, using precious stone and jems, blue glazed pottery and minakari work. Andhra Pradesh is famous for Bidri work and Pochampalh saris whereas Tamil Nadu is well known for bronze sculpture and Kajeevaram silk saris. Mysore is well known for silk, wood items and Kerala is famous for ivory carvings and rosewood furniture. Chanderi and kosa silk of Madhya Pradesh, chikan work of Lucknow, Brocade and silk saris of Benaras, cane furniture and goods of Assam, Bankura terracotta modelling and handloom items of Bengal are simply a few examples of unique traditional decorative arts and crafts that constitute the heritage of modern India. These arts are nurtured for thousands of years and provided employment to a great number of artisans who carried forward the art to the next generation. Therefore, you see how the Indian artisans with their magic touch will transform a piece of metal, wood or ivory into objects of art.
The earliest tradition of Indian music may be traced to Sama veda that contained the slokas that were put to music. Chanting of vedic hymns with prescribed pitch and accent still form a part of religious rituals. The earliest text dealing exclusively with performing arts is Bharata’s Natyashashtra (compiled between second century bc and second century AD) that has six chapters on music. Another major text is Matanga’s Brihaddesi compiled between eight and ninth century AD. In this work ragas were first named and discussed at great length. Sangeet Ratnakara written by Sarangdeva in the thirteenth century mentions 264 ragas. A variety of string and wind instruments were invented over the period of time. In ancient texts references are made to flutes, drums, veena, and cymbals. Many rulers like Samudragupta, King Bhoja of Dhara and King Someshavra of Kalyana patronized music. The Gupta monarch Samudra Gupta was himself an accompolished musician. In some of his coins, he's shown playing on the Veena. Music was also associated with the worship of Gods and goddess in the temples. In the twelfth century, Jayadeva of Orissa produced the most brilliant raga kavya, the gita Govinda, every song of which was set in a raga and was composed on the theme of love of Radha and krishna. Abhinavagupta’s (993-1055) Abhinavabharati provides useful information about music. Tamil music has a number of terms and concepts parallel to what's found in sanskrit texts. The Saivite Nayanars and Vaishnavite Alvars too set their psalms (poems) to music.
Similarly, in the medieval period the Sufi and bhakti saints encouraged music. Qawwalis were sung in Sufi khanqahs and devotional music like kirtan and bhajan became popular with the bhakti saints. Names of Kabir, Mirabai, Surdasa, Chandidasa, Tulsidasa, Vidyapati are closely associated with religious music. Great scholars like amir Khusrau contributed equally to the promotion of music. The legendary ruler of Malwa, Baz Bahadur and his wife Rupmati introduced new ragas. Kitabe Navras written by ibrahim Adil shah II during the seventeenth century is a collection of songs in praise of Hindu deities as well as Muslim saints. The most famous musician of Akbar’s court was Tansen and there was no one to match him, although there have been all types of singers. Baiju Bawra was additionally a widely known musician throughout Akbar’s time. The patronage given to these artists by the ancient and medieval rulers are instrumental in keeping the traditions alive. Indeed, the Mughal rulers were great patrons of music. According to Lanepoole- “Babar himself was fond of music. He’s supposed to have developed some very popular musical style forms like Qawalis, Khayal, etc. Humayun was said to have illustrated Indian texts on music. Akbar composed songs and encouraged musicians. Swami Haridas and his disciples composed several songs in numerous tunes. Pundarika Vittal was a great scholar of music who wrote the famous Ragamala. Hindustani Music was also enriched by devotional songs sung by Mira bai, Tulsidas and Surdas.
Key takeaways:
- India is a virtual treasure house of the most exquisite handicrafts. Simple objects of daily life are crafted with delicate design that give expression to the creativity of the Indian artisan.
- Andhra Pradesh is famous for Bidri work and Pochampalh saris whereas tamil nadu is well known for bronze sculpture and Kajeevaram silk saris
- The earliest tradition of Indian music may be traced to Sama veda that contained the slokas that were put to music. Chanting of vedic hymns with prescribed pitch and accent still form a part of religious rituals.
- Tamil music has a number of terms and concepts parallel to what's found in Sanskrit texts. The Saivite Nayanars and Vaishnavite Alvars too set their psalms (poems) to music.
During the medieval period Indian classical music was broadly based on 2 traditions, the Hindustani classical music prevalent in North india|Bharat|Asian country|Asian nation} and therefore the Carnatic music of South India.
Hindustani classical music
Hindustani classical music may be traced back to the period of the Delhi sultanate and to Amir Khusrau (AD 1253-1325) who inspired the practice of musical performance with particular instruments. He believed to have invented the sitar and the tabla and is said to possess introduced new ragas. Most of the Hindustani musicians trace their descent to Tansen. Different styles of Hindustani music are Dhrupad, Dhamar, Thumri, Khayal and Tappa. It’s said that Tansen’s music had the effect of magic. He might stop the rising waves of the Yamuna and by the force of his ‘Megh Rag’ he could cause the rain to fall. In fact, his melodious songs are sung in each part of india even now with great interest. Some of Akbar’s courtiers patronized Musicians like Baiju Bawra, Surdas etc.
The most standard ragas are: Bahar, Bhairavi, Sindhu Bhairavi, Bhim Palasi, Darbari, Desh, Hamsadhwani, Jai Jayanti, Megha Malhar, Todi, Yaman, Pilu, Shyam Kalyan, Khambaj. Republic of India additionally incorporates a wealthy kind of musical instruments of various varieties. Amongst the stringed instruments the foremost noted area unit stringed instrument, sarod, santoor and sarangi. Pakhawaj, tabla and Mridangam area unit precussion or tal giving instruments. Likewise, flute, shehnai and nadaswaram area unit a number of the chief wind instruments. The musicians of Hindustani music genre area unit sometimes associated to a gharana or a selected form of music. Gharanas talk over with hereditary linkages of musicians that represent the core of the design and distinguish them from the opposite. The gharanas operate in gurushishya parampara, that is, disciples learning underneath a selected guru, transmission his musical information and magnificence, can belong to identical gharana. Some noted gharanas area unit Gwalior gharana, Kirana gharana, and Jaipur gharana. Devotional music like kirtan, bhajan, ragas contained within the Adi Grantha and singing within the Majlis throughout Islamic calendar month additionally merit a special place in Indian music. Beside this, ethnic music additionally shows a really wealthy cultural heritage.
CARNATIC MUSIC
The compositions in Carnatic music could also be attributed jointly to 3 composers UN agency lived between AD 1700 and 1850. They were Shyam Shastri, Thyagaraja and Mutthuswami Dikshitar. Purandardasa was another nice musician of Carnatic music. Thyagaraja is revered each as a saint associate degreed a creative person and epitomises the essence of Carnatic music. The most compositions area unit called Kriti and area unit pious in nature. The 3 nice musicians experimented with new forms. Some notable musicians of this era area unit Omaha Vaidyanath Ayyar (1844-93), Patnam Subrahmanya Ayyar (l854-1902) and Ramnad Srinivasa lyengar (l860-1919). Flute, veena, nadaswaram, mridangam, ghatam area unit a number of the instruments to accompany Carnatic music.
Despite different options between Hindustani and Carnatic music, one will notice some imilarities, for instance, the Carnatic alapana is analogous to alap in Hindustani classical. Tilana in Carnatic resembles Tarana of Hindustani. Each lay stress on Western Samoan monetary unit or talam.
With the British rule came Western music. Indians adopted some of their instruments like violin and clarinet to suit the demands of Indian music. Orchestration of music on stage is a new development. Use of cassettes replaced oral transmission of tunes and ragas. Performance that were earlier limited to a privileged few have now been thrown open to the general public and can be viewed by thousands of music lovers throughout the country. Music education no longer depends on the master-disciple system however can be imparted through institutions teaching music.
Musicians
Amir Khusrau, Sadarang Adaranga, Miyan Tansen, Gopal Nayak, swami Haridas, Pt. V.D. Paluskar, Pt. V.N. Bhatkhande, Thyagaraja Mutthuswami Dikshitar, Pt. Omkar, Nath Thakur, Pt. Vinaik Rao Patwardhan, Ustad Chand Khan, Ustad Bade Ghulam Ali Khan, Ustad Faiyaz Khan, Ustad Nissar Hussain Khan, Ustad amir Khan, Pt. Bhimsen Joshi, Pt. Kumar Gandharva, Kesarbai Kerkar and Smt. Gangubai Hangal are all vocalists. Among the instrumentalist’s baba Allauddin Khan, Pt. Ravi shankar, Ustad Bismillah Khan, Ustad Alla Rakkha Khan, Ustad Zakir Hussain are some of the well-known musicians.
FOLK MUSIC
Besides classical music India has a rich legacy of folk or popular music. This music represents the emotion of the masses. The simple songs are composed to mark each event in life. They may be festivals, advent of a new season, wedding or birth of a child. Rajasthani folk songs like Mand and Bhatiali of Bengal are popular all over India. Ragini is a popular form of folk songs of Haryana. Folk songs have their special meanings or messages. They often describe historical events and important rituals. Kashmir’s Gulraj is usually a folklore and Pandyani of Madhya Pradesh is a narrative put to music. Muslims sing Sojkhwani or mournful songs during Moharram and christmas carols and choral music are sung in groups on the festive occasions.
Key takeaways:
- With the British rule came Western music. Indians adopted some of their instruments like violin and clarinet to suit the demands of Indian music
- Besides classical music India has a rich legacy of folk or popular music. This music represents the emotion of the masses.
- The simple songs are composed to mark each event in life. They may be festivals, advent of a new season, wedding or birth of a child.
- Despite different options between Hindustani and Carnatic music, one will notice some similarities, for instance, the Carnatic alapana is analogous to alap in Hindustani classical.
DANCES OF INDIA
The Rigveda mentions dance (nrti) and danseuse (nrtu) and compares the brilliant dawn (usas) to a brightly attrived danseuse. In the Brahmanas, Jaiminiya and Kausitaki dance and music are mentioned together. The Epics are full of references to dances on earth and heaven. Like music, Indian dance has also developed a rich classical tradition. It has a great power of expression and emotions while telling a story. In India, the art of dancing may be traced back to the Harappan culture. The discovery of the bronze statue of a dancing girl testifies to the fact that some women in Harappa performed dances.
In traditional Indian culture the function of dance was to give symbolic expression to religious ideas. The figure of Lord Shiva as Nataraja represents the creation and destruction of the cosmic cycle. The popular image of Shiva in the form of Nataraja clearly shows the popularity of dance form on the Indian people. There is not a single temple atleast in the southern part of the country which does not show the sculptures of the dancers in their different forms. In fact, classical dance forms like Kathakali, Bharatnatyam, Kathak, Manipuri, Kuchi pudi and Odishi are an important part of our cultural heritage.
It is difficult to say at what point of time dance originated, but it is obvious that dance came into existence as an effort to express joy. Gradually dances came to be divided as folk and classical. The classical form of dance was performed in temples as well as in royal courts. The dance in temples had a religious objective whereas in courts it was used purely for entertainment. In both cases for the artists devoted to this art form, it was no less than praying to God. In southern India Bharatanatyam and Mohiniattam developed as an important aspect of the rituals in temples. Yakshagana, a form of Kathakali in Kerala, tells us stories of Ramayana and Mahabharata whereas Kathak and Manipuri are mostly related to the stories of Krishna and his leela (exploits). Performance of Odissi is related to the worship of Lord Jagannath. Though the Krishna leela and the stories related to Lord Shiva was the theme of Kathak, this dance came to be performed in royal courts in medieval times. Romantic gestures contained in Thumri and Ghazal, that were also performed with accompanists for the kings, reflect this aspect. Manipuri dance was also performed for religious purposes. Folk dances evolved from the lives of common people and were performed in unison. In Assam people celebrate most of the harvesting season through Bihu. Similarly, Garba of Gujarat, Bhangra and Gidda of Punjab, bamboo dance of Mizoram, Koli, the fisherman’s dance of Maharashtra, Dhumal of Kashmir, and Chhau of Bengal are unique examples of performing arts that gave expression to the joys and sorrows of the masses.
As far as the analytical study of this art form is concerned, the Natyashastra of Bharata, is a primary source of information, and basically deals with drama. Bharata has discussed dance and its various angas (limbs) in detail. Facial expressions, body movements, hasta mudras and the footsteps have all been brought together under three broad categories namely, as nritta (pada sanchalan), nritya (anga sanchalan) and natya (abhinay). Both men and women took keen interest in dance but generally women dancers were looked down upon in society. However, with the efforts of great music thinkers and various religious and social reform movements, people have started to hold women performers with great respect. In the medieval period Kathak dance form was promoted by the Muslim rulers. We hear of these performances in the courts of most of the Mughal rulers except for Aurangzeb. In the south, temples, ‘court’ and other parts of the building provided an important stage for all dancers. Navaras, mythological tales of Rama, Krishna, Ganesh, Durga were all enacted in the form of dance. Some rulers of the north like Wajid ali Shah was a great patron of music and dance and here the seeds of the Lucknow gharana or ‘school of dance’ was sown. The modern day dancers like Pt. Birju Maharaj all have come from the Lucknow school of dance. In the medieval period, the south remained very rigid with the rules of dances that were imbibed from ancient Sanskrit texts. It became a seat of learning and institutions of dance sprung up first in the southern region
Along with classical dance forms, folk dance also flourished. In most of the regions the local dance form became very popular. Manipuri dance, Santhal dance, Rabindranath’s dance, drama, chhau, ras, gidda, bhangra, garba are some of the folk dances that have flourished in India. They are equally popular and have extreme acumen and innovation. Practically every region of our country has developed their own rich tradition of folk dances. For example, the Bihu dance of Assam, Mask dance of Ladakh, Wangla of Meghalaya, Bhutia or Lepcha dance of Sikkim. Similarly, we also have some dances which are called martial dances like Chholia of Uttranchal, Kalari paittu of Kerala, Thang-taa of Manipur among the more famous ones. Presently, all the three art forms are flourishing in the country. Musical institutions have opened up giving opportunities to many. Schools, universities have departments of music. Indira Kala Vishwa Vidyalaya of Khairagarh is a university of music, Gandharva MahaVidyalaya, Kathak Kendra and many institutes in the south are all propagating music in their own ways. Music conferences, Baithaks, lecture, demonstrations are all spreading music to nooks and corners of India. Societies like Spic-macay, India International Rural Cultural Centre have worked very hard to bring about a rapport and bondage with artists and the modern generation. Abroad musicians have also flourished and different institutions of music started by Pt. Ravi Shankar, Ustad Ali Akbar Khan, Alla Rakkha etc. are prestigious teaching centres for foreigners. Many foreign universities also have facilities of art forms giving degrees and diplomas to students. All over the world Indian artists are invited to perform and participate in various festivals and occasions.
Well-known Dancers of Modern India
- Kathak
- Bharatanatyam
- Odissi
- Kuchipudi
Musicologists
In the last few decades the status of dance as well as its performers has changed. Young people have started learning dance to enrich their personal qualities. In some of the schools, colleges and universities separate departments are established for imparting training in dance. Several renowned classical dancers are awarded national awards like the Padmashree and the Padmabhusan. Throughout the different periods of history starting from the dancing figure found in the Indus valley civilization to the current, Indian people have expressed their joys and sorrows by singing and dancing through various art forms. This art form has been used to express their love, hatred, their aspirations and their struggle for survival which ultimately led to the enrichment of our culture.
DRAMA
Indigeneous tradition as well as modern research trace the origin of Indian drama to the Vedas. In the ramayana we hear of drama troupes of women while Kautilyas Arthshastra mentions musicians, dancers and dramatic shows. Drama is a performing art, which has also been practised since times immemorial. Drama could spring from a child’s play. The child enacts, mimics, and caricates that was definitely the beginning of drama. Since early times mythological stories of war between the gods, goddesses and the devils is known. Bharata wrote Natyashastra and created the plays known as asura Parajaya and Amrit Manthan. Natyashastra is one of the best texts written in the field of drama and other performing arts.
The next epoch is that of the great Bhasa who wrote plays based on the stories of Udayana, the ramayana and Mahabharata, Swapana Vasabdatta being his masterpiece. In the second century B.C. Patanjalis’ Mahabhasya refers to several aspects of drama i.e. the actors, the music, the stage, rasa in the performances called Kamsavadha and Balibandha. While referring to drama, Bharata has mentioned nat (male artists), and nati (female artist), music, dance, musical instruments, dialogues, themes and stage. Thus we find that drama achieved a good level of perfection during the age of Bharata. For Bharata, drama could be a perfect means of communication. He also started the concept of an enclosed area for drama. There's mention of a community called’ shailoosh’ that had professional drama companies. The practice of singing heroic tales became popular. As a result, professional singers called kushilavas came into existence. During the age of the Buddha and Mahavira, drama was a means of communicating the principles of their respective religions. Short skits and long plays were enacted to preach and educate the masses. Music and dance also played an important role in increasing the appeal of drama.
In the ancient period until the tenth century, the language of the educated, was sanskrit. Thus dramas were performed mostly in this language. However, characters belonging to lower classes and women were made to speak Prakrit. Kautilya’s Arthashastra Vatsyayan’s kamasutra, Kalidasa’s Abhijnan Shakuntalam were all written in sanskrit and were significant plays of those times. Bhasa was another celebrated dramatist who wrote 13 plays. Prakrit plays became popular by the tenth century AD. Vidyapati who lived sometime during the fourteenth century was a crucial dramatist. He introduced Hindi and other regional languages in the form of songs. Umapati Mishra and Sharada Tanaya were also instrumental in promoting drama during this time. In the context of drama, 2 varieties developed — the classic drama, which had intricacies of theme and subtle nuances of dramatic traits and folk theatre. It was of spontaneous and extempore nature. Local dialect was used in folk theatre and hence in different provinces many types of folk theatres developed. Acting with accompaniment of music and dance was the popular practice. Many names were given to the forms of folk theatre in different provinces like:
1) bengal - Jatra, Kirtania Natak
2) Bihar-Bideshia
3) Rajasthan - Raas, Jhumar, Dhola Maru
4) Uttar Pradesh - Raas, Nautanki, Svaang, Bhaand
5) Gujarat - Bhawaii
6) Maharashtra - Larite, Tamasha
7) Tamil nadu, Kerala, Karnataka - Kathakali, Yakshagana
Indian architecture (ancient, medieval and modern)
Architecture isn't a modern phenomenon. It began as soon as the early cave man began to build his own shelter to live in. Man 1st began to create and fix his own shelter when he stepped out from the natural habitat of dense jungle covers. With the artistic faculties of man awakened in the search for larger and better-sheltered spaces, he began to build, with inherent aesthetic sense, shelters that seemed pleasing to the eye. So emerged architecture that is a combination of needs, imagination, capacities of the builders and capabilities of the workers.
HARAPPAN PERIOD
The excavations at Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro and several other sites of the Indus valley Civilization revealed the existence of a very modern urban civilization with expert town planning and engineering skills. The very advanced drainage system along with well-planned roads and houses show that a sophisticated and highly evolved culture existed in India before the coming of the Aryans. The sites of the Indus valley Civilization were excavated under the archaeological Survey of India established by the British.
1. The settlements could be traced as far back as third millennium BC.
2, some important settlements were excavated on the banks of the river Indus particularly at the bends that provided water, easy means of transportation of produce and other goods and also some protection by way of natural barriers of the river.
3. All the sites consisted of walled cities which provided security to the people.
4. The cities had a rectangular grid pattern of layout with roads that cut one another at right angles.
5. The Indus valley people used standardized burnt mud-bricks as building material.
6. There is evidence of building of big dimensions that maybe were public buildings, administrative or business centers, pillared halls and courtyards, there's no evidence of temples.
7. Public buildings include granaries that were used to store grains which give an idea of an organized collection and distribution system.
8. Along with large public buildings, there's proof of small one roomed constructions that appear to be working people’s quarters.
9. The Harappan people were great engineers as is evident from the public bath that was discovered at Mohenjo-Daro. The ‘Great Bath’ as it is called, is still functional and there is no leakage or cracks in the construction. The existence of what appears to be
A public bathing place shows the importance of ritualistic bathing and cleanliness in this Culture. It’s significant that most of the houses had private wells and bathrooms.
10. At some sites a dominant citadel was excavated in the western part containing the Public buildings including the granaries. This can perhaps be treated as evidence of some kind of political authority ruling over the cities.
11. There's evidence also of fortifications with gateways enclosing the walled cities that shows that there may are a fear of being attacked.
EARLY HISTORIC period
An important phase of Indian architecture began with the Mauryan period. The material prosperity of the Mauryans and a brand new religious consciousness led to achievements in all fields. Megasthenes, the Greek ambassador of Selucas Nikator who visited the Mauryan court described Chandragupta Maurya’s palace as an excellent architectural achievement. It had been a large palace carved out of wood. In the Mauryan period (322-182 BC) especially under Ashoka architecture saw a great advancement. Mauryan art and architecture depicted the influence of Persians and Greeks. During the reign of Ashoka many monolithic stone pillars were erected on that teachings of ‘Dhamma’ were inscribed. The highly polished pillars with animal figures adorning the top (capitals) are unique and remarkable. The lion capital of the Sarnath pillar has been accepted as the emblem of the Indian Republic. Each pillar weighs about fifty tons and is about fifty-foot high. The stupas of Sanchi and Sarnath area unit symbols of the achievement of Mauryan architecture. The gateways of the Sanchi Stupa with the beautiful sculpture depicting scenes from Jataka stories are specimens of the skill and aesthetic sense of the artisans.
The blending of Greek and Indian art led to the event of Gandhara art that developed later. The other schools of art and architecture were the autochthonous Mathura College and Amaravati School. A large variety of statues of the Buddha were built by the artisans of those schools especially after first century AD under the influence of the Kushanas. Under the Gandhara school of art life-like statues of Buddha and Bodhisattvas
Were made in the likeness of Greek gods even, though the ideas, inspirations and subjects were all Indian. Rich ornaments, customs drapery were used to impart physical beauty. The sculptures were in stone, terracotta, cement like material and clay. The figures of the Mathura school were made of spotted red stone. That they had more of spiritual look in them. Here along with Buddha we find sculptures of Jain deities also. The Amaravati School developed under the patronage of the Satavahanas of the Andhra region. A great stupa was built at Amaravati in the Lower Godavari region. The walls of the stupa are adorned with bas relief, had carved medallion and decorative panels. Nagarjunkonda is another place that's famous for Buddhist architecture. The Gupta period marks the beginning of the construction of free-standing Hindu temples. An example of this is the temple at Deogarh (Jhansi district) that had a central shrine or garbhagriha where the image of the deity was placed. Another temple at Bhitrigaon (Kanpur district) are 2 fine examples of this period.
Cave architecture
The development of cave architecture is another unique feature and marks an important phase in the history of Indian architecture. More than thousand caves have been excavated between second century BC and tenth century AD. Famous among these were Ajanta and Ellora caves of Maharashtra, and Udaygiri cave of Orissa. These caves hold Buddhist viharas, chaityas as well as mandapas and pillared temples of Hindu gods and goddesses.
Rock-cut temples
Temples were hewn out of huge rocks. The earliest rock-cut temples were excavated in western Deccan in the early years of the Christian era. The chaitya at Karle with fine high halls and polished decorative wall could be a remarkable example of rock-cut architecture.
Free-standing temples
The temple building activities that begun during the Gupta rule continued to flourish in the later periods. In the southern India the Pallavas, Cholas, Pandyas, Hoyshalas and later the rulers of the Vijaynagar kingdom were great builders of the temples. The Pallava rulers who built the shore temple at Mahabalipuram. Pallavas also built many other structural temples like Kailashnath temple and Vaikuntha Perumal temples at Kanchipuram. The Cholas built temples most famous being the Brihadeshwara temple at Tanjore. The Cholas developed a typical style of temple architecture of South India called the Dravida style, complete with vimana or shikhara, high walls and the gateway topped by gopuram. Magnificent temples were built at Belur, Halebid where the stone engravings reached even more greater heights. In north India and eastern India magnificent temples were also constructed and the style followed by them is referred to as the Nagara style. Most of them consisted of the shikaras (spiral roofs), the garbhagriha (sanctum) and the mandap (pillared hall). Orissa has some of the most beautiful temples such as the Ling raja temple built by the Ganga rulers and the Mukteshwara temple at Bhubaneshwar and the Jagannath temple at Puri. The sun temple at Konark was built in thirteenth century by the eastern Ganga ruler Narshimha Deva I. The temple is dedicated to Surya (the sun god) and has been designed as a twelve-wheeled chariot.
The temple complex at Khajuraho was built by Chandella rulers between the tenth and eleventh centuries in the Bundelkhand region of Madhya Pradesh. Most important among them is the Kandariya Mahadev temple. Mount Abu in Rajasthan is well known for the Dilwara temple dedicated to Jain tirthankaras. These were built in the pure white marble and adorned with exquisite sculpture. These were built under the patronage of the Solanki rulers.
Somnath temple at the Gujarat, Vishwanath temple at the Banaras, Govinda temple at Mathura, Kamakhya temple at Guwahati, Shankaracharya temple at Kashmir and the Kali temple at Kalighat of Kolkata are some of the other important temples which bear testimony to the temple building activity of the Indian sub-continent.
MEDIEVAL PERIOD ARCHITECTURE
Delhi Sultanate
With the arrival of Turks during the 13th century came a new technique of architecture- the architectural styles of Persia, Arabia and the Central Asia. The engineering features of these buildings included the domes, arches and minarets. The palaces, mosques and tombs built by the rulers had these features which were blended with the features of the indigenous architecture and a new synthesis in architecture was achieved. This happened because the Turkish rulers of Delhi utilized the services of the local Indian craftsmen who were very skillful and had already constructed beautiful buildings. In the buildings that came up we find the simplicity of the Islamic structure as well as the detailed sculptures and designs they made on their indigenous structures. A middle path was followed in all their designs in the architecture of this period. The earliest building of this period is Quwwatul Islam Mosque at Delhi and the Qutub Minar. The latter is a tower; whose height is 70 meters. It is a tapering tower that has five stories. There are beautiful engravings of the calligraphy both in the mosque and on the tower. Many other buildings were later constructed by the various Sultans. Ala-ud-din Khalji enlarged the Quwat-ul-Islam mosque and built the gateway to the enclosure of the mosque. This gateway is called the Alahi Darwaja and is most beautiful architectural designs even today. Decorative elements are used to make the building outstanding in its beauty. He also built the Hauz Khas in Delhi which was a hydraulic structure. The tomb of Mohammad Tughlaq, Firoz Tughlaq and the forts of Tughlaqabad are some of the examples. Though their buildings were not beautiful but had very strong walls, massive as well as impressive. During the Afghan rule the tombs of Ibrahim Lodi at Delhi and Shershah’s tomb at Sasaram were built. The architecture of this period also shows how indigenous styles were adapted and utilized by the builders. During these years, the Turks were still in the process of settling down here. The rulers were threatened by the Mongols, who made sudden invasions from the north. This is why the buildings of this period are strong, sturdy and the practical.
Regional Kingdoms
With the establishment of the regional kingdoms in Bengal, Gujarat and the Deccan, beautiful buildings having their own style were constructed. The Jama Masjid, the Sadi Sayyad Mosque and the shaking towers at Ahmadabad are a few examples of this architecture. In Mandu (central India) the Jama Masjid, Hindola Mahal and the Jahaz Mahal were built. In the Deccan, the Sultans erected a number of buildings. The Jama Masjid at Gulbarga, the Madarsa of Mahmud Gawan at Bidar, Ibrahim Rauza, and the Gol Gumbaz at Bijapur and the fort at Golkunda are just a few famous buildings. Gol Gumbaz has the largest dome in the world. All these buildings vary in design and style from the buildings of the north India. In Bengal the oblong shape of many structures and the peculiar style of the roof construction were some of the distinctive features of the regional architecture of Bengal like the Adina mosque and the tomb of the Jallal-ud-din at Pandua, Khil Darwaza and Tantipara mosque at Gaur. In the Jaunpur, the Atala mosque build by the Sharqui rulers had a gigantic screen covering the dome while the tomb of Hoshang Shah at Malwa is made entirely of marble and is made of yellow and black marble inlay work beautifully done by all craftsmen. The rulers of the Vijayanagar, an empire which was established during this period also erected many beautiful buildings and temples and had a number of achievements to their credit. Though only ruins remain but the temples of Vithalswami and the Hazar Rama at the Hampi are good examples of architecture
Mughals
The advent of the Mughals brought a new era in the architecture. The synthesis of style which began earlier reached its peak during this time. The architecture of Mughal style started during the Akbar’s rule. The first building of this rule was Humayun’s Tomb at Delhi. In this magnificent building the red stone was used. It has a main gateway and the tomb is placed in the midst of a garden. Many people consider it a precursor of the Taj Mahal. Akbar built forts at Agra and also at Fatehpur Sikri. The Bulund Darwaja reflects the grandeur of the mighty Mughal Empire. This building was made following Akbar’s victory over the Gujarat. The Arch of the Buland Darwaja is about 41 m high and is perhaps the most imposing gateway in the world. The tomb of Salim Chishti, the Palace of Jodha Bai, Ibadat Khana, Birbal’s House and other buildings at Fatehpur Sikri reflect a synthesis of Persian and Indian elements together. During the reign of Jehangir, Akbar’s Mausoleum was constructed at Sikandra located near Agra. He built the beautiful tomb of Itimad-ud-daula which was built entirely of marble. Shahjahan was the greatest builder amongst the other Mughals.
Monuments Built by Akbar at Fatehpur Sikri
The Mughal architecture began in the reign of Akbar. He erected many important buildings. The crowning achievements of his reign was the building of his new capital city of Fatehpur Sikri., 40 km from Agra. Fatehpur Sikri is a romance of stones. The Arch of the Buland Darwaja is the believed to be most imposing gateway in the world. The tomb of Saint Salim Chisti is exquisite in its beauty. Jodha Bai Palace is a fine example of an ancient Indian architecture. The Jama Masjid is built with the influence of the Persian style. The Dewan-i-Amm and the Dewan-i-Khas are famous for their planning and decoration. The Ibadat Khana and Panch Mahal are another notable building of that era. The Panch Mahal is the pyramidal structure in five story. It was built on the pattern of a Buddhist Vihara.
COLONIAL ARCHITECTURE AND THE MODERN PERIOD
The colonial influence is seen in office buildings. Europeans who started coming from 16th century AD constructed many churches and other buildings. Portuguese built many churches at Goa, the most famous of these are Basilica Bom Jesus and the church of Saint Francis. The British also built administrative and residential buildings which reflect imperial glory. Some Greek and Roman influence can be observed in the colonnades or pillared buildings. Parliament House and Connaught Place in Delhi are good examples. The architect Lutyens, designed Rashtrapati Bhavan, formerly the Viceroy’s residence. It is built of sandstone and has design features like canopies and jaalifrom Rajasthan. The Victoria Memorial in Kolkata, the former capital of British India, is a huge edifice in marble. It now has a museum full of colonial artefacts. Writers’ Building in Calcutta, where generations of the government officers worked in British times, is still the administrative center of the Bengal after independence. Some Gothic elements can be seen in the church buildings like St. Paul’s Cathedral in Calcutta. The British also left impressive railway terminals like the Victoria Terminus in Mumbai. More contemporary styles of building are now in the evidence, after India’s Independence in 1947. Chandigarh has buildings designed by the French architect, Corbusier. In Delhi, the Austrian architect, Stein, designed The India International Centre where conferences are held by leading intellectuals from all over the world and more recently, the India Habitat Centre which has become a center of all intellectual activities in the capital.
In the past few decades, there have been many talented Indian architects, some trained in premier schools of architecture like the School of Planning and Architecture (SPA) in Delhi. Architects like Raj Rewal and Charles Correa represent this new generation Raj Rewal has designed the SCOPE Complex and JawaharVyapar Bhavan in Delhi. He takes pride in using indigenous building material like sandstone for construction and also combines steps and open spaces from the plazas of Rome. An example of this is the C1ET building in thw Delhi. Charles Correa from Mumbai is responsible for the LIC Building in Connaught Place, Delhi. He used glass facades in the high-rise to reflect light and create a sense of soaring height.
TOWNS AND CITIES IN INDIA
Architecture in Delhi. You can see that Planning goes with Architecture. Do you know that this Planning is actually the Town Planning, which is linked with the urban development? It is evident that when we think or talk about architecture, we have to think of the related idea of town planning or urban development. In this point we will learn about the growth and development of towns and cities in India. It is indeed an interesting story. We will also spend some time in going into details about the four major cities of contemporary India - Chennai, Mumbai, Kolkata and Delhi. We will trace the origin of these cities and learn about their important architectural structures and buildings. You would be surprised to know that starting from the Harappan civilization, (also known as Indus-Sarasvati Civilization by some historians), India have a very long history of town planning, which can be traced back to 2350 B.C. As you have already learnt, the two cities of Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro had an elaborate drainage system, roads which cut each other at right angles, a citadel which was built on the high ground and in the lower parts lived the rest of all the population. Kalibangam in Rajasthan and Surkoda in Kutch had similar city structure. From 600 B.C. Onwards, we come across more towns and cities that were associated with both Aryan as well as Dravidian civilization. Those were Rajgir, Varanasi, Ayodhya, Hastinapur, Ujjain, Sravasthi, Kapilavastu and the Kausambhi besides many others. We also come across many towns in the Mauryan period known as Janapadas (small towns) and Mahajanapadas (big towns).
Key Takeaways:
- The excavations at Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro and several other sites of the Indus valley Civilization revealed the existence of a very modern urban civilization with expert town planning and engineering skills
- The temple building activities that begun during the Gupta rule continued to flourish in the later periods. In the southern India the Pallavas, Cholas, Pandyas, Hoyshalas and later the rulers of the Vijaynagar kingdom were great builders of the temples
- Europeans who started coming from 16th century AD constructed many churches and other buildings. Portuguese built many churches at Goa, the most famous of these are Basilica Bom Jesus and the church of Saint Francis
- The two cities of Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro had an elaborate drainage system, roads which cut each other at right angles, a citadel which was built on the high ground and in the lower parts lived the rest of all the population.
Development of science in ancient
Astronomy
Astronomy made great progress. The movement of planets came to emphasized and closely observed. Jyotishvedanga texts established the systematic categories in astronomy but the more basic problem was handled by Aryabhatta (499 AD). His Aryabhattiya is a concise text containing the 121 verses. It contains sections on astronomical definitions, methods of determining true position of the planets, description of the movement of the sun and the moon and the calculation of the eclipses. The reason he gave for eclipse was that the earth is a sphere and rotated on its axis and when the shadow of the earth fell on the moon, it caused lunar eclipse and when the shadow of the moon fell on the earth, it causes solar eclipse. On the contrary, the orthodox theory explained it as a process where the demon swallowed the planet. All these observations have been described by Varahamihira in Panch Siddhantika which gives the summary of five schools of astronomy present in his time. Aryabhatta deviated from Vedic astronomy and gave it a scientific look that became a guideline for later astronomers. Astrology and horoscope were studied widely in ancient India. Aryabhatta’s theories showed a distinct departure from astrology which stressed more on beliefs than scientific explorations.
Mathematics
The town planning of Harappa shows that the people possessed a good knowledge of measurement and geometry. By the third century AD mathematics developed as a separate stream for study. Indian mathematics is supposed to originate from the Sulvasutras. Apastamba in second century BC, introduced practical geometry involving acute angle, obtuse angle and right angle. The knowledge helped in the construction of fire altars where the kings offered sacrifices. The 3 important contributions in the field of mathematics were the notation system, the decimal system and the use of zero. The notations and the numerals were carried to the West by the Arabs. These numerals replaced the Roman numerals. Zero was discovered in India in the 2nd century BC. Brahmagupta’s Brahmasputa Siddhanta is the very first book that mentioned ‘zero’ as a number, hence, Brahmagupta is considered as the man who found zero. He gave rules of using zero with any other numbers. Aryabhatta discovered algebra and also formulated the area of a triangle, which led to the origin of Trigonometry
Medicine
Diseases, cure and medicines were first mentioned in the Atharvaveda. Fever, cough, consumption, diarrhea, dropsy, sores, leprosy and seizure are some of the diseases mentioned. The diseases are said to be caused by the demons and spirits entering one’s body. The remedies recommended were replete with magical charms and the spells. From six hundred BC began the period of rational sciences. Takshila and Taranasi emerged as centers of medicine and learning. The two important texts in this field are Charaksamhita by Charak and Sushrutsamhita by Sushruta. How important was their work can be understood from the knowledge that it reached as far as China, Central Asia through translations in various languages? The plants and herbs used for medicinal purposes have mentioned in Charaksamhita. Surgery came to be mentioned as a separate stream around fourth century AD. Sushruta was a pioneer of this discipline. He considered surgery as “the highest division of the healing arts and least liable to fallacy”. He mentions 121 surgical instruments. Along with this he also has mentions of the methods of operations, bone setting, and cataract and so on. The surgeons in ancient India were familiar with plastic surgery (repair of noses, ears and lips). Sushruta mentions 760 plants. All the parts of the plant roots, barks, flowers, leaves etc. were used. Stress was laid on diet (e.g. Salt free diet for nephrites). Charaksamhita and the Sushrutsamhita became the predecessors of the development of Indian medicine in the later centuries. However, surgery suffered in the early medieval period since the act of dissecting with a razor became the work of a barber.
Metallurgy
The glazed potteries and bronze and copper artefacts found in the Indus valley excavations point towards developed metallurgy. The Vedic people were aware of the fermenting grain and fruits, tanning leather and the process of dyeing. By the first century AD, mass production of metals like iron, copper, and silver, gold and of alloys like brass and bronze took place. The iron pillar in the Qutub Minar complex is indicative of the high quality of alloying that was being done. Alkali and acids were produced and utilized for making medicines. This technology was used for other crafts like producing dyes and colours. Textile dyeing was popular. The Ajanta frescoes reflect on the quality of colour. These paintings have survived till date.
Geography
The constant interaction between man and nature forced people to study the geography. The people were clear about their own physical geography, that of China and also the Western countries, they were unaware of their position on the earth and the distances with many other countries. Indians also contributed to shipbuilding. In the ancient period, voyages and navigation was not a familiar foray for the Indians. However, Lothal, a site in Gujarat has the remains of a dockyard proving that trade flourished in those days by sea. In the early medieval period with the development of the concept of tirtha and tirtha yatra, a vast mass of geographical information was accumulated. They were finally compiled as parts of Puranas. In many cases separate sthala purana was compiled.
Scientific and technological developments in medieval India
During the medieval period (11th to18th century) science and technology in India developed along two lines: one concerned with the already charted course of earlier traditions and the other with the new influences which came up as result of Islamic and European influence. The maktabs and the madrasas came in existence that followed a set curricular. These institutions used to receive royal patronage. The two brothers, Sheikh Abdullah and Sheikh Azzizullah, specialists in Rational Sciences (Magulat), headed the madrasas at Sambhal and Agra. Learned men from Arabia, Persia and Central Asia were invited to teach in these madrasas.
A large number of karkhana (workshops) were maintained by the kings and the nobles to supply provisions, stores and equipment to royal houses and governmental departments. The karkhanas not only worked as manufacturing agencies but also served as centres for technical and vocational training to many young men. The karkhanas trained and turned out artisans and craftsmen in different branches, who later set up their own independent karkhanas (workshops).
Muslim rulers tried to reform the curriculum of primary schools. Some important subjects like arithmetic, mensuration, geometry, astronomy, accountancy, public administration and agriculture were included in the course of studies for primary school education. Though special efforts were made by the rulers to carry out reforms in education, yet science did not make much headway during this period. Efforts were made to seek a kind of synthesis between the Indian traditional scientific culture and the prevalent approach to the science in the other countries.
Biology
Hamsadeva compiled Mrga-pasi-sastra in the 13th century which gives a general, though not always scientific account of some of the beasts and birds of hunting. The medieval rulers as warriors and hunters, kept animals such as horses, dogs, cheetahs and falcons. Animals, both domestic and wild, existed in their menageries. Akbar showed special interest in producing good breeds of domestic animals, elephants and horses. Jahangir, in his Tuzuk-i-Jahangiri, recorded observations and experiments of weeding and hybridization. He described about thirty-six species of animals. His court artists, especially Mansur, produced elegant and accurate portrait of animals, some of which are still preserved in several museums and the private collections. As a naturalist, Jahangir was interested in the study of plants and his court artists in their floral portraiture describe some fifty-seven plants.
Mathematics
Brahmagupta the great 7th century mathematician has given a description of negative numbers as debts and positive numbers as fortunes, which shows that ancient Bharatiyas knew the utility of mathematics for practical trade. In the early medieval era the two outstanding works in math were Ganitasara by Sridhara and Lilavati by Bhaskara. Ganitasara which deals with multiplication, division, numbers, cubes, square roots, mensuration and so on. Ganesh Daivajna produced Buddhivilasini, a commentary on Lilavati, containing a number of illustrations. In 1587, Lilavati was translated into Persian by Faidi. Bija Ganita was translated by Ataullah Rashidi during Shah Jahan’s reign. Nilkantha Jyotirvid, a courtier of Akbar, compiled Tajik, introducing a large number of Persian technical terms. Akbar ordered the introduction of mathematics as a subject of study, among others in the educational system. BahauddinAmuli, Nasiruddin Tusi, Arraq and Al-Kashi made valuable contributions to this field. Nasiruddin Tusi, the founder director of the Maragha observatory, was recognized as an authority.
Chemistry
Before the introduction of writing on paper, ancient literature was preserved generally on palm leaves in the South India and birch-bark (bhoj-patra) in Kashmir and other northern regions of the country. Use of paper began during the Medieval period. Kashmir, Sialkot, Zafarabad, Patna, Murshidabad, Ahmedabad, Aurangabad, Mysore were well-known centres of paper production. During Tipu’s time, Mysore possessed a paper-making factory, producing a special type of paper that have had a gold surface. The paper making technique was the same throughout the country, differing only in preparation of the pulp from different raw materials. The Mughals knew the technique of producing of gunpowder and its use in guns. Indian craftsmen learnt this technique and evolved suitable explosive compositions. They were aware of the method of preparation of the gunpowder using saltpeter, Sulphur and charcoal in different ratios for use in different types of guns. The principal types of fireworks included pierced through air (rockets), produced sparks of fire, blazed with various colours and ended with explosion. Tuzuk-i--Baburi gives an account of the casting of cannons. The melted metal made to run into the mould till full and then cooled down. Besides explosives, other items were also produced. Ain-i-Akbari speaks of the ‘Regulations of the Perfume Office of Akbar’. The attar of roses was a popular perfume, the discovery of that is attributed to the mother of Nurjehan.
Astronomy
In the astronomy, a number of commentaries dealing with the already established astronomical notions appeared. Ujjain, Varanasi, Mathura and the Delhi were the main observatories available. Firoz Shah Tughaq established one of the observation posts at Delhi. Firoz Shah Bahmani under Hakim Hussain Gilani and Syed Muhammad Kazimi set up an observatory in the Daulatabad. Both lunar and solar calendars were used. The Mehendra Suri, a court astronomer of the Firoz Shah developed an astronomical instrument called Yantraja. Parameshvara and Mahabhaskariya were famous families of astronomers and the almanac-makers. Nilakantha Somasutvan produced a commentary on Aryabhatta. Kamalakar studied the Islamic ideas on astronomy. He was an authority on Islamic knowledge as well. Jaipur Maharaja, Sawai Jai Singh II set five astronomical observatories in Delhi, Ujjain, Varanasi, Mathura and Jaipur.
Medicine
There was an attempt to develop specialized treatises on different diseases. Pulse and urine examinations were conducted for diagnostic purposes. The Sarangdhara Samhita recommends use of opium in the medicines. The rasachikitsa system, dealt principally with a host of mineral medicines including metallic preparations. The Tuhfat-ul-Muminin was a Persian treatise written by Muhammad Munin in 17th century which discusses the opinions of physicians. The Unani Tibb is an important system of medicine which flourished in the India in the medieval era. Ali-bin-Rabban summarized the whole system of Greek medicine and the Indian medical knowledge in the book Firdausu-Hikmat. The Unani medicine system came to India along with the Muslims around the 11th century and soon found a congenial environment for growth. Hakim Diya Muhammad compiled a book, Majinye Diyae, incorporating the Arabic, Persian and Ayurvedic medical knowledge. Firoz Shah Tughlaq wrote a book, Tibbe Firozshahi. The Tibbi Aurangzebi, dedicated to Aurangzeb, is based on Ayurvedic sources. The Musalajati-Darashikohi of Nuruddin Muhammad, dedicated to Darashikoh dealt with Greek medicine
Key Takeaways:
- The glazed potteries and bronze and copper artefacts found in the Indus valley excavations point towards developed metallurgy. The Vedic people were aware of the fermenting grain and fruits, tanning leather and the process of dyeing.
- The town planning of Harappa shows that the people possessed a good knowledge of measurement and geometry
- The Unani Tibb is an important system of medicine which flourished in the India in the medieval era
- In the astronomy, a number of commentaries dealing with the already established astronomical notions appeared. Ujjain, Varanasi, Mathura and the Delhi were the main observatories available
Reference Books:
- S. Narain, “Examinations in ancient India”, Arya Book Depot, 1993
- Satya Prakash, “Founders of Sciences in Ancient India”, Vijay Kumar Publisher, 1989
