UNIT- 5

CONCRETING EQUIPMENT, TECHNIQUES AND SPECIAL CONCRETE

5.1 A) CONCRETING EQUIPMENT AND TECHNIQUES - BATCHING PLANT, CONCRETE MIXER, HAULING PUMP, CONCRETE VIBRATORS AND COMPACTION EQUIPMENT

• Convincing services are essential for construction companies. With high-quality concrete equipment, construction organizations can complete low-level construction work in a short amount of time. We will inform you about the types of concrete equipment used in the Industry.
• It can eliminate its labor costs and additional benefits by providing quality construction service to its customers in a fast way. As progress has been made, today various types of construction equipment have been developed for use by construction companies to carry out advanced construction processes.

Batching plant

• Concrete baking plant is an important gear for mixing machines. The concrete baking plant used for the is made with a suitable mix of a large amount of repairs such as sand, rock, water and cement and then relocated to a concert construction site prepared for pouring for use.
• Collectible concrete plants can be of two elements either heavy production parts or well-known pairing plants that can be used in all production and transport of solid mixtures from site to site. One can likewise find a pairing plant according to their creative needs.
• From today the group plants are accessible at different generation limits as well. The 20 cum / hr batching plant, 30 cum / hr concrete plant, 45 cum / hr, 60 cum / hr, 90 cum / hr, 120 cum / hr batching plant are part of the popular types of cement collection plants used by organizations.

Fig no 1 Batching plant as a concreting equipment

Concrete mixer

• Concrete mixer is an excellent source of construction that seeks to save their precious raw materials from unbearable waste. Mixers used to mix all elements such as cement, gravel, and water to better blend and save time due to their efficient operation while working.

• There are many varieties available in concrete mixes such as Self-loading concrete mixer, Transit mixer installed in the truck, Stationary concrete mixer, Electric Concrete Mixer, Concrete mixer making lift, concrete mixer flexible by types of Concrete mixer.

Fig no 2 Concrete mixer as a concreting equipment

Hauling pump

• Concrete pump is one of the fastest concrete materials that is gaining popularity in the construction market because of its reliability and cost-effectiveness. Pumps that save labor, time and energy-intensive equipment are used to pump concrete into the mixture and send it directly to the construction site.

Fig no 3 Best concrete hauling pump

Concrete vibrator

• Concrete vibrations are a mechanical device used to create vibrations in wet objects. The equipment is attached to the vehicle and is connected to vibration pipes inside the concrete mix.

• Also remove all air between the concrete mixes. So it gives a lot of strength and life to the concrete. These concrete machines are almost exclusively used by public contractors from small public works to bridge construction.

Fig no 4 Concrete vibrator equipment

Compaction equipment

• Concrete bonding is a process in which new concrete is assembled into forms and makes it around reinforcement with other embedded materials such as tubes on the skin.
• There are a variety of problems that can arise if concrete joints are not properly constructed as honeycombs and are trapped within the concrete attachment. In addition, the density of concrete may have potential for penetration problems and as a result of corrosion of steel and the weakening of the final hardening of the concrete.

Fig no 5 Compaction equipment

Key takeaways

1. There are many concreting equipment we will see

• Batching plant
• Concrete mixer
• Hauling pump
• Concrete vibrator
• Compaction equipment

5.2 SPECIAL CONCRETING TECHNIQUES - READY MIX CONCRETE

1. Ready-Mix Concrete is concrete this is synthetic in a batch plant, in step with a fixed engineered blend layout. Ready-blend concrete is commonly introduced in ways.
2. First is the barrel truck or in–transit mixers .This kind of truck gives you concrete in a plastic kingdom to the web page.
3. Second is the volumetric concrete mixer. This gives you the geared up blend in a dry kingdom after which mixes the concrete on web page.
4. Batch vegetation integrate a particular quantity of gravel, sand, water and cement through weight (as according to blend layout formula for grade of concrete advocated through the Structural consultant), permitting area of expertise concrete combos to be evolved and applied on creation sites.
5. The first geared up-blend manufacturing facility changed into constructed with inside the 1930s. The enterprise did now no longer amplify notably till the 1960s, and has persisted to develop due to the fact then.
6. Ready-blend concrete is frequently used as opposed to different substances because of the fee and huge variety of makes use of in building, especially in big initiatives like excessive upward push homes and bridges.
7. It has an extended existence span whilst in comparison to different merchandise of a comparable use, like avenue ways.
8. It has a mean existence span of 30 years beneath excessive visitors regions in comparison to the ten to twelve 12 months existence of asphalt concrete with the identical visitors.
9. Ready-blend concrete, or RMC as it's also known, refers to concrete this is particularly synthetic for customers' creation initiatives, and provided to the client on web page as a unmarried product.
10. It is a combination of Portland or different cements, water and aggregates: sand, gravel, or beaten stone.
11. All aggregates ought to be of a washed kind cloth with constrained quantities of fines or dust and clay.
12. An admixture is likewise delivered to enhance paintings-capacity of the concrete and/or growth placing time of concrete (the usage of retarders) to thing with inside the time required for the transit mixer to attain the web page.
13. Ready-combined concrete is utilized in creation initiatives in which the development web page isn't always willing, or unable, to combine concrete on web page.
14. Using geared up-combined concrete manner product is introduced finished, on demand, with inside the particular amount required, with inside the particular blend layout required.
15. For a small to medium project, the fee and time of hiring blending system, labour, plus buy and garage for the components of concrete, delivered to environmental concerns (cement dirt is an airborne fitness hazard)might also additionally truely be now no longer profitable whilst in comparison to the fee of geared up-combined concrete, in which the client can pay for what they use, and permits others do the paintings as much as that point.
16. For a big project, outsourcing concrete manufacturing to geared up-combined concrete providers manner delegating the nice manipulate and testing, cloth logistics and deliver chain problems and blend layout, to professionals who're already hooked up for the ones tasks, buying and selling off towards introducing any other shriveled outside dealer who desires to make a profit, and dropping the manipulate and immediacy of on-web page blending.
17. Ready-blend concrete is offered and bought through volume – generally expressed in cubic meters (cubic yards with inside the US).
18. Batching and combining is achieved beneath managed conditions. In the UK, geared up-combined concrete is distinctive both informally, through constituent weight or volume (1-2-4 or 1-3-6 being not unusual place mixes) or the usage of the formal specification requirements of the European widespread EN 206+ A1, that is supplemented with inside the UK through BS 8500.
19. This permits the client to specify what the concrete has if you want to face up to in phrases of floor conditions, exposure, and strength, and permits the concrete producer to layout a mixture that meets that requirement the usage of the substances domestically to be had to a batching plant.
20. This is proven through laboratory testing, consisting of acting dice assessments to confirm compressive strength and supplemented through area testing, consisting of stoop assessments achieved on web page to confirm plasticity of the blend.
21. The overall performance of a concrete blend may be altered through use of admixtures.
22. Admixtures may be used to lessen water requirements, entrain air right into a combination, to enhance floor durability, or maybe super plasticizer concrete to make it self- levelling, as self-consolidating concrete, using admixtures calls for precision in dosing and blend layout, that is greater hard without the dosing/measuring system and laboratory backing of a batching plant, this means that they may be now no longer without problems used out of doors of geared up-combined concrete.
23. Concrete has a constrained lifespan among batching / blending and curing.
24. This manner that geared up-combined concrete ought to be located inside 30 to 45mins of batching system to maintain stoop and blend layout specs with inside the USA,aleven though with inside the UK, environmental and cloth factors, plus in-transit blending, permit for up  hours to elapse.
25. Modern admixtures and water reducers can adjust that point span to a few degree.
26. Ready-combined concrete may be transported and located at web page the usage of some of methods.
27. The maximum not unusual place and best is the chute suited to the returned of transit mixer vehicles (as in picture), that is appropriate for putting concrete close to places in which a truck can returned in.
28. Dumper vehicles, crane hoppers, truck-established conveyors, and, in extremis, wheelbarrows, may be used to vicinity concrete from vehicles in which get admission to isn't always direct.
29. Some concrete mixes are appropriate for pumping with a concrete pump.

Manufacturing of Ready mixed concrete:

Ready-blend concrete may be made through the 2 following mixers:

Using transit mixers:

1. This kind of truck is utilized in production web sites to deliver concrete in a kingdom of plastic.
2. It has a spiral blade that rotates in each clockwise and anticlockwise directions .
3. During clockwise direction, concrete is poured into the drum. During anticlockwise direction, the concrete is discharged out from the drum.

Using volumetric concrete mixers:

1. This additionally may be transferred to the development web page for Ready Mix Concrete (RMC).
2. It resources the concrete with inside the dry kingdom and have to be blended with cement.
3. It includes an Archimedes screw inner this mixer to combine and raise the concrete for discharge.

 Starting RMC plant:

1. There is a query as to the way to begin the RMC plant.  Before beginning an RMC plant, there are sure elements to be deliberate ahead as follows.
2. Plant region: It may be very essential to pick out the region of the batch plant with inside the outskirts of metropolitan cities.
3. Climatic situations: The weather and climate situations of the region need to additionally be identified.
4. Cost: It is essential to devise the finances for the assignment. RMC flowers can require a excessive price for set up and production. An define of the price wished for the assignment need to be designed.
5. Transportation: It may be very essential to pick out a region with a transportation facility. It need to be a metropolis that has all modes of transportation. If it's miles in a coastal area, then the producing concrete may be dispatched overseas and the enterprise may be expanded.
6. Profit assessment: The sum of money invested need to be received via profit. It is essential to evaluate the funding in plant production, gadget, labor, and different elements earlier than presenting a assignment.
7. Machinery and gadget: It may be very essential to pick out first-rate confident machines and different gadget for beginning an RMC plant.

 Working off an RMC batch plant:

1. Setting up a batch plant is simpler and entails the subsequent steps.
2. Initially, the uncooked substance which includes cement are loaded into cement transfer.
3. The cement is then pumped into Silo cement for storage. The aggregates which includes sand, gravel and beaten stones are then loaded into the bloodless bin. 
4. Based at the layout of the blend, cement, additive mixtures, aggregates and water are weighed one at a time and they may be loaded into the mixer.
5. This is wherein the whole thing receives blended and as a result, Ready Mix Concrete (RMC) is discharged from the mixer.
6. It is straightforward to installation an RMC plant when you have a essential idea, funding, and region.
7. These are the easy steps you want to recall earlier than putting in an RMC plant.

Fig no 6 Manufacturing Plant

Transporting of Ready mixed concrete:

1. Transporting the concrete blend is described because the shifting of concrete from the integration plant to the development web page.
2. Keep in thoughts that now no longer all concrete is blended at the real creation web page and will require a few tremendous travel.
3. This is maximum not unusual place for ready-combined concretes.
4. The major goal in transporting concrete is to make sure that the water-cement ratio, droop or consistency, air content, and homogeneity aren't changed from their supposed states.

Important Factors in Choosing Transportation:

1. There are many factors of transporting that want to be taken into consideration with a view to make sure that a mixture does now no longer extrade its kingdom as designated with inside the contract.
2. The key desires while transporting concrete from the integration plant to the development web page are to save you segregation and to now no longer lessen the workability of the blend.
3. This transportation system to be nicely notion out and prepared efficiently. As a widespread rule of thumb, 30 to 60mins of transportation are proper on small jobs.
4. At a important or transportable ready-blend plant, concrete ought to be discharged from a truck mixer or agitator truck inside hours.
5. If non-agitating transporting device is used, this time is decreased to 1 hour. All delays have to be prevented so as save you honeycombing, as proven in Figure 1, or bloodless joints.
6. Many elements decide which sort of transportation is maximum suitable.
7. Type and ingredients of the concrete blend, length and sort of creation, topography, climate conditions (i.e. temperature, humidity, wind speed), vicinity of the batch plant, and price are all considered while selecting a style of delivery in your concrete.
8. If you pick out the incorrect mode of transportation, your concrete can be segregated, which could in effect, make it useless.
9. Therefore it's miles important that ok notion receive to the sort of transportation you truly want.

Categories of Transportation:

• There are many modes of transportation as proven below:

• Wheelbarrow or motorized buggy

• Truck mixer

• Bucket or metal skip

• Chute

• Belt conveyor

• Concrete pump

• Pneumatic placer

Key takeaways

1. Transportation: It may be very essential to pick out a region with a transportation facility. It need to be a metropolis that has all modes of transportation. If it's miles in a coastal area, then the producing concrete may be dispatched overseas and the enterprise may be expanded.
2. Batch vegetation integrate a particular quantity of gravel, sand, water and cement through weight (as according to blend layout formula for grade of concrete advocated through the Structural consultant), permitting area of expertise concrete combos to be evolved and applied on creation sites.
3. The major goal in transporting concrete is to make sure that the water-cement ratio, droop or consistency, air content, and homogeneity aren't changed from their supposed states.

5.3 UNDER WATER CONCRETING

There are 4 techniques of underwater concreting:

• Tremie pipe Method

• Bucket Method

• Grouting Method

• Bags stacking Methods

1)Tremie pipe Method:

1. The tremie stable state of affairs method makes use of a vertical or nearly vertical pipe, thru which concrete is about with the aid of using gravity feed below water degree.
2. The decrease give up of the pipe is stored soaking wet in crisp cement with the aim that stable ascending from the bottom dislodges the water, on this manner limiting washing out of the bond substance of the brand new concrete to the exposed top floor.
3. The top give up of the tremie pipe is stored over the water degree amid the pour and is given a cone formed field for cluster stacking, or cement is probably siphoned into the best factor of the tremie pipe.
4. Concrete should be poured at a fee which abstains from putting with inside the tremie.

 2) Bucket Method:

1. In this method the stable is saved submerged with the aid of using a base commencing field.
2. The cans for the maximum component are outfitted with base curler or drop base doorways as regarded in Fig. The door opens uninhibitedly outward whilst stumbled.
3. The pail is crammed absolutely with cement and its first-class secured with a canvas material or gunny sack and taken progressively right all the way down to avoid back­wash or unsettling have an impact on to concrete because the can is added down into the water.
4. The can is added down with the aid of using a crane upto the bottom floor of the stable and in a while opened both with the aid of using an affordable recreation plan from the first-class or with the aid of using a jumper.
5. It is fundamental that the stable be launched straightforwardly superficially on which it's far to be saved.

 Advantages:

•  This method is located to have the accompanying preferences:

• Relatively lean blends is probably applied given ok versatility is held.

• No shape paintings is essential on this method.

 Disadvantages:

• This method is slight and laborious as the precise situating of the packs installation should be cultivated with the aid of using the jumpers.

• Voids in adjacent sacks are difficult to fill.

• There is small preserving apart from created with the aid of using the mechanical interlock among packs.

• The method further is exorbitant as greater paintings is related to filling and tying them.

 3) Grouting Method:

1. These pens are laid vertically over the whole area to be cemented with the give up aim that the separation among the focuses of the pens and moreover to the essences of the stable thought now no longer surpass one meter.
2. The degree of the stone over all thought to nor be beneath 50 mm in extra of 2 hundred mm.
3. This overall have to be wetted earlier than storing it outdoor the metallic confines over the whole location and tallness to be cemented.
4. While saving the overall, care have to be taken that no pen is uprooted from its position.
5. Subsequent to storing the overall, the concrete sand grout of 1:2 quantity and water/bond share as a minimum 0.6 and now no longer greater than 0.9 is installation in a mechanical blender.
6. The finest length of sand is probably five mm and the concrete sand quantity can also additionally shift from 1:1.5 to 1:4contingent at the first-rate conditions and importance of the paintings.
7. In the wake of grouting the whole territory for a stature of round 60 cm s, a comparable pastime is rehashed for the subsequent layer of 60 cm and the method is rehashed until the grouting is completed up to an appropriate tallness.
8. The grout to be dispatched down to be ok to fill each one of the voids.
9. The extent of voids is probably typical as 55% of the extent to be cemented or observed tentatively.
10. Beyond what many could recall feasible cement thought now no longer be troubled whilst it's far stored, this can restrict the association of laitence.

4) Bags stacking Methods:

1. The packs are tied in order that they may be perfect right away in a profile of the floor on which they're put.
2. The legitimately crammed sacks are added down into the water and set carefully in header and stretcher guides as in block workmanship improvement with the help of jumpers so the whole mass is interlocked.

 Advantages:

•  This method is located to have the accompanying factors of interest:

Nearly lean blends is probably applied given ok versatility is held.

• No shape paintings is vital on this method.

 Disadvantages:

• This method is slight and laborious as the proper situating of the packs installation should be cultivated with the aid of using the jumpers.

Voids in contiguous packs are difficult to fill.

• There is small preserving apart from created with the aid of using the mechanical interlock among packs.

Key takeaways

1. The top give up of the tremie pipe is stored over the water degree amid the pour and is given a cone formed field for cluster stacking, or cement is probably siphoned into the best factor of the tremie pipe.

5.4 ROLLER COMPACTED CONCRETE

1. Roller concrete (RCC) or roller compacted concrete is a special compound of concrete with the same ingredients as ordinary concrete but in varying proportions, and depending on the incorporation of part of the fly ash of Portland cement.
2. The incorporation of the fly ash of Portland Cement is an important factor in the construction of the RCC dam because the heat generated by fly ash hydration is much lower than the heat generated by Portland Cement hydration.
3. This in turn lowers the heat load in the dam and reduces the potential for hot cracks to occur. RCC is a mixture of cement / ash of fly, water, sand, composite and common additives, but contains very little water.
4. The resulting mixture will dry out and actually will not fall off. The RCC is positioned in the same way as the paving; the equipment is delivered by dump trucks or conveyors, which are distributed by small tractors or specially designed asphalt pumping stones, and then assembled with vibrating rollers.
5. In the construction of the dam, roller-coated concrete began to develop for the first time with the construction of the Alpe Gera Dam near Sondrio in Northern Italy between 1961 and 1964. The concrete was laid in the same way but not folded.
6. The RCC was adopted in engineering journals in the 1970s as a flexible material suitable for, among other things, the construction of dams.
7. Originally and generally, the RCC was used for back filling, lower foundation and concrete construction, but it is increasingly used in the construction of gravitational dams because low cement content and the use of fly ash produce less heat during curing than conventional concrete laying.
8. Joint roller concrete has many time and cost advantages over conventional concrete dams; this includes high concrete installation costs, low material costs and low costs associated with post-operative cooling and form

Key takeaways

1. Roller concrete (RCC) or roll crete concrete is a special compound of concrete with the same ingredients as ordinary concrete but in varying proportions, and depending on the incorporation of part of the fly ash of Portland cement.

5.5 COLD AND HOT WEATHER CONCRETING

Introduction

1. Concrete and other structures are constructed in many countries around the world and in some places the climate is symbolized by the long spells of hot or cold weather. Concrete companies that are ready to integrate and build in these regions are able to produce high quality concrete despite these weather problems. In many regions with unfavorable weather conditions there are set conclusions and concrete production guidelines that provide details of the methods that can be used to combat adverse conditions.
2. In the cooler parts of the world, cool, humid climates are common. In these areas, although cold or cold temperatures are not uncommon, it is often surprising when they arrive and it may be too late to apply even safety measures to minimize their undesirable effects,
3. Physical effects in both hot and cold conditions should not be overlooked. Workers and managers will not be expected to produce good quality concrete if exposed to conditions for a long time without proper protection
4. When the process of serving the container is done on its own it is not a matter of deciding whether to pour concrete. Air temperature, humidity, and wind speed, higher temperatures where you put concrete, water and dry concrete in the bag all play a big role and should be considered. The air, air and moisture are much better than you can handle but you can also influence it. It is important to remember that the temperature of the mixed material is as important as the temperature of the air.
5. The strength and durability of concrete are at odds with the climate in which the composite process is performed. Therefore, construction workers will need to take extra care or take action when it comes to worship. In fact, some parts of the world remain hot all year long. These are situations where paying attention to a few simple but much-needed points in hot weather can definitely help to complete any display without compromising its quality. Sunlight leads to hot weather which forces us to use special methods while barking known as hot weather concreting,

Hot Weather concreting

Definitions

1. The definition of a tropical climate may vary from country to country. According to the Indian climate, Indian codes determine 40 ° C as the temperature range for hot climates. That is to say, any combination made at temperatures above 40 ° C can be considered as a hot climate that allows for certain measures to be adopted.
2. Obviously, this is not the case in most other parts of the world because of the climate. For example, according to ACI 305, any combination of high temperatures, high air pressure, low humidity and sunlight (sunlight) is a preconceived notion for designing a connection such as hot weather. Some theories say that any heat above a comfortable room temperature, and 25 ° C however, begins to make the concrete uncomfortable 1.e, the concrete begins to react differently which is why it requires special care due to hot weather, if strong quality to be maintained.

Hydration Process

1. Therefore, it is very important to deal with how the temperature of the tropical climate differs concreting normal temperature. Concrete sets also gain strength due to the hydration of the cement inside them. The elasticity of the cement occurs quickly when it is hot. Cement installation also releases heat. Therefore, the faster the hydration of the cement the faster the heat generation. This creates the heat of the concrete, further speeds up the cementing or set-up process, Cement quickening does not allow concrete enough time to get enough strength. While the initial energy does not suffer, long-term energy (28-day energy) is negatively affected. This is a major reason why hot climates require special care. Otherwise, you will be playing with concrete designed strength.
2. Water demand
3. The water demand for concrete mix is ​​high in hot weather due to rapid evaporation. Unless appropriate measures are taken, additional water will have to be added to the concrete mix to maintain the performance of the mixture. This will increase the amount of water cement which will also reduce the strength of the concrete. If more cement is added to keep the w / c ratio constant the cost will increase as cement is the most expensive ingredient concrete mix,
4. Rapid drying of freshly poured concrete areas occurs when it is hot due to rapid evaporation or water loss in the mixture. If proper care is not taken, cracks known as plastic shrinkage cracks will appear, which are difficult to repair over time. The exposed area tends to shrink rapidly due to rapid moisture loss while mixing will still develop sufficient strength to withstand these shrinking pressures leading to cracking. In hot weather, concrete bed, forms, metal reinforcement, connecting or assembling equipment etc. It is also hot transferring heat to a mixture that adds to the problem.

The effects of Hot weather on concrete

1. High temperatures can affect the concrete at all stages of production and laying process and many effects can have long-term or hardening effects. Some of the problems caused by high temperatures are listed in Table 1. They are the result of high temperatures that increase the rate of hydration reaction and the movement of moisture inside and outside the concrete.
2. The combination of high temperature, low humidity and high air velocity adversely affects desirable concrete structures e.g. strength, inequality, durability, weather resistance, wear and tear
3. Setting time. As the temperature of the concrete increases, the laying time, and thus the laying time, the mixing and finishing of the concrete is reduced
4. Workability and slump - High temperatures reduce the performance (or fall) of concrete very quickly over time. Adding more water to improve the performance of the mixture reduces energy and Increases penetration, and ultimately affects the durability of the mixture.
5. Durability - Many forms of degradation depend on the transfer of fluid or respiration through a concrete structure. Acquiring a ‘non-permissible’ concrete is one of the main goals when trying to gain durability. The main ways to do this is to produce concrete with low water / cement concrete. As noted above, high temperatures affect the initial performance and the level at which they lose performance and may be tempted to add more water to the mixture or site. This will lead directly to concrete at high risk of cold, climate change, sulphate attacks and the entry of carbon dioxide and chloride solution leading to increased corrosion.
6. Compressive strength - High water demand and high concrete temperatures can lead to a 28 day power reduction. If too much water is added to the concrete mix at high temperatures to maintain or restore function, the water level of the cement will increase, resulting in a loss of strength and durability. This can also increase the shrinkage of reinforced concrete. Where water is not heard, reduced set time and performance can increase insufficient mixing (actually a major impact on energy), the formation of cold joints and improper elimination.
7. Concrete temperature - Warmer climates can increase the temperature of concrete caused by hydration heat. In large segments the hot gradients through the element can create thermal cracks. Laboratory tests show that very high temperatures have a significant impact on the strength of the hard concrete. Although increased concrete heat can lead to an initial increase in energy gain, in the long run, low-temperature-cooled concrete will reach higher strength.
8. Poor surface appearance - With increased evaporation, the concrete surface will dry out. In the case of an infestation this can lead to premature depletion, trapping the amount of water that drips inside the mixture. The coated layer (from the finish) can cause blood clots to trickle under the surface, leading to the formation of the upper layer and subsequent eruption. Also, color variations on the face can result from different levels of hydration and cooling effects.
9. Plastic shrinkage cracking - Hot weather conditions accelerate the loss of moisture on the face. If the evaporation rate is higher than the rate of bleeding (the rate at which the water rises higher) drying of the soil will occur which has led to a reduction in concrete. When the reducing pressure exceeds the capacity of the concrete, cracks will occur. The chances of cracking the plastic are reduced so it is great whenever hot weather raises steam or concrete and lowers the bleeding rate. The cracking of the shrinkage plastic can be quite deep, as the plastic concrete has little resistance to the shrinking pressure, and the cracks continue to grow and spread until the shrinkage pressures are released. (Be aware that thin plastic cracks do not usually extend to the free edges, as uncontrollable concrete cuts may occur in these areas.)
10. Thermal cracking - Concrete is at risk of thermal cracking when applied for the first time, and hydration heat raises the internal temperature of the concrete. Rapid changes in the external temperature of the exterior concrete, such as where concrete slabs are laid, walls or sidewalks on a hot day followed by a cold night, lead to hot gradients between the warm / hot surface and the cold outside. The warm interior offers a cool outdoor space, which wants to make a deal. Depending on the temperature variation, there may be a concrete crash. Larger or thicker concrete objects are at greater risk because of the protective effect the concrete gives them inside the object.

Precautions in hot weather conditions

1. Problems often arise when local workers are unaware of the impact of changing weather and / or climatic conditions during laying and / or finishing concrete. Improved responses to unexpected changes are not recommended because the damage that can be caused by the uncontrolled effects of tropical climates may not be completely eliminated. The first option to consider in hot weather is to postpone the placement of the concrete or not
2. Make sure site staff are aware of the effects of the weather. Improved responses to unexpected changes are not recommended. The first option to consider in hot, unfavorable weather conditions is to postpone the placement of the concrete or not. It is often better to wait than to risk costly repairs (or replacements) for defective work.
3. Concrete Production. The role of concrete suppliers is to help put concrete in hot climates. Shade stocks, spray aggregates before evaporation time, or cool down otherwise. Paint mixing barrels and keep them white to reduce heat loss from the sun. Use ice as part of the mixed water or cool the concrete with liquid nitrogen.
4. Delivery and Delivery- Delivery delays can delay good mixing practices. The concrete supplier must plan and maintain a good non-delaying plan to deliver concrete to the required area on site

1.  Reduce travel time and avoid unnecessary delays.
2.  Avoid prolonged mixing. Mixed transport trucks should be released as soon as possible after the addition of water to that mixture.
3. For large projects, consider baking and mixing using a workplace plant. •
4. Water should not be installed on pre-assembled concrete in the workplace unless it is part of the amount required at the beginning of the set water limit and specified descent.

Precautions for concreting in cold weather

1. Temperature control of concrete ingredients - The most effective way to maintain the temperature of concrete at the top is to control the temperature of its ingredients. The contribution of each ingredient in concrete heating is a function of heat, specific heat and the amount used for this ingredient. The water mixed with the mix has a very noticeable effect on the temperature of the concrete. Therefore, in cold weather, all available means will be used to care for these items at the highest possible temperature.
   1. Many ways to reduce the effects of low temperatures include raising the level at which the concrete gains strength under these conditions in the first critical phase after laying.
2. Cement Quantity - Increasing the amount of cement (meaning using high-strength concrete) can increase the energy gain. Note that there is little or no impact during setup.
3. Admixture - The rapid addition of compounds (non-chloride) to concrete reduces the setting time and speeds up the energy gain rate by increasing the level at which cement enters
4. Hot Water - Applying hot water to the mixture will increase the temperature of the concrete, which in turn accelerates the rate at which cement enters. The temperature of the water mix should not exceed 70 ° C and the mixing should ensure the consistency of the concrete delivered to the site
5. Air entrainment - you may be able to prevent the effects of sudden cold by applying a combination of ventilation to the concrete. These compounds create minute air vents where the pore water can move as it expands during cold weather
6. On site precautions - It is advisable to take steps to prevent concrete damage by unpredictable and unexpected snow whenever the air temperature drops below 5C.
7. Cold Protection (Including cold / frozen area, winds and cold) - in some cases, the provision of a heated enclosure (simple frames covered with tarpaulin and the use of hot air) to completely seal the concrete object may be required. Note that care must be taken to prevent concrete drying when using this method.

Key takeaways

1. Concrete and other structures are constructed in many countries around the world and in some places the climate is symbolized by the long spells of hot or cold weather. Concrete companies that are ready to integrate and build in these regions are able to produce high quality concrete despite these weather problems. In many regions with unfavorable weather conditions there are set conclusions and concrete production guidelines that provide details of the methods that can be used to combat adverse conditions.

5.6 B) SPECIAL CONCRETE - LIGHT WEIGHT CONCRETE AND ITS TYPE

1. Lightweight concrete may be described as a sort of concrete which incorporates an increasing agent in that it will increase the quantity of the combination whilst giving extra characteristics which includes nailbility and lessened the useless weight.
2. It is lighter than the traditional concrete. The use of light-weight concrete has been broadly un fold throughout international locations which includes USA, United Kingdom and Sweden.
3. The essential specialties of light-weight concrete are its low density and thermal conductivity.
4. Its blessings are that there may be a discount of useless load, quicker constructing quotes in creation and decrease haulage and managing costs.
5. Lightweight concrete keeps its huge voids and now no longer forming laitance layers or cement movies while located at the wall.
6. This studies became primarily based totally at the overall performance of aerated light-weight concrete.
7. However, enough water cement ratio is essential to provide good enough concord among cement and water.
8. Insufficient water can purpose loss of concord among debris, for that reason loss in energy of concrete.
9. Likewise an excessive amount of water can purpose cement to run off mixture to shape laitance layers, finally weakens in energy.
10. Lightweight concrete has been used because the eighteen centuries through the Romans.
11. The software at the ‘The Pantheon’ wherein it makes use of pumice mixture with inside the creation of solid in-situ concrete is the evidence of its usage.
12. In USA and England with inside the overdue 19th century, clinker became used of their creation as an example the ‘British Museum’ and different low price housing.
13. The light-weight concrete became extensively utilized in creation at some point of the First World War.
14. The United States used particularly for shipbuilding and urban blocks.
15. The foamed blast furnace-slag and pumice mixture for block making had been added in England and Sweden round 1930s.
16. Nowadays with the development of technology, light-weight concrete expands its makes use of.
17. For example, with inside the shape of perlite with its top notch insulating characteristics.
18. It is broadly used as loose-fill insulation in masonry creation wherein it complements hearth place ratings, reduces noise transmission, does now no longer rot and termite resistant.
19. It is likewise used for vessels, roof decks and different applications.

Materials utilized in Light weight concrete:

1. Lightweight concrete may be produced through introducing:
2. gassing retailers which includes aluminum powder or foaming retailers,
3. light-weight mineral mixture which includes per lite, vermiculite, pumice, elevated shale, slate, and clay, or plastic granules as mixture

Properties of Light weight concrete:

1. Low Density
2. Fire Resistance
3. Sound Insulation
4. Durability
5. Thermal insulation
6. Quality Control

 Low Density

1. The density of concrete varies from three hundred to 1200 kg/m³.
2. The lightest grade appropriate for insulation proposed whilst the heavier grades with good enough energy appropriate for structural applications.
3. The low density of cell concrete makes it appropriate for precast ground and roofing devices which can be smooth to deal with and shipping from the manufacturing unit to the sites.

Fire Resistance

1. Lightweight concrete has outstanding hearth place-resisting properties.
2. Its low thermal conductivity makes it appropriate for protective every other established shape the outcomes of fir

Sound Insulation

1. Sound insulation in cell concrete is typically now no longer as suitable as in dense concrete.

Durability

• Aerated concrete is handiest barely alkaline. Due to its porosity and coffee alkalinity.
• It does now no longer deliver rust safety to metallic that's supplied through dense as compared concrete.

Thermal insulation

• The insulation fee of light-weight concrete is set 3 to 6, instances that of bricks and approximately ten instances of concrete.

• When a two hundred mm thick wall of aerated concrete of density 800 kg/ m3 has the identical diploma of insulation as a four hundred mm thick wall of density 1600 kg/ m3.

Quality Control

• Better first-rate manipulate exercised with inside the creation of a shape with light-weight concrete merchandise because of using manufacturing unit-made devices.

Types of Light weight Concrete:

Lightweight aggregate concrete:

1. Lightweight aggregate concrete is referred to as an LWA.
2. In the early 1950s, using light-weight concrete blocks familiar withinside the UK for the load-bearing internal leaf of hollow space walls.
3. Soon thereafter the improvement and manufacturing of a brand new sort of synthetic LWA made it viable to introduce LWC of excessive energy, appropriate for structural work.
4. These advances inspire the structural use of LWA concrete. Particularly wherein the want to lessen weight in a shape became an critical attention for layout or for the economy.

Aerated Concrete:

1. Aerated concrete has the bottom density, thermal conductivity, and energy.
2. Like timber, it is able to be sawn, screwed and nailed, however there are non-combustible.
3. For works in-situ, the standard strategies of aeration are through blending in stabilized shape or through whipping air in with the useful resource of an air-entraining agent.

No fines concrete:

The time period no-fines concrete typically way concrete composed of cement and a coarse (9-19) aggregates handiest and the product so fashioned has many uniformly disbursed voids for the duration of its mass.

1. Ordinary light-weight concrete organized from a binder, water best and coarse mixture with complete filling voids among the huge debris.
2. Low Sand concrete, wherein the voids among the coarse mixture handiest partly packed with the paste.
3. It additionally referred to as an opening graded  concrete and dealt separately.
4. In this example on best mixture use. Coarse debris of the mixture are coved through a skinny layer of cement, paste and the voids among them stay empty. It is referred to as as no concrete.
5. Aerated concrete crafted from a binder, water, best and coarse mixture, and a blowing agent which reduced the density of concrete.

Typical Light weight concrete mix:

1. Lightweight concrete is a combination made with light-weight coarse aggregates inclusive of shale, clay, or slate, which offer it its feature low density.
2. Structural light-weight concrete has an in-location density of ninety to a hundred and fifteen lb/ft³, while the density of everyday weight concrete tiers from a hundred and forty to a hundred and fifty lb/ft³.
3. This makes light-weight concrete perfect for constructing current systems that require minimum pass sections with inside the foundation.
4. It is being an increasing number of used to construct glossy foundations, and has emerged as a possible opportunity to everyday concrete.
5. Nevertheless, a better compressive power of 7000 to 10,000 psi may be attained with light-weight concrete.
6. However, this will compromise the density of the combination because it calls for the addition of greater pozzolans and water-decreasing admixtures to the concrete.

Key takeaways

1. Lightweight concrete keeps its huge voids and now no longer forming laitance layers or cement movies while located at the wall.
2. This study became primarily based totally at the overall performance of aerated light-weight concrete.
3. Aerated concrete is handiest barely alkaline. Due to its porosity and coffee alkalinity.
4. It does now no longer deliver rust safety to metallic that's supplied through dense as compared concrete.

5.7 FOAM CONCRETE

1. Foam concrete usually consists of cement mortar or fly ash and sand and water, although some suppliers recommend pure cement and water with an agent that produces lightweight mixtures.
2.  This slurry is also mixed with a foam made into a concrete mixing plant. The foam is made using a moisturizing agent, mixed with water and air from the generator. The foam operator used must be able to produce bubbles with a high degree of stability, resistant to physical and chemical processes of mixing, depositing and solidifying.
3. Foam concrete mix can be poured or sprayed on molds, or directly on parts of the building. Foam makes the sulfur flow freely due to the thixotropic behavior of foam bubbles, allowing it to be easily absorbed into the selected form or mold.
4. Viscous materials require up to 24 hours to harden (or at least two hours if the smoke is treated at temperatures up to 70 ° C to speed up the process. depending on the variability including ambient temperature. and moisture. Once solidified, the manufactured product can be removed from its mold.
5.  A new application in the production of foam concrete is to cut large-size concrete cakes into blocks of different sizes with a cutting machine using special metal wires. The cutting action occurs when the concrete is still soft.

Properties

Foam concrete is a versatile construction material with a simple and inexpensive method of production compared to air-cooled autoclave concrete. Foam compounds using foam-using ashes for this cheap compound are still cheap, and have little impact on the environment. Foam concrete is produced in quantities ranging from 200 kg / m3 to 1,600 kg / m3 depending on the application. Smaller products can be divided into different sizes. While the product is considered to be a type of concrete (with air bubbles replacing the whole), its thermal and sound insulation properties make it a very different application than conventional concrete.

Applications

Foam concrete can be produced in dry quantities of 400 to 1600 kg / m3 (25 lb / ft3 to 100 lb / ft3), with a capacity of about 7 to 10 days N / mm2 (145 to -1450 psi) respectively. The foam concrete is fire resistant, and its thermal and sound insulation properties make it ideal for a variety of purposes, from floor and ceiling protection, to useless filling. It also helps to restore the trench.

A few applications of foam concrete are:

1. bridge / bar road routes
2. pipe discharge / annual filling
3. back ditch
4. precast blocks
5. precast wall elements / panels
6. cast-in-situ / cast-in-place walls
7. by defending the imposition of compensation
8. split down screens
9. partition roof screeds
10. the filling of the deceased part
11. trench for restoration
12. sub-base on highways
13. the filling of empty blocks
14. partition boards used

Key takeaways

1. Lightweight concrete may be described as a sort of concrete which incorporates an increasing agent in that it will increase the quantity of the combination whilst giving extra characteristics which includes nailbility and lessened the useless weight.
2. It is lighter than the traditional concrete. The use of light-weight concrete has been broadly un fold throughout international locations which includes USA, United Kingdom and Sweden.

5.8 NO FINES CONCRETE

What is No-Fines Concrete?

• No-Fines Concrete is a lightweight concrete made of cement only, cement and water by leaving fine particles (sand or fine compounds) of ordinary concrete. The benefits, limitations and equity of the exemptions are discussed.

Fig no 7No fines concrete

• Usually only one equal measurement, of more than 20 mm in size, is kept in 10mm. Concrete no-faes are popular because of the specific benefits you have over conventional concrete.

• The single-layer collection makes a beautiful, non-abrasive concrete, which in addition to getting large voids and therefore light weight, also gives a nice look to the build.

Advantages of No-Fines Concrete

1. No fine concrete is a heavy concrete i.e. the density is approximately 25 to 30% less than normal concrete due to the lack of good adhesion, so the weight of the structure is small.
2. Since it does not have good sand or aggregates, it has less drying shrinkage compared to conventional concrete
3. It has a better heat protection feature than ordinary concrete and therefore helps in the construction of the outer wall.
4. Since it does not have good aggregates, the required area for cement coverage has been greatly reduced. Therefore, the required amount of cement is reduced per cubic meter compared to conventional concrete. Therefore, it will save.
5. Heavy concrete has no effect on quality due to the fragmentation of the compact cluster as it does not have good dimensions. Therefore, it can be thrown higher.
6. No fine concrete can be assembled without the need for any types of concrete vibrators and can be easily made by touching the rods.

Limitations of No Fines Concrete

1. Since there are no good compounds to fill the gaps in this concrete, it has a higher penetration than standard concrete. Therefore, it is not a good idea to build reinforced concrete without compensation concrete, as reinforcement can be easily eaten.
2. To make this concrete inaccessible, an additional coat of construction mud is required, which adds to the cost.
3. There is no concrete test that can be tested for effectiveness by using tests on standard concrete such as rolling or testing for rigidity. Performance rates and their testing methods are unknown.

Mix proportion of No-Fines Concrete

1. No-fines concrete is usually made with aggregate / cement scales from 6: 1 to 10: 1. The standard aggregates used are usually sizes over 20 mm and stored at 10 mm.
2. Unlike conventional concrete, where the strength is primarily controlled by the water / cement ratio, the strength of the concrete can be charged depending on the water / cement ratio, the estimated cement ratio and the weight of the concrete.
3. The water / cement ratio for satisfactory consistency will vary between a minimum width of 0.38 and 0.52. The water / cement level should be chosen carefully. If a very low amount of water / cement is accepted, the adhesive will dry so much that the adhesive can be well coated with adhesive resulting in insufficient adhesion between the particles.
4. On the other hand, if the water / cement ratio is too high, the glue will run down the concrete floor, especially if you move and fill in the gaps between the joints at the bottom and make that part more compact. This condition also reduces the adhesion between the adhesive and the adhesive due to the adhesion being much thinner.
5. There is no standard method available, such as a descent test or an object measurement test to measure the consistency of a non-finite concrete. Perhaps a good test, visual experience and trial and error method would be the best guide to determine the water / cement ratio.
6. No-faes concrete, when using standard aggregates, can show a density of about 1600 to 1900 kg / m3, but if no-faes concrete is made using lightweight aggregate, the size can reach approximately 360 kg / m3.
7. Concrete of no-faes does not pose a major congestion problem. The use of a combination of equipment or vibration methods is not required. Simple rodding is sufficient for full filling.
8. Concrete of no-faes does not give much to the formation side as the particles have a point of identification of the contact and the concrete does not move. Therefore, the side of the formworks can be removed in a much shorter time than ordinary concrete.
9. However, the forms may need to be stored longer, when used as part of the structure, as the strength of the concrete decreases considerably. The compressive strength of the fine-grained concrete varies between 1.4 M Pa to 14 M Pa .Table 12.5 shows the compressive strength of concrete that can be charged.
10. The strength of the bonded concrete bond is very low and, therefore, the reinforcement is not used in combination with the non-charged concrete. However, if the reinforcement needs to be applied to a non-abrasive concrete, it is advisable to touch the reinforcement with cement to improve the bond and protect it from cracking.

Key takeaways

1. No-Fines Concrete is a lightweight concrete made of cement only, cement and water by leaving fine particles (sand or fine compounds) of ordinary concrete. The benefits, limitations and equity of the exemptions are discussed.
2. Usually only one equal measurement, of more than 20 mm in size, is kept in 10mm. Concrete no-faces are popular because of the specific benefits you have over conventional concrete.

5.9 SELF COMPACTING CONCRETE

• Self-compacting concrete (SCC) is a flowing concrete that doesn't require vibration and, indeed, have to now no longer be vibrated.

• It makes use of super plasticizers and stabilizers to seriously growth the benefit and price of glide.

• It achieves compaction into each a part of the mildew or formwork genuinely by using its personal weight with none segregation of the coarse aggregate.

• The consistence of the concrete is designated and measured as a glide price as opposed to the everyday stoop test.

SCC offers:

• Health and protection benefits (as no vibration is needed).

• Faster creation times.

• Increased workability and simplicity of glide round heavy reinforcement.

• Excellent sturdiness.

 Advantages of SCC:

• No vibration is needed in the course of the position into forms.

• Placement of concrete easier.

• Reduces the concreting time.

• Increased sturdiness of structure.

• High Strength

Material used in SCC:

• The powdered substances that may be delivered are fly ash, silica fume, lime stone powder, glass filler and quartzite filler.

Tests for SCC:

Following are numerous technique for checking out the houses of sparkling concrete:

• Slump glide test

• T50 stoop glide test

• J ring test

• V Funnel test

• V funnel at T5 minute

• L container test

• U container test

• Fill container test

• GTM display balance test

• Orimet test

Properties of SCC:

 Strength:

 Strength of concrete are of the subsequent types:

1. Compressive strength
2. Tensile strength
3. Flexural strength
4. Shear strength

1.Compressive Strength

1. The dice specimens of concrete of the preferred percentage are solid in metallic or solid iron molds, typically 6-inch dice.
2. The general cylinder specimen of concrete is 6 inch in diameter and 12 inches in peak and solid in a mould commonly fabricated from solid iron;
3. Standard cubes and cylinders are examined at prescribed ages, commonly, 28 days, with extra exams frequently made at 1, three, and seven days.
4. The specimens are examined for crushing electricity below a checking out machine.
5. The dice exams supply an awful lot more values of crushing electricity, typically 20 to 30 % extra than the ones given via way of means of cylinders.

Effect of age on concrete strength:

1. Concrete attains electricity with time.
2. Ordinary cement concrete profits above 70 to 75% of its very last electricity inside 28 days and approximately ninety to 95 % with inside the path of 1 year.
3. It is frequently perfect to test the suitability of a concrete lengthy earlier than the effects of the 28-day check are available.
4. When no particular records at the substances utilized in making concrete are available, the 28-day electricity can be assumed to be 1.5 instances of the 7 days’ electricity.
5. Tests have proven that for concrete made with regular Portland cement the ratio of the 28 days to 7 days’ electricity commonly lies among 1.three to 1.7, and the bulk of the effects fall above 1.5.

2. Tensile strength

1. Concrete could be very susceptible in tension.
2. The tensile electricity of regular concrete levels from approximately 7 to 10 percentage of the compressive electricity.

3. Flexural strength

1. The flexural electricity of undeniable concrete is nearly fully established upon the tensile electricity.
2. However, experiments display that the modulus of rupture is substantially more than the electricity in tension.

4.     Shear strength

1. It is the actual figuring out issue with inside the compressive electricity of brief columns.
2. The common electricity of concrete in direct shear varies from approximately 1/2 of of the compressive electricity for wealthy combinations to approximately 0.8 of the compressive electricity for lean combinations.

 Workability:

1. The electricity of concrete of a given blend percentage could be very significantly laid low with the diploma of its compaction.
2. It is consequently essential that the consistency of the combinationture be such that the concrete may be transported, positioned and completed sufficiently effortlessly and with out segregation.
3. A concrete pleasant those situations is stated to be workable.

 Elastic Properties:

1. Concrete isn't always flawlessly elastic for any variety of loading, an considerable everlasting placing taking location for even low loads.
2. The deformation isn't always proportional to the strain at any degree of loading.
3. The elastic residences of concrete range with the richness of the aggregate and with the depth of the strain.
4. They additionally range with the age of concrete.

Durability:

1. Durability is the assets of concrete to face up to the circumstance for which it's been designed, with out deterioration over a length of years.
2. Lack of sturdiness may be resulting from outside sellers bobbing up from the surroundings or via way of means of inner sellers in the concrete.

Application of SCC:

1. Construction of Bridges, buildings, tunnels.
2. Precast Concrete Members
3. Casting of slab and slender wall

Typical Mix:

• A easy device has been designed for self compacting concrete (SCC) blend layout with 29% of coarse aggregate, substitute of cement with Meta kaolin and sophistication F fly ash, combos of each and managed SCC blend with 0.36 water/cement ratio(via way of means of weight) and 388 litre/m3 of cement paste volume.

Key Takeaways

1. Self-compacting concrete (SCC) is a flowing concrete that doesn't require vibration and, indeed, have to now no longer be vibrated.
2. Concrete isn't always flawlessly elastic for any variety of loading, an considerable everlasting placing taking location for even low loads.

5.10 HIGH DENSITY CONCRETE

1. High density concrete is a concrete having a density with inside the variety of 6000 to 6400 kg/cu.m.
2. High density concrete is likewise called Heavy weight concrete. 
3. High density concrete is specifically used for the cause of radiation protective, for counterweights and different makes use of in which excessive density is required.
4. The excessive density concrete has a higher protective property, in order that it is able to shield dangerous radiations like X-rays, gamma rays, and neutrons.
5. High density aggregates are used to attain heavy weight concrete. Some of the excessive density aggregates are, barite, ferro phosphorus, limonite, hematite, ilmenite, magnetite, goethite, metallic punching, and metallic shots.
6. The factor to keep in mind is that in order to attain this sort of concrete, excessive constant water content material is required.
7. The choice of the above cited aggregates specifically depend on the bodily houses like bulk density, unique gravity, Availablity of substances, and its expenses. 
8. In order to attain workablility, excessive density the aggregates have to be loose from dirt, oil or grease stains and different overseas matter.
9. Or else, it's going to retard the hydration method and the powerful bonding of particles.
10. Some of the boron additions like colemanite, boro calcite are used with inside the prepartion of concrete to enhance the protective houses.
11. These additions might also additionally have an effect on the placing time of concrete so, trial mixes have to be made and examined relying upon the suitability.
12. As the call suggests, the density of this concrete varies from 3360 kg/m3 to 3840 kg/m3, while the density of regular concrete is of the order of 2400 kg/m3.
13. The density of mild weight concrete is ready 1900 kg/m3 and that of regular concrete approximately 2400 kg/m3.
14. Thus the density of excessive density concrete is ready 50% greater than the density of traditional concrete.
15. However this concrete may be produced of density up to 5200 kg/m3 the use of iron as each nice and coarse mixture.
16. With the arrival of the nuclear electricity, there's a big call for of the concrete technologists with inside the market.
17. Due to using nuclear electricity generating reactors, big scale manufacturing of penetrating radiation and radioactive substances additionally has taken location.
18. Thus all nuclear electricity generating gadgets inclusive of nuclear reactors, particle accelerator, business radiography, x-ray and gamma ray remedy gadgets require nuclear protective cloth for the safety of the working employees in opposition to the organic risks inclusive of radiation.
19. The regular in addition to excessive density concrete is powerful and low in cost for the development of everlasting guard in opposition to radiation.

Materials in High density concrete:

• All represent substances, cement, admixtures, and water utilized in excessive density concrete have to agree to the requirements as for regular density concrete, however the aggregates is unique and can require unique attention at some stage in handling, batching, blending, transporting and setting.

Aggregates:

1. High density concrete (HDC), densities is executed via way of means of the use of excessive-density aggregates commonly iron oxides and relies upon on its meant use, bodily and chemical houses, availability and price.
2. Concrete densities of 3700 to 3800 kg/m³, is offered utilizing aggregates with particle relative densities of as a minimum 4500 kg/m³ and for concrete densities of 4800 kg/m³ aggregates have to have a particle relative density of as a minimum 6000 kg/m³.
3. Aggregate grading for HDC hardly ever agree to regular mixture requirements because the mixture are hardly ever made for concrete manufacturing, this have to be general via way of means of capacity customers because it isn't always adverse to the manufacturing of HDC.
4. The maximum critical a part of HDC aggregates is that the grading have to be consistent and that a attainable grading restriction be agreed on with the dealer, to base the combination layout on.
5. The chemical houses of all excessive-density aggregates have to be evaluated earlier than use, chemical reactivity and mainly in excessive alkaline environments as observed in cement pastes, long time sturdiness inclusive of alkali-mixture reactivity, sulphate and chloride assault and different impurities.
6. The dealer have to be capable of offer a complete chemical evaluation of all capacity substances and opportunity substances to be used.
7. With right technical assessment and planning, unique styles of aggregates may be blended on the dealer backyard to provide a concrete with predicted, detailed density.
8. Cost thing are very critical as those aggregates are commonly greater highly-priced than regular aggregates, it is able to additionally be that the cloth might also additionally handiest be to be had in relative brief supply.
9. The price of HDC will increase with density however now no longer essential in direct proportion.
10. Aggregates have to be decided on for his or her shape (cubical or rounded and freed from flat or elongated, most density, workability, and price. Particle relative density of the nice mixture have to be just like that of the coarse mixture as decrease density nice mixture can cause segregation of the coarse mixture via the mortar.
11. The grading of the coarse mixture have to be uniformly graded among 10 and 40mm, as in step with limits in Table 1. The grading of the nice mixture have to be in the restriction as proven in Table 1 as this will assist to save you segregation.

Sieve sizes mm:

Grading 1 for 37.5 mm most length aggregates % passing

Grading 2 for 19.0 mm most length aggregates % passing

Coarse aggregates:

Two styles of aggregates may be used for excessive density concrete namely:

Natural aggregates:

1. Iron ores of diverse sorts had been used all over the globe for lots years (out of doors the U.K), with inside the UK imported iron ore is used.
2. Using a few herbal going on aggregates concrete densities of about 4000 kg/m³ may be obtained. (J. Goodman, 2009)
3. Different styles of herbal excessive-density aggregates which may be used for excessive density concrete (HDC) to be had in South Africa and the United Kingdom talk over with Table 2.

Man-made aggregates:

1. To attain concrete densities above 4000 kg/m³ man-made or artificial cloth inclusive of ferrosilicon slag, metallic or lead shot may be used.
2. For styles of man-made aggregates which may be used for excessive density concrete (HDC) to be had in South Africa and the United Kingdom talk over with Table 2.

Cements:

1. All cements conforming to SANS 50197 as for traditional concrete may be used for HDC if it produces the desired bodily houses.
2. If alkali-reactive materials are gift with inside the aggregates cements with low alkali contents or a appropriate combination of cements and cement extenders have to be used.
3. Low-alkali cement now no longer having greater that zero.6 % Na2O-eq can be used with a doubtlessly alkali-reactive mixture inclusive of lead shot.
4. The following extenders: Ground granulated blast furnace slag (GGBS), fly ash (FA) and Condensed silica fume (CFS) have decrease densities than Ordinary Portland Cement (OPC) and may be used in the event that they do now no longer lessen the density of the concrete under detailed limits, but states “The cement may be OPC or a mix of this with both Ground granulated blast furnace slag, Pozzolanic fly ash; the latter if you want to now no longer lessen the density of the concrete however might also additionally decorate the in any other case terrible workability”.
5. Fly ash blends and decrease water contents can effectively be used to boom the density of concretes. When lad shot is used High alumina cement (HAC) should be used, because it reduces the chemical reactivity of lead in excessive alkaline conditions.
6. When the use of alkali-reactive mixture (lead shot) deleterious enlargement may be avoided whilst the use of excessive-alkali cements via way of means of including extenders complying with SANS 1491 via way of means of the use of a minimal percent of the subsequent extenders via way of means of general mass of cement:

At least 40% Slag (S) via way of means of mass

At least 15% CSF via way of means of mass

At least 20%via way of means of mass

Admixtures:

1. Adding admixtures can minimize segregation, bleeding, each of which may be complex with HDC. The sturdiness may be advanced with a low loose water/cement ratio (w/c) in particular so in structural grade HDC.
2. Using terrific plasticizers is usually recommended which in conjunction the cement kind might also additionally marginally boom concrete density.
3. Super plasticizers are useful in decreasing water to minimize bleeding and preserve a cohesive blend that has minimal segregation.

The following admixture may be utilized in HDC:

1. Air-entraining admixtures because it controls bleeding and agreement enhance workability and help in acquiring greater homogenous concrete however will lessen the density of the concrete.
2. Water-decreasing admixtures because it will boom concrete density via way of means of decreasing the quantity of water with inside the blend, water is the cloth utilized in HDC with the bottom density.
3. Shrinkage-decreasing admixtures because it make sure dense, crack-loose concrete used for radiation-protective concrete
4. When lead shot or lead containing aggregates are to be used, the subsequent have to be taken into consideration whilst choosing a chemical admixture.
5. The alkali content material of chemical admixtures for concrete utilized in South Africa is among approximately zero.2 and 7%. In many times the contribution to the alkali content material of the pore answer is big and can't be ignored.
6. One of the extensively used terrific plasticizers has a Na2O-eq of approximately five% and if introduced at 1% of cement to concrete with a cement content material of 350 kg/m³ it's going to advert 0.17 kg/m³ Na2O-eq to the concrete.
7. Lithium primarily based totally compounds may be used with lead shot to manipulate the alkali reactivity.
8. The impact of admixtures have to be installed beneath discipline conditions, ideally via way of means of testing, to decide if the admixtures attain the desired effects or completely unsuitability.

Water:

1. Water will be easy and loose from adverse concentrations of acids, alkalis, salts, sugar and different natural or chemical materials that would impair the sturdiness and power of concrete or imbedded metallic.

Proportioning, blending and setting of High Density Concrete:

1. The blend proportions for those excessive density concrete is identical as that of regular concrete.
2. Conventional approach of blending and setting is utilized in excessive density concrete. The maximum critical aspect is to save you overloading the mixer in particular whilst heavy weight aggregates inclusive of steels are used. Batch sizes have to be decreased to forty to 50% of the allowable mixer capacity. Also keep away from extra blending as it will bring about workability and bleeding of concrete.
3. Preplaced mixture strategies may be followed whilst setting heavy weight concrete. In this approach the aggregates are located in forms , an appropriate grout made from cement, sand and water is pumped over the located aggregates, a good way to fill the voids in between the aggregates. This approach prevents the segregation of coarse aggregates additionally reduces drying shrinkage and facilitates us to attain concrete of uniform density and composition.
4. Puddling approach also can be followed. In this approach, the mortar is located in varieties of 2″ thick and the coarse aggregates are located over it and vibrated internally. Care have to be taken that, the coarse aggregates are allotted evenly.
5. Pumping of heavy weight concrete may be followed handiest the peak is limited. The heavy weight concrete can't be pumped to large distances due to their extra densities

Fig no 8 High density concrete

Key takeaways

1. High density concrete is specifically used for the cause of radiation protective, for counterweights and different makes use of in which excessive density is required.

5.11 FIBRE REINFORCED CONCRETE, GEO POLYMER CONCRETE AND FERROCEMENT TECHNIQUE

FIBRE REINFORCED CONCRETE

1. Fibre Reinforced Concrete is a composite cloth which include fibrous cloth which will increase its structural integrity.
2. It consists of combinations of cement, mortar or concrete and discontinuous, discrete, uniformly dispersed appropriate fibers.
3. Fibers are normally utilized in concrete to govern cracking because of plastic shrinkage and to drying shrinkage.
4. They additionally lessen the permeability of concrete and consequently lessen the bleeding of water.

Advantages of Fiber-strengthened concrete:

1. Fibers strengthened concrete can be beneficial in which excessive tensile power and decreased cracking are proper or whilst traditional reinforcement cannot be placed.
2. It improves the effect power of concrete, limits the crack boom and ends in a extra stress potential of the composite cloth.
3. For commercial projects, macro-artificial fibers are used to enhance concrete’s sturdiness.
4. Made from artificial substances, those fibers are lengthy and thick in length and can be used as a substitute for bar or material reinforcement.
5. Adding fibers to the concrete will enhance its freeze-thaw resistance and assist maintain the concrete sturdy and appealing for prolonged periods.
6. Improve blend cohesion, enhancing pumpability over lengthy distances.
7. Increase resistance to plastic shrinkage in the course of curing.
8. Minimizes metallic reinforcement requirements.
9. Controls the crack widths tightly, consequently enhancing sturdiness.
10. Reduces segregation and bleed-water.
11. FRC, longevity is ready 10 to forty instances that of undeniable concrete.
12. The addition of fibers will increase fatigue power.
13. Fibers boom the shear potential of strengthened concrete beams.

Application of Fiber-strengthened concrete:

The programs of fiber strengthened concrete rely on the applicator and builder in taking gain of the static and dynamic traits of the cloth. Some of its vicinity of software is-

1. Runway
2. Aircraft Parking
3. Pavements
4. Tunnel Lining
5. Slope Stabilization
6. Thin Shell
7. Walls
8. Pipes
9. Manholes
10. Dams
11. Hydraulic Structure
12. Elevated decks
13. Roads
14. Bridges
15. Warehouse floors

Fiber Types:

1. Fibers for concrete are to be had in exclusive sizes and shapes.
2. The essential elements affecting the function of fiber-strengthened concrete are a water-cement ratio, percent of fibers, diameter and duration of fibers.
3. Given beneath are exclusive varieties of fiber-strengthened concrete utilized in production.

Steel Fiber Reinforced Concrete:

1. Steel fiber is a metallic reinforcement. A sure quantity of metallic fiber in concrete can motive qualitative modifications in concrete’s bodily property.
2. It can significantly boom resistance to cracking, effect, fatigue, and bending, tenacity, sturdiness, and others.
3. For enhancing lengthy-time period behavior, improving power, longevity, and strain resistance, SFRC is being utilized in systems which includes flooring, housing, precast, bridges, tunneling, heavy-responsibility pavement, and mining.
4. The varieties of metallic fibers are described via way of means of ASTM A820 are, Type I: cold-drawn cord, Type II; reduce sheet, Type III: melt-extracted, Type IV: mill reduce and Type V: changed cold-drawn cord

Polypropylene Fiber Reinforced (PFR) Concrete:

1. Polypropylene fiber strengthened concrete is likewise referred to as poly propene or PP.
2. It is a artificial fiber, converted from propylene, and utilized in loads of programs.
3. These fibers are normally utilized in concrete to govern cracking because of plastic shrinkage and drying shrinkage.
4. They additionally lessen the permeability of concrete and consequently lessen the bleeding of water.
5. Polypropylene fiber belongs to the institution of polyolefins and is partly crystalline and non-polar.
6. It has comparable homes as poly ethylene, however it's far tougher and greater warmth resistant.
7. It is a white rugged cloth with excessive chemical resistance.
8. Polypropylene is made from propylene fuel with inside the presence of a catalyst which includes titanium chloride.
9. Polypropylene fiber shows accurate warmth-insulating homes and is especially immune to acids, alkali, and natural solvents.

Glass Fiber Reinforced Concrete:

1. Glass fiber strengthened concrete is a cloth which include severa extraordinarily first-rate fibers of glass.
2. Glass fiber has kind of similar mechanical homes to different fibers which includes polymers and carbon fiber.
3. Although now no longer as inflexible as carbon fiber, it's far tons less expensive and notably much less brittle whilst utilized in composites.
4. Glass fibers are consequently used as a reinforcing agent for lots polymer merchandise; to shape a totally sturdy and comparatively light-weight fiber-strengthened polymer (FRP) composite cloth known as glass-strengthened plastic (GRP), additionally popularly referred to as “fiberglass”.
5. This cloth incorporates very little air or fuel line, is denser, and is a miles poorer thermal insulator than is glass wool.

Polyester fibers:

1. Polyester fibers are utilized in fiber-strengthened concrete for commercial and warehouse floors, pavements and overlays and precast merchandise.
2. Polyester micro- and macro-fibers are utilized in concrete to offer advanced resistance to the formation of plastic shrinkage cracks as opposed to welded cord material and to decorate longevity and the capacity to supply structural potential whilst well designed, respectively.
3. Polyester micro- and macro-fibers are utilized in concrete to offer advanced resistance to the formation of plastic shrinkage cracks as opposed to welded cord material and to decorate longevity and the capacity to supply structural potential whilst well designed, respectively.

Carbon fibers:

1. Carbon fibers are fibers approximately 5–10 micrometers in diameter and composed in general of carbon atoms.
2. Carbon fibers have numerous benefits such as excessive stiffness, excessive tensile power, low weight, excessive chemical resistance, excessive-temperature tolerance and coffee thermal expansion.
3. Carbon fibers are normally mixed with different substances to shape a composite.
4. When impregnated with a plastic resin and baked it bureaucracy carbon-fiber-strengthened polymer (frequently known as carbon fiber) which has a totally excessive power-to-weight ratio, and is extraordinarily inflexible even though particularly brittle.
5. Carbon fibers also are composited with different substances, which includes graphite, to shape strengthened carbon composites, that have a totally excessive warmth tolerance.

Macro artificial fibers:

1. Macro artificial fibers are crafted from a mix of polymers and have been at the beginning advanced to offer an opportunity to metallic fibers in a few programs.
2. Initially, they have been diagnosed as a ability opportunity to metallic fibers in sprayed concrete, however growing studies and improvement confirmed that that they'd a function to play withinside the layout and production of ground-supported slabs and a huge variety of different programs.
3. They are specifically appropriate for presenting nominal reinforcement in competitive environments, which includes marine and coastal systems, as they do now no longer go through the troubles of staining and spalling which could end result from the corrosion of metallic.
4. Besides, due to the fact they may be non-conducting, they had been utilized in tram and mild railway developments.

Micro-artificial fibers:

1. Micro-artificial fibers offer advanced resistance to the formation of plastic shrinkage cracks as opposed to welded cord reinforcement, they may be not able to offer any resistance to similarly crack width openings due to drying shrinkage, structural load or different sorts of strain.
2. However, those merchandise need to be frequently laid out in any form of concrete to enhance cracking resistance, spall protection, freeze-thaw sturdiness and enhance the homogeneity of concrete in the course of placement.

Natural fibers:

1. The herbal fiber is without delay available from an animal, vegetable, or mineral supply and convertible into nonwoven fabric which includes felt or paper or, after spinning into yarns, into woven cloth.
2. A herbal fiber can be similarly described as an agglomeration of cells wherein the diameter is negligible in evaluation with the duration.
3. Although nature abounds in fibrous substances, in particular cellulosic kinds which includes cotton, wooden, grains, and straw.
4. The use of herbal fibers in making concrete is usually recommended in view that numerous varieties of those fibers are to be had domestically and are plentiful.
5. The concept of the use of such fibers to enhance the power and sturdiness of brittle substances isn't new; for example, straw and horsehair are used to make bricks and plaster.
6. Natural fibers are appropriate for boosting concrete and are without difficulty to be had in growing countries.

Cellulose fibers:

1. Cellulose fibers are made with ethers or esters of cellulose, which may be acquired from the bark, wooden or leaves of plants, or different plant-primarily based totally cloth.
2. In addition to cellulose, the fibers may comprise hemi cellulose and lignin, with exclusive possibilities of those additives changing the mechanical homes of the fibers.
3. The predominant programs of cellulose fibers are with inside the fabric industry, as chemical filters, and as fiber-reinforcement composites, because of their comparable homes to engineered fibers, being every other alternative for bio composites and polymer composites.

GEO POLYMER CONCRETE

1. Geo polymer is the name given to the Daidovits in 1978 for items that appear in chains or networks or unusual molecules.
2. Geopolymer cement concrete is made using waste materials such as fly ash and ground granulated blast furnace slag (GGBS). An ash fly is a waste product produced from a hot power plant and the granulate blast soil in a furnace is processed as a metal waste.
3. Both fly ash and GGBS are processed by appropriate technology and applied to concrete operations in the form of a geo polymer concrete. The use of this concrete helps to reduce waste stocks and reduces carbon emissions by reducing demand for Portland cement.
4. A key feature of the geo polymers source of silicon and aluminum is supplied by natural thermal agents (e.g. kaolinite) or industrial products (e.g. fly ash or slab) and an alkaline solution that makes these materials chains and networks to create strong bond. Also called alkaline cement or inorganic polymer cement.

Composition of Geo polymer Concrete

The following materials are required to produce this concrete:

1. Fly ash - Fly ash generator
2. GGBS - Metal Product
3. Good collection and heat collection as required for standard concrete.
4. GPCC alkaline activator solution as described above. The Catalytic liquid system is used as an alkaline activator solution. It is a combination of alkali silicates and hydroxide solutions, in addition to pure water. The role of the alkaline activator solution is to activate geopolymeric resource sources containing Si and Al such as fly ash and GGBS.

Fig no 9 Geo polymer Concrete Materials

Mechanical properties of Geo polymer Concrete

1. Geo polymer concrete pressures were obtained up to 70 MP a (N / mm2). Concrete gains its compression strength much faster and faster than conventional Portland concrete.
2. Concrete strength after 24 hours was found to be more than 25 M Pa. Pressure capacity after 28 days was found to be 60 to 70 M Pa. -Ref. Paper by James Aldred and John Day and test results by SERC Chennai.

Other properties of Geo polymer Concrete:

1. The reduction in dryness is very small compared to cemen. This makes it ideal for members of a dense and highly restricted concrete structure.
2. It has a lower hydration temperature compared to cement.
3. Fire resistance is much better than OPC-based concrete. -Reference - Paper by - James Aldred and John Day.
4. This concrete measure of jas chloride permeability is 'low' to 'very low' according to ASTM 1202C. It provides better protection of metal reinforcement from corrosion compared to traditional cement mortar.
5. This concrete is found to have a very high acid content when tested under 2% and 10% exposure to sulfuric acid.

Application of Geo polymer Concrete

1. Applications are similar to cement cement. However, the subject has not been used extensively in various programs.
2. This concrete is used for the construction of paved stones, retaining walls, water tanks, precast bridge supplies.
3. Recently the world's first building to be built on earth, the University of Queensland's Global Change Institute (GCI) was built using geo polymer concrete. It is a four-story high-rise building for public use.

FERRO CEMENT TECHNIQUE

• Mining

• Crushing, stacking, and reclaiming of uncooked substances.

• Raw meal drying, grinding, and homogenization.

• Clinkerization.

• Cement grinding and garage.

• Packing

Mining:

1. The cement production system begins off evolved from the mining of uncooked substances which might be utilized in cement production, specially limestone and clays.
2. A limestone quarry is with inside the plant region and a clays quarry is as a ways from the plant region as 25 km.
3. The limestone is excavated from open forged mines after drilling and blasting and loaded onto dumpers which shipping the substances and sell off into hoppers of limestone crushers.
4. The clays are excavated from open forged mines and loaded onto dumpers which shipping the substances and sell off into open backyard garage.
5. Then it's miles transported through vehicles and unloaded into the hopper of a clay crusher.
6. They are 3 varieties of clay utilized in cement production, specifically silty clay, Zafarana clay, and Kaolin.
7. Other uncooked substances are used to govern the kiln feed blend design, specifically sand, and iron ore.
8. The sand and iron ore are shipping from outdoor the plant (from extraordinary suppliers) through vehicles and unloaded into open backyard piles, known as sand and iron ore piles.   

Crushing, stacking, and reclaiming of uncooked substances:

1. The limestone is beaten with inside the first crusher known as a jaw crusher after which fed into the second one crusher known as an effect crusher with blending of clays to lessen particle length beneath 50mm.
2. The discharged uncooked blend (limestone 70%, clays 30%) is fed onto a belt conveyor and exceeded throughout a bulk fabric analyzer.
3. The uncooked blend is fed right into a round garage unit known as a uncooked blend garage.
4. Then, the combination is extracted transversely from the stockpile through reclaimers and conveyed to a uncooked mill bin known as the uncooked blend bin for grinding.
5. The different uncooked substances which might be utilized in cement production, known as additives, are excessive purity limestone, sand and iron ore.
6. The excessive purity limestone is beaten in a lone in jaw crusher after which beaten extra in a secondary crusher to lessen the scale to absolutely byskip via a 50mm sieve.
7. Then, it's miles stacked through a limestone stacker right into a longitudinal garage unit known as the limestone garage stockpile.
8. Finally, the limestone is extracted transversely from the stockpile through reclaimer and conveyed to a uncooked mill bin, known as the limestone bin, for grinding.  

Raw meal drying, grinding, and homogenization:

1. The uncooked blend, excessive grade limestone, sand, and iron ore are fed from their containers to uncooked turbines, known as air swept turbines, for drying and pleasant grinding.
2. The uncooked mill includes chambers, separated through diaphragm, specifically a drying chamber and a grinding chamber.
3. The warm gases coming from a pre heater (pre heater / kiln machine) input the mill and are utilized in uncooked turbines for drying.
4. Then the drying substances input the grinding chamber of uncooked turbines for pleasant grinding.
5. The grinding chamber includes a positive amount of ball price in a extraordinary sizes starting from 30mm to 90mm. 
6. The warm fuel line and grinding substances mill outlet feeds to a separator which separates pleasant and path product.
7. The latter, known as reject, is dispatched to the mill inlet thru an air slide for regrinding.
8. The warm fuel line and pleasant substances input a multistage "cyclone" to split a pleasant substances and gases.
9. The pleasant fabric, known as uncooked meal, is accrued from the multi-cyclone after which fed into an air slide for lifting known as an Aeropol.
10. The warm gases with very pleasant substances input an electrostatic precipitator to split the pleasant substances from gases.
11. The very pleasant substances known as pre heater dirt or electrostatic separator dirt is accrued from filters and fed into screw conveyors and are then combined with the pleasant fabric in an air slide and transported to an air elevate vessel thru air slide.
12. In the air elevate, the uncooked meal is lifted to the silo through compressed air to the air slide after which saved and homogenized in a concrete silo.
13. Raw meal extracted from the silo, now known as kiln feed, is fed to the pinnacle of the pre heater thru an air elevate known as the Poldos for pyro-processing.   

Clinkerization:

1. Cement clinker is made through pyro processing of kiln feed into the pre heater-kiln machine. The pre heater-kiln machine includes a multi-degree cyclone
2. Pre heater with 5 stages, combustion chamber, riser duct, rotary kiln, and grate cooler.
3. In the pre heater, the kiln feed is preheated through warm fuel line coming from the combustion chamber and rotary kiln.
4. Then the preheated kiln feed is partly calcined (made powdery) in a combustion chamber and riser duct after which absolutely calcined in a rotary kiln in addition to heated to about 1400 C to shape clinker additives C3A, C4AF, C2S, and C3S.
5. The foremost supply of warmth is herbal fuel line.
6. Natural fuel line is fired as a major gasoline (100 %) with inside the foremost burner rotary kiln and a 95% herbal fuel line and 5.0% heavy oil aggregate with inside the combustion chamber.
7. The gasoline is used to offer the warmth required to transform the kiln feed into clinker.
8. Hot clinker discharge from the kiln drops onto the grate cooler for cooling from about 1350-1450 C to about one hundred twenty C.
9. In the cooler, the amount of cooling air required for clinker cooling is extracted from the environment through extraordinary cooling lovers and fed into the cooler chambers and pressurized via the cooler plate and clinker bed.
10. The cooled clinker discharges from the cooler into the pan conveyor and it's miles transported to the clinker garage.
11. The clinker is taken from the clinker garage to cement ball mill hoppers for cement grinding.
12. Part of the recent air extracted from the cooler is applied as a secondary and tertiary air for combustion in rotary kiln and combustion chamber, respectively. 

Cement grinding and garage:

1. Clinker and gypsum for OPC, limestone for limestone cement, and slag for slag cement are all extracted from their respective hoppers and fed to the cement turbines.
2. The ball mill grinds the feed to a pleasant powder in chambers, specifically the primary and 2d chambers.
3. The chambers have a positive amount of ball price of various sizes from 17mm to ninety mm.
4. The mill discharge is fed to a bucket elevator which takes the fabric to a separator which separates pleasant and coarse product.
5. The latter is dispatched to the mill inlet for regrinding and the very last product is saved in concrete silos. 

Packing:

• Cement extracted from silos is conveyed to the automated digital packers wherein it's miles packed in 50 kg luggage and dispatched in vehicles.

Key takeaways

1. Fibers strengthened concrete can be beneficial in which excessive tensile power and decreased cracking are proper or whilst traditional reinforcement can not be placed.
2. The clays are excavated from open forged mines and loaded onto dumpers which shipping the substances and sell off into open backyard garage.
3. Geo polymer is the name given to the Daidovits in 1978 for items that appear in chains or networks or unusual molecules.
4. Geo polymer cement concrete is made using waste materials such as fly ash and ground granulated blast furnace slag (GGBS). An ash fly is a waste product produced from a hot power plant and the granulate blast soil in a furnace is processed as a metal waste.

References

1. Concrete Technology by M L Gambhir, Tata McGraw Hill. 3. Concrete technology by A. M. Neville. 1. Brooks, Pearson,

2. Microstructure and Properties of Conctete by P. Kumar Mehta, Prentice Hall.

3. Durability Design of Concrete Structures, by A. Sarja and E. Vesiari. E & FN Spon Publication, 1996.