Unit-5
Education System in India
Vedic Period
Learning in ancient India was imparted by the teachers called Gurus to the pupils who gathered around them and came to live with them in their house as members of the family. Such a place was called Gurukul. The Gurukul functioned as a boarding school, an ashram, where the children’s learning was developed by the Guru who gave personal instruction as well as attention to the students. Education was primarily the privilege for the upper castes. Learning was an intimate relationship between the teacher and the pupil called the GuruShishya Parampara. The process of learning generally began with a religious ceremony, ‘Upanayana’ (sacred thread ceremony). Education was normally imparted orally. It included memorization of texts like Vedas and Dharmashastras, fully or partially. Subjects like Grammar, Logic, and Metaphysics came later to be taught and studied. The Maitrayani Upanishad teaches us that the supreme knowledge (gyan) is the result of learning (vidya), reflection (chintan) and austerity (tapas). Through introspection (atma vishleshana) one was to attain goodness (Satva), purity of mind and satisfaction of the soul. During this time self-education was regarded as the method of attaining the highest knowledge. The best example of this can be found in the Taitteriya Upanishad where Bhrugu, son of Varuna, approaches his father and asks him to teach what Brahmana is. The father tells him to find this out through meditation.
Mauryan Period
During the Mauryan and the post-Mauryan periods, the Indian society went through a phase for intensive change. With the growth of urban centres and trade, the mercantile community came to acquire the important position. As a result, the guilds of the merchants began to play an active role in providing proper education. They became main centres of technical education and fostered the knowledge of mining, metallurgy, carpentry, weaving and dyeing. There were new formulations of building and architecture. With the emergence of city life, new architectural forms evolved. The guilds also gave patronage to astronomy, the study of the position of stars, to help them in ocean navigation. The astronomers and cosmologists began a debate on “time” (kala). This helped in the development of a sharp sense of “time” (kala) in comparison to the past. Medical knowledge began to be systemized as Ayurveda. The elements formed on the basis for the Indian medical system. A right combination of the three was necessary for a healthy body. Knowledge of the medicinal properties of herbs and their usage reached a very advanced stage. ‘Charaka’ became famous for the medicine and ‘Sushruta’ for the surgery. ‘Charak Samhita’ written by Charaka was an authentic and exhaustive work of medicines.
You must have heard of Chanakya, who was a renowned philosopher, scholar and also teacher. His most famous work is ‘Arthashastra’. The curricula of studies mentioned in the Arthashastra refers primarily to the education of princes. After Upanayana the prince learnt the four Vedas and the Vedic study included a study of sciences. They also learnt logic, economics and politics. Education of those times were primarily life skills based which was so different from what education is today. The curricula in the Ramayana for the princes was Dhanurveda, Nitishastra, Siksha (lore) of elephants and the chariots, Alekhya and Lekhya (Painting and writing), Langhana (jumping) and the Tairana (swimming).
Gupta Period
In the Gupta period, the Jain and Buddhist systems of education assumed a different dimension. Buddhist monasteries admitted students for ten years. Learning began with the oral method. Later they shifted to the reading of literary texts. The monasteries had libraries. Important manuscripts were copied and stored. Students from other countries like China and South-East Asia came to the Buddhist monasteries for education. The monasteries were normally maintained by grants from kings and the rich class. They attracted scholars from far and near. Fa-Hien also spent many years in the monastery at Pataliputra, studying Buddhist religious books. Besides Pataliputra, there were other centres of learning like Varanasi, Mathura, Ujjain and the Nasik. Nalanda University was known all over Asia for its high standards of scholarship. The subjects taught included Vedanta, philosophy, study of the Puranas, epics, grammar, logic, astronomy, philosophy, medicine etc. Sanskrit, the court language was the medium of instruction. The Jains used Sanskrit literature like ‘Adi purana’ and ‘Yashatilaka’ for education purposes in the earlier phase. But to make education more popular, the medium was changed to Prakrit and other regional languages like Tamil, Kannada and so on. Books in the Jain and Buddhist libraries were written on the palm leaves that were tied together and are known as “granthas”. Slowly, Jainism and Buddhism lost patronage and their monasteries started declining as centres of education and learning. The ‘mathas’ supported by Brahmins were institutions parallel to Jain and the Buddhist monasteries. The ‘mathas’ functioned like ashrams for educational purposes.
Post Gupta Period
Art and the education made great strides in the reign of Harsha. He encouraged education at all the levels; education was given in temples and monasteries and higher education in universities of Taxila, Ujjain, Gaya and Nalanda. In Nalanda, Hiuen Tsang spent several years studying Buddhists sculptures. Shilabhadra, a renowned scholar was its head. In the 7th and 8th centuries, ‘ghatikas’, or colleges attached to the temples emerged as new centres of learning. The ‘ghatikas’, provided Brahminical education. The medium of instruction was Sanskrit. Entry to these temple colleges was only open to the upper castes or ‘dvijas’ (twice born). Use of Sanskrit in the medium of instruction distanced the common people from education. Education became the privilege of only the uppermost categories of society.
Key Takeaways:
- The Gurukul functioned as a boarding school, an ashram, where the children’s learning was developed by the Guru who gave personal instruction as well as attention to the students. Education was primarily the privilege for the upper castes.
- Subjects like Grammar, Logic, and Metaphysics came later to be taught and studied. The Maitrayani Upanishad teaches us that the supreme knowledge (gyan) is the result of learning (vidya), reflection (chintan) and austerity (tapas).
- Students from other countries like China and South-East Asia came to the Buddhist monasteries for education. The monasteries were normally maintained by grants from kings and the rich class
- Education was given in temples and monasteries and higher education in universities of Taxila, Ujjain, Gaya and Nalanda
The institutions which provided school education were known as ‘makhtabs’, while those of higher learning were called ‘madrasas’. The ‘makhtabs’ were generally run by public donations while ‘Madrasas’ were maintained by the rulers and the nobles. There were six types of institutions: (i) those established and maintained by nobles and rulers, (ii) those which were started by individual scholars with the help of state assistance or with the help donations, (iii) those that were attached to the mosques, (iv) those that were attached to the tombs, (v) those that were started and maintained by individual scholars, and (vi) those that were attached to the Sufi hospices. The famous ‘madrasas’ were the Muizzi, the Nasiri and the Firuzi madrasas in Delhi, Mohammed Gawani’s madrasa in Bidar and Abul Fazl’s madrasa in Fatehpur Sikri. The Sirat-i-figuz Shahi gives a list of 14 subjects that were taught in the Madarsas like Jurisprudence or Dirat which was a method of recitation, punctuation and vocalization of the text Quran etc.
The main feature of the Muslim education system it was traditional in spirit and theological in content. The curriculum was divided into two categories: the traditional (Manqulat) and the rational (Maqulat) sciences. Traditions, law and history and literature were under the traditional sciences. Logic, philosophy, medicine, mathematics and the astronomy were under rational sciences. Later, rational sciences came to be emphasized more than the traditional sciences. Traditional subjects dominated education from the time of Iltutmish (1211-36) till the reign of Sikander Lodi (1489-1517). The scenario changed from the time of Sikander Lodi when he invited the brothers Sheikh Abdullah and Sheikh Azizullah from Multan to Delhi. They introduced the study of philosophy and logic in the syllabus.
Eighteenth Century: The Beginning of Modern Period
As in other aspects of social life in the India, many of the traditional features of the proceeding centuries had continued in the field of education. The old famous centres of higher learning like at Taxila, Nalanda, Vikramshila near Bhagalpur, at Jagaddal in North Bengal, Vallabhi at Kathiawar and Kanchi in the South had disappeared long ago. Islamic education, on the other hand flourished subsequently under the patronage of rulers. Still the majority of the Hindu population continued to receive education in their time honored institutions and with the growth of vernacular literature they studied their classical works. ‘There is not country’ wrote Thomas in 1891 ‘where the love of learning had so early an origin or has exercised so lasting and powerful influence’. According to him ‘The English found in India, a widespread style of elementary education and higher education, of which the former was mainly practical while the latter mainly literary, philosophical and religious.
For about 150 years, the British were involved in trade and downfall in India. So they maintained a distance from all kinds of cultural activities including education. The beginning of scholarship was made by Warren Hastings in 1781 when he started the Calcutta Madrasa. His endeavor was primarily due to administrative reasons. Eleven years later, in 1792, Jonathan Duncan, a Resident of Varanasi started a Sanskrit college to educate native Hindus to assist the Europeans. Meanwhile, Christian missionaries were making efforts to introduce Western education by opening elementary schools and providing education to the humbler sections of the society, including the so called untouchable castes.
Nineteenth Century
The first half of the nineteenth century can be called a period of educational experiments. The East India Company’s Charter Act of 1813 enabled the Company to set aside one lakh rupees for “the revival and improvement of literature and the encouragement of learned natives of India and for the introduction and promotion of a knowledge of sciences among the inhabitants of the British territories in India”. A debate ensued between the Orientalists and the Anglicists which was finally settled by Macaulay’s Minutes and Bentinck’s Resolution of 1835. It was decided that this fund would be utilized to promote European literature and sciences. William Bentinck declared English as the official language of the government. Lord Hardinge in 1844, decided to grant employment to Indians who had English education.
Wood’s Dispatch of 1854 underlined the objective of educational policy which was the diffusion of “the improved arts, sciences, philosophy and literature of Europe” through English or other modern Indian languages as the medium of education. The Despatch suggested that Universities should be set up in Bombay (modern Mumbai), Madras (modern Chennai) and Calcutta (modern Kolkata). It emphasized the development of private enterprise, a system of grants-in-aid, training teachers in the schools, women’s education and so on. In 1857, the Universities of Bombay, Madras and Calcutta were established.
Beginning of 20th Century
In 1901, Lord Curzon convened the conference of Directors of the Public Instruction which began an era of the educational reforms based on its decisions. In 1904, the Indian Universities Act was passed that enabled the Universities to assume teaching, inspection of colleges and undertake measures for qualitative improvement in higher education. Under the Colonial Rule, mass education was neglected and the attempt was to create an urban educated elite that would act as interpreter between the ruler and the ruled. The examination system was emphasized in both high schools and Universities. The impact of English education was not even. Literacy and education were more speeded in towns than in villages. The positive aspect was that it produced a breed of educated political leaders and social reformers who played important roles in the freedom struggle of the country. The publication of newspapers and pamphlets brought about an awakening amongst the masses.
In ancient India, education was a matter of individual concern. The aim of education was the development of pupil’s overall personality. With this view of education as a process of one’s inner growth and self-fulfillment, techniques, various rules and methods were evolved. It is believed that the development of a person meant, primarily, the training of his/her mind as the instrument of acquiring knowledge. This knowledge would enhance his/her creative capacity. The thinking principle ‘manana shakti’ was reckoned higher than the subject of thinking. Thus, the primary subject of education was the mind itself.
Key takeaways:
- There were six types of institutions: (i) those established and maintained by nobles and rulers, (ii) those which were started by individual scholars with the help of state assistance or with the help donations, (iii) those that were attached to the mosques, (iv) those that were attached to the tombs, (v) those that were started and maintained by individual scholars, and (vi) those that were attached to the Sufi hospices
- The main feature of the Muslim education system it was traditional in spirit and theological in content. The curriculum was divided into two categories: the traditional (Manqulat) and the rational (Maqulat) sciences.
- William Bentinck declared English as the official language of the government. Lord Hardinge in 1844, decided to grant employment to Indians who had English education.
- In ancient India, education was a matter of individual concern. The aim of education was the development of pupil’s overall personality
Knowledge of applied sciences like metallurgy, baked bricks, glazing, measurement of areas and volumes were known to people in an ancient India. The scientific system of medicine was developed in the post-Vedic period. Medicine became a subject at centres of learning like Takshila and Varanasi. The ‘Charak Samhita’ on medicine and ‘Sushruta Samhita’ on surgery were two vital works in this field. Sushruta considered the surgery as “the highest division of the healing arts and least liable to fallacy”. Mathematics or ‘Ganita’ included topics liken Arithmetic, Geometry, Algebra, Astronomy and Astrology. Interest in Arithmetic was due to its use in trade and commerce. ‘Aryabhattiya’, by Aryabhatta was a major contribution in the field of mathematics. Astronomy was overshadowed by Brahmanical superstitions. ‘Surya Siddhanta’, a work on astronomy consisted of the description of the instruments and the methods of observation which were neither accurate nor impressive. The bronze and copper remains from the time of Indus Valley Civilization are indicative of the development of chemistry and metallurgy. The processes of leather tanning, dyeing, and fermenting were devised during this era.
Sanskrit enjoyed a position of privilege in ancient India. It served as a medium of Brahmanical education. Sanskrit was the lingua franca of the educated upper castes as well as the Hindu rulers and courtiers. ‘Prakrit’ is a language developed with the rise of Buddhism. It became the language of the masses. The Mauryan king Ashoka used ‘Prakrit’ in his edicts. It is interesting to note that in Sanskrit drama, women and the humble characters made to speak in formal Prakrit. Pali was one of the early and important variants of Prakrit. Most of the Buddhist canonical writings are available Prakrit and Pali, though some Sanskrit literature was also in circulation. Another language ‘Apabhramsha’ was used by Jain writers in Gujarat and Rajasthan for the composition of poetry. The Dravidian languages like the Tamil, Telugu, Kannada and the Malayalam were in use in the southern parts of India. They found expression in the literature of this era as well.
As in Math, ancient Indians contributed to the knowledge in Science, too. Let us learn about the contributions of some scientists of ancient India.
Kanad
Kanad was a sixth century scientist of Vaisheshika School, one of the six systems of Indian philosophy. His original name was Aulukya. He got the name Kanad, because even as a child, he was very interested in very minute particles called “kana”. His atomic theory can be a match to any modern atomic theory. According to Kanad, material universe is made up of kanas, (anu/atom) which cannot be seen through any human organ. These cannot be further subdivided. Thus, they are indivisible and indestructible. This is, as you may be knowing, what the modern atomic theory also says.
Varahamihira
Varahamihira was another well-known scientist of the ancient period in the India. He lived in the Gupta period. Varahamihira made great contributions in the fields of hydrology, geology and the ecology. He was one of the scientists to claim that termites and plants could be the indicators of the presence of the underground water. He gave a list of six animals and thirty plants, which could indicate the presence of water. He gave very vital information regarding termites (Deemak or insects that destroy wood), that they go very deep to the surface of water level to bring water to keep their houses (bambis) wet. Another theory, which has attracted the world of science is the earthquake cloud theory given by Varahmihira in his Brhat Samhita. The thirty second chapter of this samhita is devoted to signs of earthquakes. He has tried to relate earthquakes to the influence of planets, undersea activities, underground water, unusual cloud formation and abnormal behaviour of animals.
Nagarjuna
Nagarjuna was a tenth century scientist. The main aim of his experiments was to transform base elements into gold, like the alchemists in the western world. Even though he was not successful in his goal, he succeeded in making an element with gold-like shine. Till date, this technology is used in making the imitation jewelry. In his treatise, Rasaratnakara, he has discussed methods for the extraction of metals like gold, silver, tin and copper.
Scientists of ancient India
Mathematics & astronomy
Science and Maths were highly developed during the ancient period in India. Ancient Indians contributed immensely to the knowledge in Mathematics as well as various branches of Science. In this section, we will learn about the developments in Mathematics and the scholars who contributed to it. You will be surprised to know that many theories of modern day mathematics were actually known to ancient Indians. However, since ancient Indian mathematicians were not good in documentation as their counterparts in the modern western world, their contributions did not find the place they deserved. Moreover, the western world ruled over most of the world for a long time, which empowered them to claim superiority in every way, including in the field of knowledge. Let us take a look at some of these contributions of ancient Indian maths.
Baudhayan
Baudhayan was the first one ever to arrive at several concepts in Mathematics, which were later rediscovered by the western world. The value of pi was first calculated by Baudhayan. As you know, pi is useful in the calculating the area and the circumference of a circle. What is known as Pythagoras theorem today is already found in Baudhayan’s Sulva Sutra, which was written several years before the age of Pythagoras.
Aryabhatta
Aryabhatta is a fifth century mathematician, astronomer, astrologer and physicist. He was a pioneer in the field of mathematics. At the age of 23, he wrote Aryabhattiya, which is a summary of maths of his time. There are 4 sections in this scholarly work. In the first section he has described the method of denoting big decimal numbers by alphabets. In the second section, we find difficult questions from topics of modern day Mathematics such as number theory, geometry, trigonometry and Beejganita (algebra). The remaining two sections are on astronomy. Aryabhatta showed that zero was not a numeral only but also a symbol and a concept. Discovery of zero enabled Aryabhatta to find the exact distance between the earth and the moon. The discovery of zero opened up a new dimension of negative numerals. As we have seen, the last two sections of Aryabhattiya were on Astronomy. Evidently, Aryabhatta contributed greatly to the field of science, also, particularly Astronomy.
Even in ancient India, the science of astronomy was well advanced. It was called Khagolshastra.Khagol was the famous astronomical observatory at Nalanda, where Aryabhatta studied. In fact, science of astronomy was highly advanced and our ancestors were proud of it. The aim behind the development of the science of astronomy was the need to have accurate calendars, a better understanding of climate and rainfall patterns for timely sowing and choices of crops, fixing the dates of seasons and festivals, navigation, calculation of the time and casting of the horoscopes for use in astrology. Knowledge of astronomy, particularly knowledge of the tides and the stars, was of great importance in trade, because of the requirement of crossing the oceans and deserts during night time.
Brahmgupta
In 7th century, Brahmgupta took mathematics to heights far beyond others. In his methods of multiplication, he used place value in almost the same way as it is used today. He introduced negative numbers and operations on zero into mathematics. He wrote Brahm Sputa Siddhantika through which the Arabs came to know our mathematical system.
Bhaskaracharya
Bhaskaracharya was the leading light of 12th Century. He was born at Bijapur, Karnataka. He is famous for book Siddhanta Shiromani. It is divided into four sections: Lilavati (Arithmetic), Beejganita (Algebra), Goladhyaya (Sphere) and Grahaganit (mathematics of the planets). Bhaskara introduced Chakrawat Method or the Cyclic Method to solve algebraic equations. This method was rediscovered six centuries later by European mathematicians, who called it inverse cycle. In the 19th century, an English man, James Taylor, translated Lilavati and made this great work known to the world.
Mahaviracharya
There is an elaborate description of math in Jain literature (500 B.C -100 B.C). Jain gurus had a knowledge about how to solve quadratic equations. They have also described fractions, algebraic equations, series, set theory, logarithms and exponents in interesting manner. Jain Guru Mahaviracharya wrote Ganit Sara Sangraha in 850A.D., which is the first textbook on arithmetic in present day form. The current method of solving Least Common Multiple (LCM) of given numbers was also described by him. Thus, long before John Napier introduced it to the world, it was already known to Indians
Key Takeaways:
- Knowledge of applied sciences like metallurgy, baked bricks, glazing, measurement of areas and volumes were known to people in an ancient India. The scientific system of medicine was developed in the post-Vedic period
- Mathematics or ‘Ganita’ included topics liken Arithmetic, Geometry, Algebra, Astronomy and Astrology.
- Interest in Arithmetic was due to its use in trade and commerce. ‘Aryabhattiya’, by Aryabhatta was a major contribution in the field of mathematics.
- Discovery of zero enabled Aryabhatta to find the exact distance between the earth and the moon. The discovery of zero opened up a new dimension of negative numerals.
Sciences in medieval period
The medieval era marks the coming of Muslims in India. By this time, the traditional indigenous classical learning had already received a setback. The pattern of education as prevalent in Arab countries was gradually adopted during this period. As a result, Makhtabs and Madrasas were coming into existence. These institutions used to receive royal patronage. A chain of madrasas, opened at several places, followed a set curriculum. The two brothers, Sheikh Abdullah and Sheikh Azizullah, who were specialists in rational science, headed the madrasas at Sambal and Agra. Apart from the talent available locally in the country, learned men from Arabia, Persia and Central Asia were also invited to take charge of education in madrasas.
Do you know the Muslim rulers attempted to reform the curriculum of primary schools? Some important subjects like Arithmetic, Mensuration, Geometry, Astronomy, Accountancy, Public Administration and Agriculture were included in the courses of studies for primary education. Special efforts were made by the ruler to carry out reforms in education, yet sciences did not make much headway. Efforts were made to seek a kind of synthesis between the Indian traditional scientific culture and the prevalent medieval approach to science in other countries. Let us now have a look what developments took place in various fields during this period.
Large workshops called karkhanas were maintained to supply provision, stores and equipment’s to royal household and government departments. The karkhanas not only worked as manufacturing agencies, but also served as centres for technical and vocational training to young people. The karkhanas trained and turned out artisans and craftspersons in different branches, who later on set up their own independent karkhanas.
Mathematics
Several works in the field of Mathematics were produced during this era. Narayana Pandit, son of Narsimha Daivajna was well known for his works in Mathematics – Ganitakaumudi and Bijaganitavatamsa. Gangadhara, in the state of Gujarat, wrote Lilavati Karamdipika, Suddhantadipika, and Lilavati Vyakhya. These were famous treatises which gave rules for trigonometrical terms like sine, cosine tangent and cotangent. Nilakantha Somasutvan produced Tantrasamgraha, which also contains rules of trigonometrical functions. Ganesa Daivajna produced Buddhivilasini - a commentary on lilavati - containing a number of illustrations. Krishna of the Valhalla family brought out the Navankura on the Bijaganit of Bhaskara-II and elaboration of the rules of indeterminate equations of the first and the second orders. Nilakantha Jyotirvida compiled Tajik, introduced a large number of Persian technical terms. Faizi, at the behest of Akbar, translated Bhaskara’s Bijaganit. Akbar ordered to make Mathematics as a subject of study, amongst the others in the education system. Naisiru’d –din-at –Tusi, was scholar of Mathematics.
Biology
Similarly, there were lot of advancements in the field of Biology. Hamsadeva compiled a work in the field of Biology entitled Mrga-paksi-sastra in the thirteenth century. This gives a general account of some animals and birds of hunting. The Muslim kings, who were warriors and hunters, maintained a fleet of animals such as horses, dogs, cheetahs and falcons for hunting. Animals, both domesticated as well as wild, have been described. Both Babur and Akbar, in spite of being busy in their political preoccupations and war, made time to study the work. Akbar had a special interest in producing good breeds of domestic animals like elephants and horses. Jahangir, in his work - Tuzuk-ijahangiri - recorded his observations and experiments on the breeding and the hybridization. He described about 36 species of animals. His court artists, specially, Mansur, produced elegant and accurate portraitures of animals. Some of these are preserved in several museums and private collections. As a naturalist, Jahangir was interested in the study of plants. His court artists have drawn 57 plants in their floral portraitures.
Chemistry
Do you know that in the medieval era, use of paper had begun? An important application of Chemistry was in the production of paper. Kashmir, Sialkot, Zafarabad, Patna, Murshidabad, Ahmedabad, Aurangabad and Mysore were the well known centres of paper production. The paper making technique was more or less the same throughout the country differing only in preparation of the pulp from different raw materials. The Mughals knew the technique of production of the gunpowder and its use in guns, another application of Chemistry. The Indian craftsperson’s learnt the technique in the evolved suitable explosive composition. The work Sukraniti attributed to Sukracarya contains the description of how gunpowder can be prepared using saltpeter, Sulphur and charcoal in different ratios for use in different types of guns. The principal type of fireworks included pierce through air, produce sparks of fire, blaze with various colors and end with explosion. The work Ain –I-akbari speaks of the regulation of the Perfume office of Akbar. The attar (perfume) of roses was a popular perfume, which is supposed to have been discovered by Nurjehan
Astronomy
Astronomy was another field that flourished during this era. In astronomy, a number of commentaries dealing with the already established astronomical notions appeared. Mehendra Suri, a court astronomer of Emperor Firoz Shah, developed an astronomical, instrument ‘Yantraja’. Parameshvara and Mahabhaskariya, both in Kerala, were famous families of the astronomers and the almanac-makers. Nilakantha Somasutvan produced commentary of Aryabhatiyaa. Kamalakar studied the Islamic astronomical ideas. He was an authority on Islamic knowledge. He set up the five astronomical observatories in Delhi, Ujjain, the Varansasi, Mathura and the Jaipur.
Medicine
The Ayurveda system of medicine did not progress as vigorously as it did in the ancient period because of lack of royal patronage. However, some important treatises on Ayurveda like the Sarangdhara Samhita and Chikitsasamgraha by Vangasena, the Yagaratbajara and the Bhavaprakasa of Bhavamisra were compiled. The Sarangdhara Samhita, written in the 13th century, includes use of opium in its material medica and urine examination for the diagnostic purpose. The drugs mentioned include metallic preparation of the rasachikitsa system and even imported drugs. The Rasachikitsa system, dealt with a host of mineral medicines, both mercurial and non-mercurial. The Siddha system mostly prevalent in Tamil Nadu was attributed to the reputed Siddhas, who were supposed to have evolved many life-prolonging compositions, rich in mineral medicines. The Unani Tibb system of medicine flourished in India during the medieval period. Ali-binRabban summarized the whole system of Greek medicine and Indian medical knowledge in the book, Firdausu-Hikmat. The Unani medicine system came to India along with the Muslims by about the eleventh century and soon found patronage for its growth. Hakim Diya Muhammad compiled a book, Majinye-e-Diyae, incorporating the Arabic, Persian and Ayurvedic medical knowledge. Firoz Shah Tughalaq wrote a book, Tibbe Firozshahi. The Tibbi Aurangzebi, dedicated to Aurangzeb, is based on the Ayurveda sources. The Musalajati-Darashikohi of Nuruddin Muhammad, dedicated to Darashikoh, deals with Greek medicine and contains, at the end, almost the whole of the Ayurveda material medical.
Agriculture
In the medieval era, the pattern of agricultural practices was more or less the same as that in the early India. Some important changes occurred in the introduction of new crops, trees as well as the horticultural plants by foreign traders. The principal crops were wheat, rice, barley, millets, pulses, oilseeds, cotton, sugar-cane and the indigo. The Western Ghats continued to yield black pepper of good quality and Kashmir maintained its tradition for saffron and fruits. Ginger and cinnamon from the Tamil Nadu, cardamom, sandalwood and coconut from Kerala, were becoming increasingly popular. Tobacco, chilies, potato, guava, custard apple, cashew and pineapple were the important plants which were introduced to India during the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. It was during this era that the production of opium from poppy plants began in Malwa and Bihar regions. Improved horticultural methods were adopted with the great success. The systematic mango-grafting was introduced by the Jesuits of the Goa in the middle of 16th century. Imperial Mughal Gardens were suitable areas where extensive cultivation of fruit trees came up. For irrigation, wells, tanks, canals, rahat, charas and dhenkli charas (a sort of a bucket made of leather used to lift water with the help of yoked oxen) were used. Persian wheels were used in the Agra region. In the medieval era, agriculture was placed on a solid foundation by the State by introducing a system of land measurement and the land classification, beneficial to the rulers as well as the tillers
Srinivas ramanujan (1887-1920)
Srinivasa Aiyangar Ramanujan (FRS) better known as Srinivasa Iyengar Ramanujan, one of India’s greatest mathematical genius, was born at Erode in Tamil Nadu on 22 December, 1887. Later on, his parents shifted to Kumbakonam, 160 km from Chennai. Ramanujan studied at the Town Hall School in Kumbakonam, where he proved himself to be all-rounder. However, his love of mathematics was unusual. In school itself at the age of 13, he came across a book called Synopsis of Elementary Results in Pure Math by G. S. Carr. Though outdated, this book introduced him to the world of maths. He started working and developing his own ideas in mathematics. He used to write his ideas and the results and make notes on his findings. Three of his research note books are available to us. They are called Ramanujan’s Frayed Notebooks. He could not complete his college education as he kept on developing his ideas and started posing problems and solving them in the Journal of Indian Mathematical Society. In 1911, he published in the same journal a brilliant research paper on the Bernoulli Numbers. This got him recognition and he became well known in Madras circles as a mathematical genius.
Lack of the formal education made it very difficult for him to make both ends meet. With great difficulty he could get the job of a clerk at Madras Port Trust which proved fortunate for him. Here he came in contact with many people who had training in mathematics. He found a book ‘Orders of Infinity’ written by G. H. Hardy. He wrote a letter to him in which he mentioned 120 theorems and the formulae. Hardy was quick to recognize his genius and he responded by arranging for him a passage to the London. Despite his lack of required qualification he was allowed to enroll at the Trinity College from where he got Bachelor of Science degree in less than two years. He formed a wonderful team with Hardy and J.E. Littlewood and made amazing contributions in the field of mathematics. He published many papers in London. He was the second Indian to be elected Fellow of the Royal Society of London and the first Indian to be elected Fellow of Trinity College. Ramanujan had an intimate familiarity with numbers. In 1917, he fell seriously ill, however the numbers remained his friend, though his body betrayed him. Unfortunately, his health became worse and he returned to India in 1919, “With a scientific standing and reputation”. He died in 1920. His mathematical genius is a proof that India indeed is the birthplace and source of great maths ideas.
CHANDRASEKHARA V. RAMAN (1888-1970)
Chandrasekhara V. Raman, popularly known as C.V. Raman, was not only a great scientist but also believed in the promotion of human wellbeing and human dignity. He won the Nobel Prize for the Physics in 1930. He was the first ever Asian to receive this award. C.V. Raman was born on 7 November 1888 in Tiruchirappalli, in Tamil Nadu. His father was a professor of Physics and Maths. He grew up in an environment of Sanskrit literature, music and the science. Nature had gifted him with great power of concentration, intelligence and the spirit of the inquiry. Even in his childhood, he was popular as a genius. He stood first in the Indian Audit and Accounts (IAAS) Examination and was appointed as Assistant Accountant General in the Finance Department in Calcutta at the age of nineteen. He sacrificed his high post for his love for science and joined the Science College of Calcutta University as a professor of Physics. Due to his deep love of music, he started working on musical instruments like the veena, violin, tabla and mridangam. In 1921, he read a paper on the theory of Stringed Instruments before the Royal Society of London. In 1924, he was made Fellow of the Royal Society. On his journey to England, he was greatly attracted by the blue colour of the sea. He was curious to know why it remained blue even when big waves rolled up. Then he got the intuitive flash that it was due to the breaking up of sun’s light by water molecules. He conducted many experiments and prepared a long paper on molecular scattering of light and sent it to the Royal Society of London. The world of science was dumb struck at the brilliance of his mind.
JAGDISH CHANDRA BOSE 1858-1937
J.C. Bose another great scientist of modem India brought glory and respect for the country. He was born on 30 November, 1858 at Mymensingh, now in Bangladesh, where he had his early education. He had his higher education at St. Xaviers College, Calcutta. In 1885 he was appointed Assistant Professor of Physics at the Presidency College but refused to take salary because it was nearly half of that of an Englishman. Later on, he decided to become a scientist to recover the fame that India enjoyed all over the world in ancient times. He made an apparatus to study the properties of electric waves. For his paper on “The Electromagnetic Radiation and Polarization of Electric Ray”, he was made a Knight in 1917 and Fellow of the Royal Society of London in 1920. He was the first Indian scientist in Physics to receive this honour.
Dr. Bose is famous all over the world as the inventor of Crescograph that can record even the millionth part of a millimeter of plant growth and movement. Dr. Bose proved through graphs taken by the Crescograph that plants have a circulatory system too. Cresco graph has also shown that the upward movement of sap in plants is the activity of living cells.
Dr. Bose also made many other instruments famous all over the world as Bose instruments, to prove that even metals react to outward stimuli. Bose’s instruments have shown, how even steel and metals used in scissors and machinery get tired and regain efficiency after a period of rest. Besides Crescograph and other Bose instruments, his wireless inventions too antedated those of Marconi. He was the first to invent a wireless coherer (radio signal detector) and an instrument for indicating the refraction of electric waves. When someone drew his attention towards this fact, he simply remarked that it is an invention which is more important for mankind than the inventor.
HOMI JEHANGIR BHABHA (1909-1966)
Dr. Homi Jahangir Bhabha was a great scientist. He led India into atomic age. He is called the father of the Indian Nuclear Science. He was born on 30 October, 1909 in a Parsi family. Even as a boy, he showed his intelligence and won many prizes. He did his early studies in Mumbai. He took a degree in Mechanical Engineering in First Class from Cambridge, completed research work there and received his doctorate in 1935. Till 1939, he carried outstanding original research relating to a cosmic radiation.
Dr. Bhabha joined the Indian Institute of Sciences at Bangalore as a Reader by the request of Dr. C.V. Raman. Soon he became a Professor of Physics. It was here that he got the idea of building a research institute for some of the new areas of Physics. He took a very bold decision of writing a letter to Sir Dorab Ji Tata suggesting that an institution should be established which would lay the foundation of India as a world nuclear power. This institute would produce experts and the country would not have to depend on outside sources. As a result, Tata Institute of Fundamental Research (TIFR) was started in 1945, at the Dr. Bhabha’s ancestral home.
India’s first atomic research Centre now called Bhabha Atomic Research Centre (BARC) was established at Trombay. India’s First atomic reactor, Apsara was also established under his guidance. Bhabha became the first chairman of the Atomic Energy Commission set up in the 1948. His studies in the field of atomic energy are considered of great importance in an international circle. He served as the chairman of international conference on peaceful uses of atomic energy, where United Nations supported. The Government of India honored him with Padma Bhushan. In 1966, Dr. Bhabha died in a plane crash.
DR. VIKRAM AMBALAL SARABHAI (1919-1970)
Dr. Vikram Ambalal Sarabhai is another genius of modem India. He was the main personality behind the launching of India’s first satellite the Aryabhatta. He received his primary education at a school run by his own parents. He studied cosmic rays under the guidance of Dr. C.V. Raman and received Ph.D. Degree from Cambridge University. His studies in cosmic rays have made it clear that cosmic rays are a stream of energy particles coming from the outer space. While reaching the earth, they are influenced on the way by the sun, the earth’s atmosphere and the magnetism.
Dr. Sarabhai had a multifaceted personality. He was a great industrialist. Even Today, there are many industries founded by him such as Sarabhai Chemicals, Sarabhai Glass, Sarabhai Geigy Ltd., Sara Bhai Merck Ltd. And many others. He also helped in saving crores of rupees for India by starting the mission of manufacturing military hardware and producing antibiotics and penicillin in India which were imported from abroad. He was also the founder of the Ahmedabad Textile Industrial Association and the Ahmedabad Money Association. In this way, he established a large number of the successful industries.
Dr. Vikram Ambalal Sarabhai established many institutes which are international repute. Most notable among them are Indian Institutes of Management (IIMS) which are considered world class for the management studies. He was the Chairman of an Indian National Commission for Space Research (INCOSPAR) and of the Atomic Energy Commission. He directed the setting up of the Thumba Equatorial Rocket Launching Station (TERLS). He also made plans to take education to the villages through the Satellite communication. He was awarded the Padma Bhushan in 1966 and the Padma Vibhushan after his death. His death was a great loss to the nation.
DR. A.P.J. ABDUL KALAM
Dr. A.P. J. Abdul Kalam, the eleventh President of India was born on 15 October, 1931, in the island town of Rameshwaram, in Tamil Nadu. He was awarded the Bharat Ratna, India’s highest civilian honor in 1997 for his contributions in the field of science and engineering.
Dr. Kalam had his primary education at Rameshwaram. He passed his class ten exams from the Schwartz High School, Ramanathapuram and obtained a degree in the Aeronautical Engineering from Madras Institute of Technology
Dr. Kalam served in Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO) from 1963 to 1982. At Vikram Sarabhai Space Centre, he developed the Satellite Launch Vehicle (SLV 3), which put the satellite Rohini in orbit. In 1982, as Director, Defence Research Development Organisation (DRDO), he was given the responsibility of Integrated Guided Missile Development Programme (IGMDP). He developed five projects for defense services - Prithvi, Trishul, Akash, Nag and the Agni. He led India into an era of self-dependence. Agni, which is a surface to surface missile, is a very unique achievement. Its successful launch made India a member of the club of highly developed countries in the world. The light weight carbon material designed for Agni have been used to make calipers for the polio-affected. The material has reduced the weight of calipers to 400 grams from the 4 kg. It is a great blessing for humans. The material has also been used for making spring like coils called stents, which are used in Balloon Angioplasty for treating heart patients.
Dr. Kalam’s life is a symbol of the true spirit of the India. He is a true follower of Indian tradition and the religion. He has integrated science with religion and the philosophy. He strongly believes in being guided from the inside i.e. “relying more on inner signals and less on external cues” as well as doing duties selflessly. Dr. Kalam says, “I have no belongings in the worldly sense. I have acquired nothing, built nothing, possess nothing, no family, sons, daughters.”
Key Takeaways:
- The Sarangdhara Samhita, written in the 13th century, includes use of opium in its material medica and urine examination for the diagnostic purpose.
- Akbar had a special interest in producing good breeds of domestic animals like elephants and horses.
- In the medieval era, agriculture was placed on a solid foundation by the State by introducing a system of land measurement and the land classification, beneficial to the rulers as well as the tillers
- Dr. Bose also made many other instruments famous all over the world as Bose instruments, to prove that even metals react to outward stimuli. Bose’s instruments have shown, how even steel and metals used in scissors and machinery get tired and regain efficiency after a period of rest
