UNIT-1
Introduction to Culture
Culture is a way of life. The food you eat, the clothes you wear, the language you speak in and the God you worship all are aspects of culture. In very simple terms, we can say that the culture is the embodiment of the way in which we think and do things. It is also the things that we have inherited as members of society. All the achievements of human beings as members of social groups can be called culture. Art, music, literature, architecture, sculpture, philosophy, religion and science can be seen as aspects of culture. However, culture also includes the customs, traditions, festivals, ways of living and one’s outlook on various issues of life. Hence Culture refers to a human-made environment which includes all the material and nonmaterial products of group life that are transmitted from one generation to the next. There is a general agreement among social scientists that culture consists of explicit and implicit patterns of behaviour acquired by human. These may be transmitted through symbols, constituting the distinctive achievements of human groups, including their embodiment as artefacts. The essential core of culture thus lies in those finer ideas which are transmitted within a group-both historically derived as well as selected with their attached value. Recently, culture denotes historically transmitted patterns of meanings embodied in symbols, by means of which people communicate, perpetuate and develop their knowledge about and express their attitudes toward life. Culture is the expression of our nature in our modes of living and thinking. It is seen in our literature, in religious practices, in recreation and enjoyment. Culture has two distinctive components, namely, material and non-material. Material culture consists of objects that are related to the material aspect of our life such as our dress, food, and household goods. Non-material culture refers to ideas, ideals, thoughts and belief. Culture do vary from place to place and country to country. Its development is based on the historical process operating in a local, regional or national context. For example, we differ in ways of greeting others, our clothing, food habits, social and religious customs and practices from the West. In other words, people of any country are characterized by their different cultural traditions.
The word ‘culture’ and ‘civilization’ are used synonymously. However, they have clearly defined meanings differentiating them. ‘Civilization’ means having better ways of the living and sometimes making nature bend to fulfill their needs. It also includes organizing societies into the politically well-defined groups working collectively to improve conditions of life in matters of food, dress, communication, and so on. Thus some groups consider themselves as civilized and look down upon others. This disposition of certain groups has even led to wars and holocausts, resulting in mass destruction of human beings. On the other hand, ‘culture’ refers to the inner being, a refinement of head and heart. This includes arts and sciences, music and dance and various higher pursuits of human life which are also classified as cultural activities. One who may be poor and wearing cheap clothes may be considered ‘uncivilized’, but still he or she may be the most cultured person. One possessing ostentatious wealth may be considered as the ‘civilized’ but he may not be cultured’ Therefore, while thinking of culture, we have to understand that it is different from civilization. As we have seen, culture is the ‘higher levels of inner refinement’ of a human being. Humans are not merely physical beings. They live and act at three levels: physical, mental and spiritual. While better ways of living socially and politically and better utilization of nature around us may be termed as civilization. This is not enough to be cultured. Only when the deeper levels of a person’s intellect and consciousness are brought into expression we can call him/her ‘cultured’.
Key Takeaways:
- All the achievements of human beings as members of social groups can be called culture.
- Art, music, literature, architecture, sculpture, philosophy, religion and science can be seen as aspects of culture. However, culture also includes the customs, traditions, festivals, ways of living and one’s outlook on various issues of life
- One possessing ostentatious wealth may be considered as the ‘civilized’ but he may not be cultured’ Therefore, while thinking of culture, we have to understand that it is different from civilization
- Only when the deeper levels of a person’s intellect and consciousness are brought into expression we can call him/her ‘cultured’.
Cultural development is a historical process. Our ancestors learnt many things from their predecessors. With the time they also added to it from their own experience and gave up those which they did not consider useful. We in turn have learnt many things from our ancestors. As time goes we continue to add new thoughts, new ideas to those already existent and sometimes we give up some which we don’t consider useful.
This is how culture is transmitted and carried forward from generation to next generation. The culture we inherit from our predecessors is called cultural heritage. This heritage exists at various levels. Humanity as a whole has inherited a culture which may be called human heritage. A nation also inherits a culture which is termed as national cultural heritage. Cultural heritage includes all those aspects or values of culture transmitted to humans by their ancestors from generation to generation. They are cherished, protected and maintained with unbroken continuity and they feel proud of it. A few examples will be helpful in clarifying the concept of heritage. The Taj Mahal, Swami Narayan Temple of Gandhinagar and Delhi, Red Fort of Agra, Delhi’s Qutub Minar, Mysore Palace, Jain Temple of Dilwara (Rajasthan) Nizamuddin Aulia’s Dargah, Golden Temple of Amritsar, Gurudwara Sisganj of Delhi, Sanchi Stupa, Christian Church in Goa, India Gate etc., are all important places of our heritage and are to be protected by all means. Besides the architectural creations, monuments, material artifacts, the intellectual achievements, philosophy, treasures of knowledge, scientific inventions and discoveries are also the part of heritage. In Indian context the contributions of Baudhayan, Aryabhatta, Bhaskaracharya in field of the Mathematics, Astronomy and Astrology; Kanad and Varahmihir in the field of the Physics; Nagarjuna in the field of the Chemistry, Susruta and Charak in the field of Medicines and Patanjali in the field of Yoga are profound treasures of Indian Cultural heritage. Culture is liable to change, but our heritage does not. The individuals, belonging to a culture or a particular group, may acquire or borrow certain cultural traits of other communities/cultures, but our belongingness to Indian cultural heritage will remain same. Our Indian cultural heritage will bind us together e.g. the Indian literature and scriptures namely Vedas, Upanishads Gita and Yoga System etc. have contributed a lot by providing right knowledge, right action, behavior and practices as complementary to the development of civilization.
1. Culture is learned and acquired: Culture is acquired in the manner that there are certain behaviors which are acquired through heredity. Individuals inherit certain qualities from the parents but socio-cultural patterns are not inherited. These are learnt from family members, from the group and the society in which they live. It is thus apparent that the culture of human beings is influenced and inherited by the physical and social environment through which they operate.
2. Culture is shared by a group of people: A thought or action may be called culture if it is shared and believed or practiced by a group of people.
3. Culture is cumulative: Different knowledge embodied in the culture can be passed from one generation to the generation. More and more knowledge is added in the particular culture as the time passes by. Each may work out solution to problems in life that passes from one generation to another. This cycle remains as the particular culture goes with time.
4. Culture changes: There is knowledge, thoughts or traditions that are lost as new cultural traits are added. There are possibilities of cultural changes within the particular culture as time passes.
5. Culture is dynamic: No culture remains on the permanent state. Culture is changing constantly as new ideas and new techniques are added as time passes modifying or changing the old ways. This is the characteristics of the culture that stems from the culture’s cumulative quality.
6. Culture gives us a range of the permissible behaviour patterns: It involves how an activity should be conducted, how an individual should act appropriately.
7. Culture is diverse: It is a system that has several mutually interdependent parts. Although these parts are separate, they are dependent on one another forming culture as whole.
8. Culture is ideational: Often it lays down an ideal pattern of behaviour that are expected to be followed by individuals so as to gain social acceptance from the people with the same culture.
Culture is closely linked with life. It is not an add-on, an ornament that we as human beings can use. It is not merely a touch of color. It is what makes us human. Without culture, there would be no humans. Culture is made up of various traditions, beliefs, and way of life, from the most spiritual to the most material. It gives us meaning, a way of leading our lives. Human are creators of culture and, at the same time, culture is what makes us human. A fundamental element of culture is the issue of religious belief and its symbolic expression. We should value religious identity and be aware of current efforts to make progress in terms of interfaith dialogue, which is actually an intercultural dialogue. As the world is becoming more and more global and we coexist on the global level we can’t just think there’s only one right way of living or that any one is valid. The needs for coexistence makes the coexistence of cultures and beliefs necessary. In order to not make such mistakes, the best thing we can do is get to know different cultures, while also getting to know our own. How can we deal with other cultures, if we don’t really know what our own culture is? The three eternal and universal values of Truth, Beauty and Goodness are closely linked with culture. It is culture that brings us closer to truth through philosophy and religion; it brings beauty in our lives through the Arts and makes us aesthetic beings; and it is culture that makes us ethical beings by bringing us closer to other human beings and teaching us the values of love, tolerance and peace.
Culture can be defined as the way an individual and especially a group live, think, feel and organize themselves, celebrate and share life.
Culture has different characteristics. It can be acquired, lost or shared. It is cumulative. It is dynamic and diverse and gives us a range of permissible behaviour-pattern. It can change. Culture includes material and non-material components.
In deeper sense it is culture that produces the kind of literature, music, dance, sculpture, architecture and various other art forms as well as the many organizations and structures that make the functioning of the society easy and well-ordered.
Culture provides us with ideas, ideals and values to lead a decent life.
Self-restraint in conduct, consideration for the feelings of others, for the rights of others, are the highest marks of culture.
A cultural heritage means all the aspects or values of culture transmitted to human beings by their ancestors to the next generation.
Architectural creations, monuments, material artifacts, the intellectual achievements, philosophy, pleasure of knowledge, scientific inventions and discoveries are major parts of heritage.
Key Takeaways:
- The culture we inherit from our predecessors is called cultural heritage. This heritage exists at various levels.
- Culture is made up of various traditions, beliefs, and way of life, from the most spiritual to the most material. It gives us meaning, a way of leading our lives.
- We should value religious identity and be aware of current efforts to make progress in terms of interfaith dialogue, which is actually an intercultural dialogue
- Culture can be defined as the way an individual and especially a group live, think, feel and organize themselves, celebrate and share life.
Indian culture is as many sided as life. It includes intellectual and social aspects of any human being. It also takes account of the aesthetic instinct and the spiritual impulses of human being. It has also, an appeal to the subconscious as a force making for the formation of character. Look at the map of India and you see India is a vast country with a lot of diversity in her physical and social environment. We see the people around us speaking different languages, having different religions and practicing different rituals. You can also see diversities in their food habits and dress patterns. Besides, look at the myriad forms of dance and the music in our country. But within all these diversities there is an underlying unity which acts as a cementing force. The intermingling of people has been steadily taking place in the India over centuries. The number of people of different racial stock, ethnic backgrounds and religious beliefs have settled down here. Let us not forget that the composite and dynamic character of an Indian culture is a result of the rich contributions of all these diverse cultural groups over a long period of time. The distinctive features of Indian culture and its uniqueness are the precious possession of all the Indians.
Many great cultures had developed in different countries and regions of the world. Many of them have perished or have been replaced by other cultures. Indian culture has had an enduring character. Despite major changes and upheavals significant threads of continuity can be traced throughout the course of an Indian history right up to the present day.
Variety and Unity
Indeed, few cultures in the world have such a variety as the Indian culture. You may wonder why the people of Kerala use coconut oil while the people of Uttar Pradesh use mustard oil for cooking. This is because Kerala is a coastal state and coconut grows here in the plenty. While Uttar Pradesh is a plain area which is favorable for the growth of mustard. What is the similarity in the Bhangra dance of Punjab and the Pongal of Tamil Nadu or the Bihu dance of Assam? Both are celebrated after a rich harvest of the crops. Have you noticed the languages that we speak like Bengali, Tamil, Gujarati or Oriya? India is the home of many forms of dance and the music which we normally use for festivals and the social functions like marriages or the birth of a child. A large number of languages and dialects are spoken in our country which has led to the growth of a great variety of the literature. People belonging to the eight great religions of the world co-exist here in a harmonious manner. Do you know that the India is home to many religions of the world like Jainism, Buddhism, and Sikhism and of course Hinduism? Numerous styles of an architecture, sculpture and painting have developed here. Different styles of music and the dance, both folk and the classical, exist in our country. So also are numerous festivals and rituals. This wide variety has led to the making of Indian culture both composite one and rich and beautiful at the same time. Why there is so much variety in our culture? There are many reasons for this. The vastness of our country and variation in its physical and the climatic features is an obvious reason for the variety.
The second important reason for the variety in our culture is the intermingling among various ethnic groups. Since time immemorial, people from far and near have been coming and settling here. We find people belonging to the different racial stocks like the Proto-Australoids, the Negros and the Mongoloids living in India. Various ethnic groups like Iranians, Greeks, Kushanas, Shakas, Hunas, Arabs, Turks, Mughals and Europeans also came to India, settled here and intermixed with the local population. The people belonging to different cultures brought their cultural habits, thoughts and ideas, which got amalgamated into the existing culture. You will be surprised to know that it was only around second century BC that stitched clothes such as salwar, kurtas, topees, etc. were brought to India, by the Kushanas, Shakas and Parthians. Prior to that Indians used to wear clothes which were unstitched. The latest is the introduction of shirts, trousers, skirts, etc. which were brought by the Europeans in the 18th century. India through the ages has shown a remarkable capacity for assimilation of ideas. This has contributed to the variety and richness of our culture.
Along with contacts with outside cultures, cultural exchange between different regions of India has also continued. The Chikan work of Lucknow, Phulkari embroidery of Punjab, Kantha embroidery of Bengal and Patola of Orissa show a distinct regional flavor. Although the centers in the South, North, East and West of the India have their characteristic cultures, yet these did not develop in absolute isolation. In spite of physical barriers, Indians used to travel from one part of the country to another for trade or pilgrimage. Some regions were joined together through conquests or by the alliance. As a result, people transmitted the cultural habits and thoughts from one part of the country to the other. Military campaigns also took people from one place to another. This helped in exchanging ideas. Such contacts have led to the development of the commonness in an Indian culture, which has been maintained throughout our history. Another unifying factor is the climate. Despite geographical diversity and the climatic variations India experiences an inherent unity. The system of the monsoons is the most important component of the Indian climatic pattern and this gives unity to the whole country. The coming of the monsoon has ensured that agriculture remains the main occupation of the people of India. On the other hand, the differences in the physical features have affected the food habits, dress, houses and economic activities of people leading to the formation of social, economic and the political institutions. These factors in turn influenced the thinking and the philosophy of the people. The variety in physical features and climate of India has thus led to the development of a variety of cultures in different regions. The typical features of the different regions have given some identity to these cultures.
Secular Outlook
The secular character of the Indian culture is the result of the intermingling of people belonging to diverse cultural groups over the long period of time. There have been instances of the occasional conflicts here and there, but by and the large, people have lived together peacefully for the centuries. The popular cultural traditions of the India are the best examples of such a cultural synthesis in which a large number of people belonging to different religious groups come together.
There is a great variety of thoughts and habits in the country. Among such a variety, dominance of one particular thought is not possible. You will recall that the Hindus, Muslims, Christians, Sikhs, Buddhists, Jains, Parsees and the Jews live in India. The constitution declares India to be the secular country. Everyone is free to profess, practice and propagate any religion of his/her own choice. The state has no religion of its own and all religions are treated equally by the state. No one is to be discriminated on the basis of religion. The people have, to the large extent, developed a broad outlook and they believe in the concept of live and let others live.
CULTURAL IDENTITY, RELIGION, REGION AND ETHNICITY
Our cultural identities are based on various factors such as religion and region. As the result each Indian possesses multiple identities. Which of these identities asserts itself at the certain point of the time and prevails over the others, depends on the political, social or economic context in which the person finds himself or herself. Thus each person may have some things in common with another, but may be vastly different in other aspects. For example, except belief, forms of worship and rituals, there may be little that is common among those who follow a particular faith from the point of view of the whole country. Even in the forms of worship and the rituals there are sectarian and the regional differences.
Thus culturally, Hindus are not all similar, nor are all the Muslims. Brahmins in Tamilnadu are different from their counterparts in Kashmir. Similarly, Muslims in Kerala and Uttar Pradesh are dissimilar in several aspects of their culture. Regional identities are more real. People of different religions and castes may have common regional cultural traits like language, food, dress, values and also the worldview. In Bengal, both the Hindus and the Muslims take pride in being Bengalis. Elsewhere one finds Hindus, Christians and Muslims sharing several elements of the regional culture.
In short, different religious groups owe their allegiance to different religious doctrines. For instance, the Vedas and Shastras may be sources of inspiration for Hindus, Koran and Hadees for Muslims, and the Bible for Christians. At the level of rituals and life styles there is a lot of intermingling among followers of different religions
Ethnic culture is strong among the tribal groups. For example, in the small state of the Nagaland, there are more than a dozen tribes and they differ from each other in their dress, speeches and the beliefs. The Bastar district of Chhattisgarh has several groups claiming their different ethnic origins.
History is no longer treated as merely a study of dates and events and that too largely only political events. Its scope has been widened to include many aspects of the life. These include the study of patterns of life, which we call the culture. Culture was once defined as that which relates to art, architecture, literature and philosophy. Now it includes all the activities of the society. Therefore, the emphasis of history has shifted from the study of only the upper groups of society to all levels of the society. It now covers information on kings and statesmen as well as on ordinary people who make history. It includes the study of art and the architecture, of the evolution of languages in India, literature and the religion. Now we do not look only at what was happening at the aristocratic level of society. We also try to reconstruct the interests and concerns of people at lower levels. This makes history more interesting and helps us understand the society for better.
The people that went into the making of our society, at both the aristocratic and the ordinary level, were not all indigenous to an India, to start with. Many came from other regions and settled down in the India. They married here locally, intermixed with the existing people and became a part of Indian society. Our society, therefore, has a rich heritage of different kinds of people. Because of this large variety of people, there has been an equally large variety of religions, languages, and customs in the country.
The correct understanding of history depends upon two things. One is the careful and critical use of the source material given to us by historians defending certain statements which should be decided on rational analysis. Secondly, historical events have causes and these causes should be fully examined. Above all, even the past must be subjected to a critical analysis. It is only in this way the historical knowledge will advance.
India has a continuous history covering the very long period. Evidence of Neolithic habitation dating as far back as 7000 BC has been found in Mehrgarh in the Baluchistan. However, the first notable civilization flourished in the India around 2700 BC in the north western part of the Indian subcontinent, covering the large area. The civilization is referred to as the Harappan civilization. Most of the sites of this civilization developed on the banks of rivers like Indus, Ghaggar and its tributaries. The culture associated with the Harappan civilization is the first known urban culture in India. The Harappans built the earliest cities complete with town planning, sanitation, drainage system and broad well-laid roads. They built double storied houses of burnt bricks each one had a bathroom, a kitchen and a well. The walled cities had other important buildings such as the Great Bath, Granaries and Assembly Halls.
Agriculture was the main occupation of the Harappans who were living in rural areas. Those living in the cities carried on internal and external trade and developed contacts with other civilizations such as Mesopotamia. They were excellent potters. Various types of utensils, toys, seals, figurines have been excavated from different sites. Harappans had the technical knowledge of metals and the process of alloying. The bronze sculpture of a dancing girl found in Mohenjo-Daro testifies the sculptural skills and aesthetic sense of the Harappans. Shell, ivory, bone and faience were used as material for different crafts and objects. Lothal was a dockyard situated in Dholaka Taluk of Ahmedabad in Gujarat. It was also a well-planned wall city. It was important center of sea trade with the western world. Another important town in Gujarat was Dhaulavira while Kalibangam was in the Rajasthan.
VEDIC CULTURE
A few centuries after the decline of the Harappan civilization, a new culture flourished in the same region and gradually spread across the Ganga-Yamuna plains. This culture came to be known as the Aryan culture. There were differences between this culture and the culture which preceded it. Aryans settled on the banks of rivers like Indus (Sindhu) and Sarasvati (which is now nonexistent). They composed many hymns in honor of the gods and goddesses they worshipped. These were compiled in four Vedas - the Rigveda, Saamveda, Yajurveda and Atharvaveda. Veda means knowledge of the sacred spiritual knowledge. These Vedas were considered infallible as they imparted the highest spiritual knowledge. Initially the Vedas were transmitted orally. Since our knowledge of the early Aryans is based on these Vedas, the culture of this period is referred to as the Vedic Culture. Scholars divide the Vedic period into the earlier and the later Vedic period. The earlier is represented by the Rig Veda while the latter by all other Vedic literature including the Brahmans, Aranyakas and Upanishads. Two epics, the Ramayana and the Mahabharata and the Puranas, though compiled much later, also throw light on the life and society of an earlier period. For this period archaeological evidence has also been found in some areas of Uttar Pradesh.
POPULAR RELIGIOUS REFORMS
This period (B.C. 600 to B.C. 200) is important for political unity of the country and also for cultural unity. Ancient India saw the rise of two very important religions, Jainism and Buddhism which left a lasting influence on Indian life and culture. Vedic religion was earlier known as Brahmanism because the Brahmins played the major role in it. Later it came to be called Hinduism. The Brahmins developed a vested interest demanding large charities at the end of scarifies. As a result, the sacrifices became very costly. The Brahmins considered themselves superior to the other varnas and became arrogant. This led to the unpopularity of Brahminism and a need for reforms was felt.
Developments in the field of religion, folk art and language in the India during the medieval times have been important milestones in the evolution of the composite culture of the India. New religions movements like Sufi and Sikhism along with Bhakti movement contributed to the process. If you look around, you will see the impact of Islam on many aspects of Indian culture. You might have visited some famous monuments in the India. These monuments stand as the symbols of the composite nature of Indo-Islamic culture in India. You can also see how various religions in India, including Islam, have influenced each other. Besides, every region in India is famous for giving shape to some folk art or the other. Development of folk arts through which the common people display their creativity is another significant aspect of Indian culture. The various regional languages that we speak today too have an interesting history which evolved during this period.
LIFE OF PEOPLE UNDER DELHI SULTANATE
Society
The Indian society was divided into four major groups. They were the aristocrats, the priests, the towns people and the peasants
Aristocrats
The aristocrats included the Sultan and his relatives, nobility and the landholders. There were also the Hindu rajahs, chiefs, Hindu merchants and bankers. They concentrated all the wealth as well as the power in their hands. Needless to say that they were a group of very powerful people. They lived in great style and luxury. The Sultan outmatched everyone in this. He had to do it so as to maintain his superiority and his status. He had to show that he was different from the others. Whenever a new sultan came to the throne, the Khutba or sermon was read out in his name in the Friday prayers at the mosques and coins were issued in his name. This established the new ruler on the throne. To maintain his distinction as the ruler, he was provided with many officers and servants at the royal household where he lived in great luxury. Even the nobility imitated his style and showed off their wealth.
The Priests
The Priests were another important class of people in the society. Among the Hindus, they were the Brahmans and Ulemas among the Muslims. They were given grants of tax-free land for their maintenance and were often very powerful. The Ulemas wielded great influence on the Muslim Sultans and often influenced their policies. But at other times like during the reign of Ala-ud-din Khalji, they were even ignored. Sometimes the priests were not interested in religious affairs but were more interested in worldly affairs.
The Town People
In the town lived the wealthy merchants, traders and artisans. The nobility, the officers and the soldiers also stayed in the towns that were the administrative and military centers. Places where the Sufi and Bhakti saints lived and places which housed important temples and mosques had become pilgrim centers. The artisans lived in their own special quarters.
RISE OF ISLAM AND SUFISM
The Muslims first came to India in the eighth century AD mainly as traders. They were fascinated by the socio-cultural scenario in this country and decided to make India their home. The traders who came to India from Central and West Asia carried back with them traces of Indian science and culture. As a result, they became cultural ambassadors of India by disseminating this knowledge to the Islamic world and from there to Europe. The immigrant Muslims also entered into matrimonial alliances with the local people and learned to live together in harmony. There was mutual exchange of ideas and customs. The Hindus and Muslims influenced each other equally in dress, speech, manners, customs and intellectual pursuits. The Muslims also brought with them their religion, Islam which had a deep impact on Indian society and culture. Let us find out more about Prophet Mohammad and Islam in this lesson.
Prophet Mohammad preached Islam in the seventh century AD in Arabia. He was born in AD 5 71 in the Quraysh tribe of Arabia. He migrated to Madina from Mecca in AD 622 and this marked the beginning of the Hijira Era. According-to the Muslim belief, Quran is the message of Allah revealed to Mohammad through his archangel Gabriel. It has been translated into several languages.
The five fundamental principles of Islam are:
(1) Tauhid (belief in Allah)
(2) Namaz (prayers, five times a day)
(3) Roza (fasting in the month of Ramzan)
(4) Zakat (giving of alms)
(5) Haj (pilgrimage to Mecca)
Prophet Mohammad’s sayings are preserved in what is called the Hadith or Hadees. After his death the Caliphate was established. There were four pious Caliphs.
CULTURAL DEVELOPMENT
It was in the field of art and architecture that the rulers of this period took a keen interest. The composite cultural characteristic of the medieval period is amply witnessed in these fields. A new style of architecture known as the Indo- Islamic style was born out of this fusion. The distinctive features of Indo-Islamic architecture were the (a) dome; (b) lofty towers or minarets; (c) arch; and (d) the vault.
The Mughal rulers were great lovers of the nature. They took pleasure in spending their time in building beautiful forts and gardens. The famous Mughal gardens like the Shalimar Bagh and the Nishat Bagh are important elements of our cultural heritage. There were waterways and fountains crisscrossing these gardens and finally, there were gardens with stages or levels. The water, while cascading from one stage to another, was made to fall in small streamlets with lamps lit behind them, making the water shimmer and lend a special charm to the atmosphere. It could also be made to flow over a chiseled and sloping slab, so that the water flowing over it shimmered. The best example of this type of garden is the Shalimar Gardens of Lahore (now in Pakistan). The Lahore garden has three stages. But a better example can be seen in India at Pinjore Garden situated on the Chandigarh-Kalka road where we have a seven-stage garden. This impressed the British so much that they created a three-stage garden in the Vice-Regal Lodge (now the Rashtrapati Bhawan) in New Delhi, it was on these very lines that the famous Vrindavan Garden in Mysore were built in the twentieth century
The history of our country can safely be divided in ancient, medieval and modern periods. The ancient period started long ago, as long as humans have lived on earth. In an earlier lesson you read about what happened in Medieval India i.e. from about the 8th century A.D. and lasted till the beginning of 18th century. Now, we shall learn about the Modern period in History. During the last two periods you must have found the society, economy, polity and culture very different from each other. These differences which you may also call progress, developed, continued and increased at a very fast pace and had very much deeper impact on our lives.
In the second phase, the British took control of the production activities in a manner that would suit their export objectives. In this process they successfully destroyed the Indian industries. This was because India was a major buyer of their goods. The third phase was an intensified phase of British Imperialism and colonial exploitation when India was ruled by the British for fulfilling British economic interests.
The Britishers came to India for making profits through the trade. Slowly they gained political and economic control on the country. After the Battle of Plassey in 1757 A.D., they had become the real masters of Bengal. They used political control over the Bengal to increase their trade and export of foreign goods. They eliminated the Indian as well as foreign rivals in trade so that there could be no competition. They monopolized the sale of raw cotton and made the Bengal weaver pay exorbitant prices. They imposed heavy duties on Indian goods entering Britain so as to protect their own industry. With the coming of the industrial revolution in the Europe, the Indian industries were hit very hard. By 1813, the Indian handicrafts lost both the domestic as well as the foreign market. Indian goods were not able to compete with the British factory made products, where machines were used.
On the other hand, the English merchants had accumulated a lot of the wealth which they now invested in setting up industries and trade. The East India Company helped them in financing and expanding their industrial base. During this time there was a class of manufacturers in England who benefitted more from manufacturing than trading. They were interested in having rawer materials from the India as well as sending finished goods back. Between 1793 and 1813, British manufacturers launched a campaign against the company, its trade monopoly and the privileges it enjoyed. Ultimately in 1813, they succeeded in abolishing the East India Company’s monopoly of Indian trade. With this India became an economic colony of the industrial England.
India become an excellent consumer of British goods and a rich supplier of raw materials by the year 1813 A.D.
RISE OF THE WEST AND ITS IMPACT ON INDIA
From 1450 onwards, three important developments changed the shape of Europe: (i) the invention of printing press, (ii) the beginning and the spread of the Renaissance and the Reformation movements and (iii) the discovery of the new trade routes. Thereafter, the Europe made the great progress in the fields of science, exploration and gunnery. Soon, their armies and navies became the best in the world. Scientific education began to spread. Logic and reason became the touchstone on which the old dogmas and learning were tested.
Among these European countries, the Portuguese and then the Dutch, the French and finally, the British entered into a race to control the trade from India. The British ultimately succeeded in controlling trade and also the country and for about two centuries India remained under her domination where her entire human resources were recklessly exploited and her wealth was drained away for the benefit of the ruling nation. To further interest the British used the prevailing social and political situation in India. Where a large number of states had cropped up after the decline of the Mughal Empire. The British took advantage of this situation and had one ruler fight against the other or supported a usurper to the throne. Though Tipu Sultan of Mysore tried to use the same principle as used by the British, which is making use of the rivalry between the French and the British, he was not able to match the superior diplomacy and fire power of the British.
INDIA IN THE 18TH CENTURY: ECONOMY, SOCIETY AND CULTURE
Indian in the eighteenth century was a picture of many contrasts and the contradictions. Economically agriculture was the main occupation of the people. Since the rulers were constantly in the war, they did not have the time to improve agricultural conditions of the land. Foreign trade was flourishing under the Mughals. India imported pearls, raw silk, wool, dates, dried fruits from the Persian Gulf region; Coffee, gold, drugs and honey from the Arabia; tea, porcelain and silk came into India from the China; luxury goods were also brought in from Tibet, Singapore, Indonesian Islands, Africa and Europe. Indian exported raw silk, silk fabrics, indigo, sugar, pepper and many other things. India’s cotton textiles were famous in the whole world.
In spite of such a favorable balance of the trade, India’s economic condition could not improve because of the constant warfare. Within the country, there were revolts of the Sikhs, Jats, and the Marathas and from outside, foreign invasions, like that of Nadir shah (1739 A.D.) and Ahmad Shah Abdali (1761), were common.
Key Takeaways:
- Indian culture is as many sided as life. It includes intellectual and social aspects of any human being.
- They composed many hymns in honor of the gods and goddesses they worshipped. These were compiled in four Vedas - the Rigveda, Saamveda, Yajurveda and Atharvaveda.
- The history of our country can safely be divided in ancient, medieval and modern periods.
- The composite cultural characteristic of the medieval period is amply witnessed in these fields. A new style of architecture known as the Indo- Islamic style was born out of this fusion.
Reference books:
1. Kapil Kapoor, “Text and Interpretation: The India Tradition”,ISBN: 81246033375, 2005
2. “Science in Sanskrit”, Samskrita Bharti Publisher, ISBN 13: 978-8187276333, 2007
