INTRODUCTION
The Indian Contract Act, 1872 prescribes the law regarding contracts in India and is that the key act regulating Indian law.
The Act relies on the principles of English Common Law. It’s applicable to all or any the states of India. It determines the circumstances during which promises made by the parties to a contract shall be legally binding.
Under Section 2(h), the Indian Contract Act defines a contract as an agreement which is enforceable by law.
OBJECTIVE OF THE ACT
The purpose of the Contract Act is to make sure that the rights and obligations arising out of a contract are honored which legal remedies are made available to an aggrieved party against the party failing to honor a part of agreement. The Indian Contract Act makes it obligatory that this is often done and compels the defaulters to honor their commitments.
EXTENT AND COMMENCEMENT
DEVELOPMENT
The Act as enacted originally had 266 Sections, it had wide scope
At present the Indian Contract Act could also be divided into two parts:
STEPS INVOLVED WITHIN THE CONTRACT
1. Proposal and its communication: The party wishing to make the contract should first approach the other party with whom the contract needs to be made. There should be a clear communication between both the parties as regards the mutual intention to create a contract between both the parties.
2. Acceptance of proposal and its communication: The second step involves the acceptance of proposal by the other party and the same should be communicated to the first party of its intention to enter into the contract.
3. Agreement by mutual promises: The third step involves making an agreement where all the terms and conditions related to the agreement will be jotted down. The promises made will be mutual and will be converted into an agreement.
4. Contract: The fourth step involves legalization of the agreement by registration of the agreement. This registration effect will get the agreement converted into a contract and the legality of contract will come into force.
5. Performance of Contract: The final step in this process involves performing the contract which means both the parties will be now guided by the terms and conditions and each of the parties need to perform their part of the contract.
DEFINATION -
CONTRACT
The Indian Contract Act, 1872 defines the term “Contract” under its section 2 (h) as “An agreement enforceable by law”. In other words, we will say that a contract is anything that's an agreement and enforceable by the law of the land.
This definition has two major elements in it viz – “agreement” and “enforceable by law”. So as to know a contract in the light of The Indian Contract Act, 1872 we need to define and explain these two pivots within the definition of a contract.
AGREEMENT
The Indian Contract Act, 1872 defines what we mean by “Agreement”. In its section 2 (e), the Act defines the term agreement as “every promise and each set of promises, forming the consideration for each other”.
Now that we know how the Act defines the term “agreement”, there may be some ambiguity within the definition of the term promise.
An agreement enforceable by law could also be a contract.
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN AGREEMENT AND CONTRACT
Let us see how a contract and agreement are different from one another. This can assist you summarize and make a map of all the important concepts that you simply have understood.
Contract Agreement
CONTRACT | AGREEMENT |
A contract is an agreement that's enforceable by law. | A promise or variety of promises that aren't contradicting and are accepted by the parties involved is an agreement.
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A contract is merely legally enforceable. | An agreement must be socially acceptable. It should or might not be enforceable by the law.
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A contract should create some legal obligation. | An agreement doesn’t create any legal obligations.
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All contracts also are agreements. | An agreement may or might not be a contract.
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TYPES/KINDS / CLASSIFICATION OF CONTRACTS
1. On the idea of validity
a) Valid contract: An agreement which has all the essential elements of a contract is named a legitimate contract. A legitimate contract is often enforced by law.
b) Void contract: A void contract may be a contract which ceases to be enforceable by law. A contract when originally entered into could also be valid and binding on the parties. It’s going to subsequently become void. There are many judgments which have stated that where any crime has been converted into a "Source of Profit" or if any act to be done under any contract is against "Public Policy" under any contract— than that contract itself can't be enforced under the law-
c) Voidable contract: An agreement which is enforceable by law at the option of 1 or more of the parties thereto, but not at the option of other or others, is a voidable contract. If the essential element of free consent is missing in a contract, the law confers right on the aggrieved party either to reject the contract or to accept it. However, the contract continues to be good and enforceable unless it's repudiated by the aggrieved party.
d) Illegal contract: A contract is against the law if it's forbidden by law; or is of such nature that, if permitted, would defeat the provisions of any law or is fraudulent; or involves or implies injury to an individual or property of another, or court regards it as immoral or against public policy. These agreements are punishable by law. These are void-ab-initio.
“All illegal agreements are void agreements but all void agreements aren't illegal.
e) Unenforceable contract: Where a contract is good in substance but due to some technical defect can't be enforced by law is termed unenforceable contract. These contracts are neither void nor voidable.
2. On the idea of formation
a) Express contract: Where the terms of the contract are expressly prescribed in words (written or spoken) at the time of formation, the contract is claimed to be express contract
b) Implied contract: An implied contract is one which is inferred from the acts or conduct of the parties or from the circumstances of the cases. Where a proposal or acceptance is formed otherwise than in words, promise is claimed to be implied.
c) Quasi contract: A contract is made by law. Thus, quasi contracts are strictly not contracting as there's no intention of parties to enter into a contract. It’s legal obligation which is imposed on a celebration that is required to perform it. A contract is predicated on the principle that an individual shall not be allowed to complement himself at the expense of another.
3. on the idea of Performance
a) Unilateral contract: A agreement is one during which just one party has got to perform his obligation at the time of the formation of the contract, the opposite party having fulfilled his obligation at the time of the contract or before the contract comes into existence.
b) Bilateral contract: A contract is one during which the requirement on both the parties to the contract is outstanding at the time of the formation of the contract. Bilateral contracts also are referred to as contracts with executory consideration.
4. on the bases of execution
a) Executed contract: An executed contract is one during which both the parties have performed their respective obligation.
b) Executory contract: An executory contract is one where one or both the parties to the contract have still to perform their obligations in future. Thus, a contract which is partially performed or wholly unperformed is termed as executory contract.
5. Other Contracts
Besides the above said classification, there are other kinds of contract also. Contingent Contract is one such type.
Key takeaways:
ESSENTIAL REQUIREMENTS OF A VALID CONTRACT
OFFER AND ACCEPTANCE:
DEFINITION
PROPOSAL SECTION 2(A):
When one person signifies to another his willingness to do or to abstain from doing anything, with a view to obtaining the assent of that other to such act or abstinence, he is said to make an offer.
ACCEPTANCE SECTION 2(B):
A. ESSENTIALS OF A VALID OFFER AND ACCEPTANCE
RULES OF VALID OFFER
Here are some of the few essentials that make the offer valid.
1] Offer must create Legal Relations
The offer must cause a contract that makes legal relations and legal consequences just in case of non-performance. So, a social contract which doesn't create legal relations won't be a valid offer. Say for instance a dinner invitation extended by A to B isn't a valid offer.
2] Offer must be clear, not vague
The terms of the offer or offer should be very clear and definite. If the terms are vague or unclear, it'll not amount to a valid offer. See example the following offer – A offers to sell B fruits worth Rs 5000/-. This is often not a valid offer since what sorts of fruits or their specific quantities aren't mentioned.
3] Offer must be communicated to the Offered
For a offer to be completed it must be clearly communicated to the offeree. No offeree can accept the offer without knowledge of the offer. It makes clear that acceptance in ignorance of the offer doesn't amount to acceptance.
4] Offer could also be Conditional
While acceptance can't be conditional, an offer could be conditional. The offeror can make the offer subject to any terms or conditions he deems necessary. So, A offers to sell goods to B if he makes half the payment in advance. Now B can accept these conditions or make a counteroffer.
5] Offer cannot contain a Negative Condition
The non-compliance of any terms of the offer cannot result in automatic acceptance of the offer. Hence it cannot say that if acceptance isn't communicated by a particular time it'll be considered as accepted. Example: A offers to sell his cow to B for 5000/-. If the offer isn't rejected by Monday it'll be considered as accepted. This is often not a valid offer.
6] Offer is often specific or general
As we saw earlier the offer are often to at least one or more specific parties. Or the offer might be to the public generally.
7] Offer could also be Expressed or Implied
The offeror can make an offer through words or maybe by his conduct.
An offer which is formed via words, whether such words are written or spoken (oral contract) we call it an express contract and when an offer is formed through the conduct and therefore the actions of the offeror it's an implied contract.
TERMINATION OF OFFER
RULES FOR VALID ACCEPTANCE
CONSIDERATION (AS PER SECTION 2 AND 25)
CONCEPT
When at the desire of the promisor, the promise or any other person has done or abstained from doing, or does or abstains from doing, or promises to do or to abstain from doing something, such act or abstinence or promise is called a consideration for the promise.
DEFINITION OF CONSIDERATION:
Consistent with Pollock, “Consideration is the price for which the promise of other is brought & the promise thus given for value is enforceable.”
According to section 2(d) when at the desire of the promisor, the promise or any other person:
EXAMPLE: ‘P’ agrees to sell his car to ‘Q’ for Rs.50, 000 Here ‘Q’s Promise to pay Rs.50, 000 is that the consideration for P’s promise and ‘P’s promise to sell the car is that the consideration for ‘Q’s promise.
IMPORTANCE OF CONSIDERATION
Consideration explains why a party is entering a contract and what they get from being a part of the contract. A contract must include consideration for each party involved so as to be valid. Essentially, consideration is that the benefit a party gets for entering a contract. During a basic contract, if you pay money for an item at the store and receive the item, that's your consideration. So as to qualify as consideration, each party must change their position.
Consideration usually results from:
What Happens Without Consideration?
If a court believes the contract doesn't have adequate consideration, it can step in and rule the contract unenforceable. This will happen for variety of reasons, including:
A party was already obligated to perform. If one among the parties is already legally obligated to do something, it is not actually consideration.
The promise may be a gift, not a contract. If one party gives something to the other party without expecting anything reciprocally, it's considered a present, not a contract. Because the other party didn't provide anything in exchange for the gift, they need no legal standing if the promise falls apart.
The exchange is past consideration. Consideration doesn't apply if the action has already taken place. For instance, a promise to pay money for a product that somebody has already given you isn't legally binding.
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LEGAL RULES REGARDING CONSIDERATION U/S 2
It must move at the will of the promisor: It must be offered by the promisee at the will or request of the promisor. An act done at the will or request of the third party doesn't form a legitimate consideration.
It’s going to move from the promisee or the other person: Consideration may move from the promisee or the other person i.e. even a stranger. It may be an act, abstinence or forbearance or a return promise.
The following are good consideration for the contract:
It’s going to be present, past or future. i. Past Consideration ii. Present Or Executed Consideration iii. Future or Executory Consideration
Consideration needn't to be adequate but it must have some value. It must be real & not illusory.
There’s no consideration within the following cases:
1. Physical impossibility 2. Legal impossibility 3.Uncertain consideration
It must be something which the promisor isn't already sure to do A promise to try to what one is sure to do, either by general law or under an existing contract, isn't an honest consideration. It must not be illegal, immoral or against public policy
Unlawful consideration includes any activities:
EXCEPTIONS OF THE RULE “NO CONSIDERATION NO CONTRACT” (AS PER U/S 25)
1. On account of natural love & affection u/s 25(1): Such agreements are enforceable even inconsiderately.
2. for voluntary services u/s 25(2): A promise to compensate wholly or partially, an individual who has voluntarily done something for the promisor, is enforceable, even inconsiderately.
3. For promise to pay time-barred debts 25(3): A promise by a debtor to pay a time barred debt is enforceable provided it's in writing and signed by the debtor or his agent.
4. Within the case of completed gifts: The rule no consideration no contract doesn't apply.
5. Within the case of agency: to make workplace relationship consideration isn't necessary.
UNLAWFL CONSIDERATION (AS PER SECTION 23)
According to Section 23, within the following cases consideration or object of an agreement is unlawful:
1. If it's forbidden by law:
Where the object of a contract is forbidden by law, the agreement shall be void. An act is claimed to be forbidden if it's punishable by criminal law or any special statute, or if it's prohibited by any law or order made in exercise of powers or authority conferred by the legislature.
Example:
(1) A and B agreed to deal in smuggled goods. It is forbidden by law and thus void.
(2) A committed B's murder within the presence of C. A promise to pay Rs. 500 to C, if C doesn't inform the police about the murder
The agreement in example No. 2 given above is against the law as its object is unlawful. Besides, A and C are going to be responsible for the act of murder and its concealment under the Indian penal code.
2. If it's of such a nature that if permitted, it might defeat the provisions of the other law:
The object of an agreement might not be directly forbidden but indirectly, it's going to defeat the thing of any other law, and the agreement would be void in such a case.
Example:
(1) A failed to pay his land revenue. Therefore, his estate was sold for arrears of revenue by the govt. By the law, the defaulter is prohibited from purchasing the land again. A asks B to get the estate and afterward, transfer an equivalent to him at an equivalent price. The agreement is void because it will defeat the thing of the law which prohibits a defaulter to get back the land, for indirectly A will again become the owner of the estate.
The second agreement is additionally void because it would defeat the provision or object of the law of limitation.
3. If it's fraudulent:
If the object of an agreement is fraudulent, i.e., to cheat people, it's void. Example:
A, B & C enter into an agreement to sell bogus plots of land in Delhi the agreement is void because it is fraudulent and thereby unlawful.
4. If it involves or implies injury to the person or property of another: Law protects property and person of its citizens. It cannot permit any contract which ends up in an injury to the person or property of any one.
Examples:
(1) A promise to pay Rs. 500 to B if B beats C. It involves injury to C; hence it's unlawful and void.
5. If the Court regards it as immoral or against public policy: If the thing of an agreement is immoral or against public policy, it'll be void. Morality here means something which the law regards as immoral.
Examples:
(1) A agrees to offer his house on rent to a prostitute for her immoral purpose. A cannot recover the rent of his house if a prostitute refuse to pay. However, he could also be allowed to urge his house vacated from the prostitute because it will put an end to the immoral purpose.
(2) A agrees to offer his daughter on hire to B for concubinage. The agreement is void because it's immoral, though the letting might not be punishable under the Indian penal code.
Effect of Illegality:
1. An illegal agreement is void:
It is not enforceable at law.
2. Collateral transactions to illegal transactions also are void:
Not only the illegal agreement is void but also the collateral transactions are void.
Example:
A borrows Rs. 2,000 from B to shop for a revolver to shoot C. Since the thing of the transaction is against the law, B cannot recover his Rs. 2,000 if he has given the loan, knowing that A is taking the loan to get a revolver to shoot C.
Thus, people are going to be discouraged to finance or assist illegal transaction once they know that they're going to not be able to recover their loans.
3. Law doesn't help any party:
Where the agreement is against the law, the law won't help any of the parties. The rationale is that both the parties are equally guilty and therefore the law doesn't help a guilty person. The law wants to discourage both the parties.
Example:
A promise to pay a bribe of Rs. 200 to B, if B does his work. The agreement is against the law cannot recover the amount of Rs. 200 after doing A's work. Similarly, if A has paid the bribe in advance, he cannot get it back if B doesn't do his work.
4. Indirectly defendant is helped:
Defendant may be a person against whom the suit is filed. When the law doesn't help any of the parties, it means the party who has paid the amount won't be ready to get it back as we've seen within the above example. The party who has received the quantity is thus helped to stay the money with it and isn't asked by the Court to return it. The Court is neutral and therefore the defendant gets the advantage of the Court's neutrality. Within the example given above, B can keep Rs. 200, even if B doesn't do the work of A. The Court won't ask B to return the quantity. Thus, B is indirectly benefited or helped by the refusal of the Court to intervene.
5. In cases of fraud, coercion, etc., money or property transferred is often recovered:
Where the illegality is that the results of coercion and fraud of the other party, the Court can compel the guilty to return the cash paid or property transferred.
6. Agreement partly legal and partly illegal (Sec. 24):
An agreement may contain promises which are legal and illegal. If the legal promise is often separated from the illegal one, the legal promise is often enforced. In Such a case the illegal part is going to be void.
Where the legal promise can't be separated from the illegal one, the entire of it might be void.
Where there's one consideration for one or more unlawful objects, the agreement is void.
Example:
(1) A promise to manage B's factory, where genuine and bogus motor parts are manufactured. B agrees to pay A (Manager) a salary of Rs. 1,000 per month.
The agreement is void as partly it's legal and illegal and therefore the legal part can't be separated because the salary is for both the parts.
7. Reciprocal promises, legal and illegal (Sec. 57):
Where persons reciprocally promise, firstly to do certain things which are legal, and secondly under specified circumstances to do certain other things which are illegal, the first set of promise may be a contract, but the second may be a void agreement.
Example:
A and B agree that A shall sell a house to B for Rs. 10,000 but that if B uses it as a gambling house, he shall pay A Rs. 50,000 for it.
The first set of promise, i.e., to sell the house and to pay Rs. 10,000 may be a contract.
The second set of promise, i.e., B may use the house as a gambling house and pay Rs. 50,000 may be a void agreement.
8. Alternative promise, legal and illegal (Sec. 58):
In the case of an alternate promise, one branch of which is legal and therefore the other illegal, the legal branch alone are often enforced.
Contractual Capacity
DEFINATION
The parties who enter into a contract must have the capacity to do the contract.
“Capacity “here means competence of the parties to enter into a legitimate contract. According Sec 10, an agreement becomes a contract if it's entered into between the parties who are competent to contract.
According Sec .11, every person is competent to contract who
Thus Sec. 11 declares following persons to be incompetent to contract:
1. Minors
2. Persons of unsound mind
3. Persons disqualified by any law to which they're subject.
1. MINORS
According to Sec 3 of the Indian Majority Act, 1875, a minor is a person who has not completed eighteen years of age.
In following cases he attains majority after 21 years aged
The position of minor as regards his agreements could also be summed up as under:
2. PERSONS OF UNSOUND MIND
One of the essential conditions of competency of parties to a contract is that they ought to be of sound mind.
Sec 12 lays down the soundness of mind “A person is said to be of sound mind for the purpose of making the contract if, at the time when he makes it, he's capable of understanding it and of forming a rational judgment as to its effect upon his interests.
A person, who is usually of unsound mind but occasionally of sound mind, may make a contract when he's of sound mind.
A person, who is typically of sound mind but occasionally of unsound mind, might not make a contract when he's of unsound mind
E.g.: an individual may be a lunatic, who is at intervals of sound mind, may contract during those intervals.
Soundness of minds depends on two facts:
CONTRACTS OF PERSONS OF UNSOUND MIND
3. PERSONS DISQUALIFIED BY ANY LAW TO WHICH THEY'RE SUBJECT
Free Consent
INTRODUCTION
Sec 10 of contract act states “all agreements are contract, if they're made by the free consent of parties.” in order to form a valid contract it's necessary that there should be a (a) consent & (b) Free consent. For the formation of a contract the parties should either have assented, or be deemed to possess assented, to an equivalent thing within the same sense it's called consensus ad idem.
MEANING OF CONSENT:
The term consent has been defined by many scholars are as under:
ESSENTIALS OF CONSENT:
There need to be two parties to a contract, who willingly and knowingly enter into an agreement. But how does the law determine if the parties are both these things? this is often where the concept of free consent comes in. allow us to learn more about free consent and therefore the elements vitiating free consent.
DEFINITION:
In the Indian Contract Act, the definition of Consent is given in Section 13, which states that “it is when two or more persons agree upon the same thing and in the same sense”. Therefore, the two people must comply with something within the same sense also.
Example: A agrees to sell his car to B. A owns three cars and needs to sell the Maruti. B thinks he's buying his Honda. Here A and B haven't prescribed an equivalent thing within the same sense. Hence, there's no consent and subsequently no contract.
Now Free Consent has been defined in Section 14 of the Act. The section says that consent is taken into account free consent when it's not caused or suffering from the subsequent,
Let us take a glance at these elements individually that impair the free consent of either party.
1. Coercion (Section 15)
Coercion means using force to compel an individual to enter into a contract. So, force or threats are wont to obtain the consent of the party under coercion, i.e., it's not free consent. Section 15 of the Act describes coercion as committing or threatening to commit any act forbidden by the law within the IPC unlawfully detaining or threatening to detain any property with the intention of causing a person to enter into a contract
Example: A threatens to harm B if he doesn't sell his house to A for five lakh rupees. Here albeit B sells the house to A, it'll not be a legitimate contract since B’s consent was obtained by coercion.
Now the effect of coercion is that it makes the contract voidable. this suggests the contract is voidable at the choice of the party whose consent wasn't free. Therefore, the aggravated party will decide whether to perform the contract or to void the contract. So, within the above example, if B still wishes, the contract can plow ahead.
Also, if any monies are paid or goods delivered under coercion must be repaid or returned once the contract is void. And therefore, the burden of proof proving coercion are going to be on the party who wants to avoid the contract. Therefore, the aggravated party will need to prove the coercion, i.e. prove that his consent wasn't freely given.
2 Undue Influences (Section 16)
Section 16 of the Act contains the definition of undue influence. It states that when the relations between the 2 parties are such one party is during a position to dominate the opposite party, and uses such influence to get an unfair advantage of the opposite party it'll be undue influence.
The section also further describes how the person can abuse his authority within the following two ways: When an individual holds real or maybe apparent authority over the opposite person or if he's during a fiduciary relationship with the opposite person. He makes a contract with an individual whose brain is suffering from age, illness or distress. The unsoundness of mind are often temporary or permanent
Example: A sold his gold awaits only Rs 500/- to his teacher B after his teacher promised him good grades. Here the consent of A (adult) isn't freely given, he was under the influence of his teacher.
Now undue influence to be evident the dominant party must have the target to require advantage of the opposite party. If influence is wielded to profit the opposite party it'll not be undue influence. But if consent isn't free thanks to undue influence, the contract becomes voidable at the choice of the aggravated party and therefore the burden of proof is going to be on the dominant party to prove the absence of influence.
3. Fraud (Section 17)
Factors Impairing Free Consent: Fraud
Fraud means deceit by one among the parties, i.e., when one among the parties deliberately makes false statements. Therefore, the misrepresentation is completed with full knowledge that it's not true, or recklessly on faith for the trueness, this is often said to be fraudulent. It absolutely impairs free consent.
So consistent with Section 17, a fraud is when a celebration convinces another to enter into an agreement by making statements that are suggesting an incontrovertible fact that isn't true, and he doesn't believe it to be true the active concealment of facts a promise made with none intention of performing it the other such act fitted to deceive.
Example: A bought a horse from B. B claims the horse are often used on the farm. seems the horse are lame and A cannot use him on his farm. Here B knowingly deceived A and this may amount to fraud.
One factor to think about is that the aggravated party should suffer from some actual loss thanks to the fraud. There’s no fraud without damages. Also, the falsehood must be a fact, not an opinion. Within the above example if B had said his horse is best than C’s this is able to be an opinion, not a fact. And it might not amount to fraud.
4. Misrepresentation (Section 18)
Misrepresentation is additionally when a celebration makes a representation that's false, inaccurate, incorrect, etc. The difference here is that the misrepresentation is innocent i.e., not intentional. The party making the statement believes it to be true. Misrepresentation is often of three types an individual makes a positive assertion believing it to be true any breach of duty gives the person committing it a plus by misleading another. But the breach of duty is with none intent to deceive.
When one party causes the opposite party to form an error on the topic matter of the contract. But this is often done innocently and not intentionally.
5 Mistake: an error is described as a component, which when occurs during a contract makes it void.
There are two sorts of mistakes, which occurs during a contract
Example: “A” made an offer to “B” to sell his scooter. “A” intended to sell his 3G scooter but “B” believed that “A” would sell his 4G scooter. Thus, there was no proper communication and therefore the fact was mistaken. it might amount to an effective agreement.
Legality of Objects
For a contract to be a legitimate contract two things are absolutely essential – lawful object and lawful consideration. Therefore, the Indian Contract Act gives us the parameters that structure such lawful consideration and objects of a contract. Allow us to take a glance at the legality of object and consideration of a contract.
Lawful Consideration and Lawful Object
Section 23 of the Indian Contract Act clearly states that the consideration and/or object of a contract are considered lawful consideration and/or object unless they're specifically forbidden by law of such a nature that they might defeat the aim of the law are fraudulent involve injury to the other person or property the courts regard them as immoral are against public policy.
So lawful consideration and/or lawful object cannot contain any of the above. It allow us to take a more intimately check out each of them.
1 Forbidden by Law
When the thing of a contract or the consideration of a contract is prohibited by law, then they're not lawful consideration or object anymore. They then become unlawful in nature. then such a contract can't be valid anymore.
Unlawful consideration of object includes acts that are specifically punishable by the law. This also includes people who the acceptable authorities prohibit via rules and regulations. But if the principles made by such authorities aren't in tandem with the law than these won't apply.
Example. A received a license from the Forest Department to chop the grass of a particular area. The authorities at the department told him he cannot expire such interest to a different person. But the Forest Act has no such statute. So, A sold his interest to B and therefore the contract was held as valid.
2 Consideration or Object Defeats the supply of the Law
This means if the contract is trying to defeat the intention of the law. If the courts find that the important intention of the parties to the agreement is to defeat the provisions of the law, it'll forgot the said contract.
Example: A and B enter into an agreement, where A is that the debtor, that B won't plead limitation. This, however, is completed to defeat the intention of the Limitation Act, then the courts can rule the contract as void thanks to unlawful object.
3 Fraudulent Considerations or Object
Lawful consideration or object can never be fraudulent. Agreements entered into containing unlawful fraudulent consideration or object are void naturally.
Example: A decides to sell goods to B and smuggle them outside the country. this is often a fraudulent transaction as so it's void. Now B cannot recover the cash under the law if A doesn't deliver on his promise.
4 Defeats any Rules in Effect
If the consideration or the thing is against any rules in effect within the country for the nonce, then they're going to not be lawful consideration or objects. Then the contract thus formed won't be valid.
5 Once they involve Injury to a different Person or Property
In legal terms, an injury means to a criminal and harmful wrong done to a different person. So, if the thing or the consideration of the contract does harm to a different person or property, this may amount to unlawful consideration. Say for instance a contract to publish a book that's a violation of another person’s copyright would be void. This is often because the consideration here is unlawful and injures another person’s property, i.e., his copyright.
6 When Consideration is Immoral
If the thing or the consideration is regarded by the court as immoral, then such object and consideration are immoral. Say for instance A lent money to B to get a divorce from her husband C. it had been agreed once B obtains the divorce A would marry her. But the court passed the judgment that A cannot recover money from B since the contract is void on account of unlawful consideration.
7 Consideration is against Public Policy
For the great of the community, we restrict certain contracts within the name of public policy. But we don't use public policy during a wide sense during this matter. If that was the case it might curtail individual freedom of individuals to enter into contracts. So, for the aim of lawful consideration and object public policy is employed during a limited scope. We only specialize in public policy under the law.
Some agreements that are against public policy:
Trading with the Enemy: getting into an agreement with an individual from a rustic with whom India is at war, void be a void agreement.
Example, a trader getting into a contract with a Pakistani national during the Kargil war.
Stifling Prosecution: this is often a pervasion of the natural course of law, and such contracts are void.
Example: A agrees to sell land to B if he doesn't participate within the criminal proceedings against him.
8. Maintenance and Champers:
Maintenance agreement is when an individual promises to take care of a suit during which he has no real interest and champers is when an individual agrees to help another party in litigation for some of the damages or proceeds.
• An Agreement to Traffic publicly Offices
• Agreements to make Monopolies
• An agreement to brokerage marriage for rewards
• Interfering with the Courts: An agreement whose object is to induce judicial or state officials to act corruptly and interfere with legal proceedings
Void Agreements
VOID AGREEMENT:
An agreement not enforceable by law is void.
AGREEMENT SECTION 2(E):
Every promise and every set of promises, forming the consideration for each other is an agreement.
VOID AND VOIDABLE CONTRACT
An agreement which is enforceable by law at the option of one or more of the parties thereto, but not at the option of the other or others, is a voidable contract
A contract which ceases to be enforceable by law becomes a void contract.
The section 2(j) of the Act defines a void contract as “A contract which ceases to be enforceable by law becomes void when it ceases to be enforceable”. This makes all those contracts that are not enforceable by a court of law as void.
Example: A agrees to pay B a sum of Rs 10,000 after 5 years against a loan of Rs. 8,000. A, dies of natural causes in 4 years. The contract isn't any more valid and becomes void due to the non-enforceability of the agreed terms.
Void Contract means a contract doesn't exist in any respect. The law can't enforce any legal obligation to either party especially the disappointed party because they are not entitled to any protective laws as far as contracts are concerned.
An agreement to carry out an illegal act is an example of a void contract or void agreement.
Example: Contract between drug dealers and buyers could also be a void contract simply because the terms of the contract are illegal. In such a case, neither party can move to court to enforce the contract.
As per Section 2(g) of The Indian Contract Act, 1872 “An agreement not enforceable by law is claimed to be void”, and as per Section 2(j) of The Act “A Contract which ceases to be enforceable by law becomes void when it ceases to be enforceable”
Thus, Void Contracts are often of following two types-
Void agreements as per the provisions of Indian Contract Act, 1872:Any agreement with a bilateral mistake is void (Section 20)- Where both the parties to an agreement are under a mistake on matter of fact essential to agreement, the agreement is void, for ex. A agrees to shop for from B a specific horse. It seems that the horse was dead at the time of the discount, though neither party was aware of the particular fact. The agreement is void.
But a contract isn't voidable merely because it had been caused by one of the parties thereto being under a mistake on a matter of fact. (Section 22)
Agreements which have unlawful consideration and objects are void. (Section 23 & 24): The consideration or object of an agreement is unlawful if it's forbidden by law or of such a nature that if permitted, it'd defeat the provisions of any law or is fraudulent or involves injury to the person or property of another or court regards it as immoral or against public policy.
If any a neighborhood of one consideration for one or more objects, or anybody or any a neighborhood of anybody of several consideration for one object, is unlawful, the agreement is void. But where the legal a neighborhood of an agreement is severable from the illegal, the previous would be enforced.
Agreements made inconsiderately is void(Section 25): An agreement without the consideration is void unless:
Agreement in check of marriage of any major person is void (Section 26):
Every agreement in check of the marriage of an individual, apart from a minor is void. It’s the policy of the law to discourage agreements which restrains freedom of marriage. The restraint could even be general or partial, that's to say, the party could even be restrained from marrying within the least, or from marrying for a hard and fast time or from marrying a selected person or class of persons, the agreement is void.
Agreement in check of trade is void. (Section 27): Every agreement by which anyone is restrained from exercising a lawful profession, or trade or business of any kind, is thereto extent void. There are two kinds of exception to the rule, those created by Statutes-
Sale of Goodwill: the only exception mentioned within the proviso to section 27 is that regarding sale of goodwill. It states that “One who sells the goodwill of the business may accept as true with the customer to refrain from carrying on the same business, within specified local limits, so long because the buyer, or an individual deriving the title to the goodwill from him, carries on a like business therein: as long intrinsically limits appear to the court reasonable, regard being had to the character of the business.
Partnership Act: There are four provisions within the Partnership Act which validate agreements in restraint of trade. Section 11 enables partners during the continuance of the firm to limit their mutual liberty by agreeing that none of them shall keep it up any business apart from that of the firm. Section 36 enables them to restrain an outgoing partner from carrying on an equivalent business within a specified period or within specific local limits. an equivalent agreement could even be made by partners upon or I anticipation of dissolution.
EXCEPTION TO THE RULE AS PER JUDICIAL INTERPRETATION:
Exclusive Dealing Agreements: Business practice hip is that a producer or manufacturer likes to market his goods through a sole agent or distributor and thus the latter agrees successively to not affect the products of the opposite manufacturer.
Restraints upon Employee: An agreement of service often contains negative covenants preventing the worker from working elsewhere during the amount covered by the agreement. Trade Secrets, name of consumers etc. are also the property of master and servant isn't imagined to disclose it to anyone else. An agreement of this class doesn't fall within Section 27.
Agreement in check of legal proceedings is void. (Section 28): An agreement purporting to oust the jurisdiction of the courts is against the law and void on grounds of public policy. Section 28 of the Act renders void two sorts of agreement, namely:
However, this is often also not an absolute rule and it's two exceptions thereto which is as follows-
This section shall not render illegal a contract, by which two or more persons agree that any dispute which may arise between them in respect of any subject or class of subjects shall be mentioned arbitration, which only the quantity awarded in such arbitration shall be recoverable in respect of the dispute so referred.
Nor shall this section render illegal any accept writing, by which two or more persons suits arbitration any question between them which has already arisen, or affect any provision of any law effective for the nonce on references to arbitration.
But right to Appeal doesn't come within the purview of this section. a celebration to a suit may comply with not appeal against the selection.
An agreement the terms of which are uncertain is void. (Section 29): Agreements, the meaning of which isn't certain, or capable of being made certain, are void. it is a necessary requirement that an agreement so as to be binding must be sufficiently definite to enable the court to supply it a practical meaning. An agreement to agree within the longer term is void, for there is no certainty whether the parties will b able to agree.
Where only a neighborhood or a clause of the contract is uncertain, but the remainder is capable of bearing a reasonably certain meaning, the contracts are getting to be considered.
Similarly, if the agreement is totally silent on price, it'll be valid, for, therein case, Section 9 of the Sale of products Act,1930 will apply and reasonable price shall be payable.
An agreement by way of wager (betting/gambling) is void. (Section 30): Agreements by way of wager are void; and no suit shall be brought for recovering anything imagined to be won on any wager or entrusted to an individual to abide by the results of any game or other uncertain event on which any wager is made. The section doesn't define “Wager”. But wagers are often said as a promise to supply money or money’s worth upon the determination or ascertainment of an uncertain event.
This rule has two exceptions thereto, which is as follows-
An agreement contingent upon the happening of an impossible event is void. (Section 36)-
A contingent contract could also be a contract to try to or to not do something, if some event, collateral to such contract, does or doesn't happen. Contingent agreements to undertake to or to not do anything, if an impossible event happens, are void, whether the impossibility of the event is known or to not the parties to the agreement at the time when it's made.
For ex. A agrees to pay B 1000 Rs if two straight lines should enclose a neighborhood. The agreement is void.
Agreement to undertake to impossible acts is void. (Section 56): An agreement to try to an act impossible in itself is void. A contract to try to to an act which, after the contract is made, becomes impossible, or, by reason of some event which the promisor couldn't prevent, unlawful, becomes void when the act becomes impossible or unlawful.
VOIDABLE CONTRACT:
An agreement which is enforceable by law at the choice of the one or more of the parties thereto, but not at the choice of others or others, may be a voidable contract. Voidable Contract is valid unless one of the parties has set it aside. Voidable Contract generally happens when one side of the party is tricked into entering a contract by other party.
(I) Voidable Agreements as per provisions of Indian Contract Act,1872-
For ex. A and B contract that B shall execute certain work for A for a specific sum of money. B is ready and willing to execute the work accordingly, but A prevents him from doing so, the contract is voidable at the selection of B.
(II) Consequences of rescission of Voidable Contract:
When an individual at whose option a contract is voidable rescinds it, the other party thereto needn't perform any promise therein contained within which he's promisor. The party rescinding avoidable contract shall, if he has received any benefit there under from another party to such contract, restore such benefit, so far as could even be, to the person from whom it had been received.
(III) Mode of Communicating or revoking rescission of voidable contract:
The rescission of a voidable contract could even be communicated or revoked within an equivalent manner, and subject to the same rules, as apply to the communication or revocation of a proposal.
Void and illegal Agreement: The Contract Act draws distinction between an agreement which is simply void and thus the one which is unlawful or illegal. An illegal agreement is one which is forbidden by law; but a void agreement won't be forbidden, the law may merely say that if it's made, the courts won't enforce it. Thus, every illegal contract is void but a void contract isn't necessarily illegal.
The main difference between a void and illegal contract is that, a void contract isn't punishable and its collateral transactions aren't affected but on the contrary illegal contract is punishable and its collateral transactions are also void.
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN VOID AND VOIDABLE AGREEMENT:
A void contract is taken into account to be a legal contract that's invalid, even from the start of signing the contract. On the other hand, a voidable contract is additionally a legal contract which is claimed invalid by one of the two parties, surely legal reasons.
While a void contract becomes invalid at the time of its creation, a voidable contract only becomes invalid if it's cancelled by one of the two parties who are engaged within the contract.
In the case of a void contract, no performance is possible, whereas it's possible during a voidable contract. While a void contract isn't valid at face value, a voidable contract is valid, but is usually declared invalid at any time.
While a void contract is nonexistent and cannot be upheld by any law, a voidable contract is an existing contract, and is binding to a minimum of 1 party involved within the contract.
Key Takeaways:
Void contract [Section 2(g)]: A void contract may be a contract which ceases to be enforceable by law. A contract when originally entered into could also be valid and binding on the parties. It’s going to subsequently become void. -- There are many judgments which have stated that where any crime has been converted into a "Source of Profit" or if any act to be done under any contract is against "Public Policy" under any contract— than that contract itself can't be enforced under the law.
Key takeaways:
MODES OF DISCHARGE OF CONTRACT
We shall examine each of them as follows.
Discharge by performance
Where both the parties have either carried out or tendered (attempted) to carry out their obligations under the contract, is mentioned as discharge of the contract by performance. Because performance by one party constitutes the occurrence of a constructive condition, the other party’s duty to perform is additionally triggered, and thus the one that has performed has the proper to receive the other party’s performance. The overwhelming majority of contracts are discharged during this manner.
Discharge of Contract by Substituted Agreement
A contract emanates from an agreement between the parties. It thus follows that; the contract must even be discharged by agreement. Therefore, what's required, inevitably, is mutuality. Discharge by substituted agreement arises when a contract is abandoned, or the terms within it are altered, and both the parties are in conformity over it.
For example, A and B enter into some agreement, and A wants to change his mind and to not perform his terms of the contract. If he does this unilaterally then he are getting to be in breach of contract to B. However, if he approaches B and states that he would adore to be released from his liabilities under the contract then the latter might agree. Therein case the contract is claimed to be discharged by (bilateral) agreement. In effect B has promised to not sue A if he doesn't perform a neighborhood of the contract and thus the consideration for his promise could also be A’s promise to not sue B. Discharge by agreement may arise within the subsequent ways.
Discharge by lapse of your time
A contract stands discharged if not enforced within a specified period called the “period of limitation”. The Limitation Act, 1963 prescribes the duration of limitation for various contracts. as an example, period of limitation for exercising right to recover an immovable property is twelve years, and right to recover a debt is three years. Contractual rights become time barred after the expiry of this limitation period. Accordingly, if a debt isn't recovered within three years of its payment becoming due, the debt ceases to be payable and is discharged by lapse of your time.
Discharge by Impossibility of Performance
Sometimes after a contract has been established, something might occur, though not at the fault of either party, which can render the contract impossible to perform, or illegal, or radically different from that originally undertaken.
However, if whatever happens to prevent the contract from being performee has not been caused by either party couldn't are foreseen, and its effect is to destroy the thought of the contract then the courts will, generality, state that the contract has become impossible to perform. If that happens then the contract is discharged and neither party will have any liability there under. Section 56 of the Indian Contract Act clearly provides that an agreement to undertake to an act impossible in itself is void
The performance of a contractual obligation may become subsequently impossible on sort of grounds.
They include the next
• Objective impossibility of performance
• Commercial impracticability
• Frustration of purpose
• Temporary impossibility
Discharge of operation of law
A contract stands discharged by operation of law within the subsequent circumstances.
Unauthorized material alteration of a document
A party can treat a contract discharged (i.e., from his side) if the other party alters a term (such as quantity or price) of the contract without seeking the consent of the previous.
A contract stands discharged if not enforced within a specified period called the ‘period of limitation’. The Limitation Act, 1963 prescribes the duration of limitation for various contracts. as an example, limitation period for exercising right to recover an immovable property is twelve years and right to recover a debt is three years. Contractual rights become time barred after the expiry of this limitation period. Accordingly, if a debt isn't recovered within three years of its payment becoming due, the debt ceases to be payable and is discharged by lapse of your time.
A discharge in bankruptcy will ordinarily bar enforcement of most of a debtor’s contracts.
A contract also stands discharged through a merger that happens when an inferior right accruing to party during a contract amalgamates into the superior right ensuing to an equivalent party. As an example, a hires a factory premises from B for a couple of manufacturing activity for a year, but 3 months before the expiry of lease purchases that very premises. Now since A has become the owner of the building, his rights associated with the lease (inferior rights) subsequently merge into the rights of ownership (superior rights). The previous rental contract ceases to exist.
To discharge a contract by accord and satisfaction; the parties must suits accept performance that's different from the performance originally promised. It’s getting to be studied under the next sub-heads.
An accord is an executor contract to perform an act which can satisfy an existing duty. An accord suspends, but doesn't discharge, the primary contract.
Satisfaction is that the performance of the accord, which discharges the primary contractual obligation.
If the obligor refuses to perform the oblige can sue on the primary obligation or seek a decree for performance on the accord.
BREACH OF CONTRACT
A contract is breached or broken when any of the parties fails or refuses to perform its promise under the contract. Breach of contract is a legal cause of action in which a binding agreement is not honoured by one or more parties by non-performance of its promise by him renders impossible.
Section 37 of the Indian Contract Act,1872 provides that the parties to the contract are under obligation to perform or offer to perform, their respective promises under the contract, unless such performance is dispensed with or excused under the provisions of the Indian Contract Act or of any other law.
According to Section 39, where the party has refused to perform or disabled himself from performing, his promise in its entirely, the other party may put an end to the contract,, unless that other party has expressly or impliedly signified its consent for the continuance of contract. If the other party chooses to put an end to the contract, the contract is said to be broken and amounts to breach of contract by the party not performing or refusing to perform its promise under the contract. This is called repudiation. Thus, repudiation can occur when either party refuses to perform his part or makes it impossible for him to perform his part of contract in each of the cases in such a manner as to show an intention not to fulfil his part of the contract.
REMEDIES FOR BREACH OF CONTRACT (AS PER SECTION 73-75)
A legal remedy may be a writ that seeks to uphold a person’s rights or to redress a breach of the law.
When one party breaches a contract, the opposite party may ask a court to supply a remedy for the breach. The court may order the breaching party to pay money to the non-breaching party.
TYPES OF REMEDIES
SUIT FOR RESCISSION
The term Rescission refers to the cancellation of contract.
In such cases, if one party has broken his contractual relations, the opposite party may treat the breach as discharge and refuse to perform his part of performance.
Thus, just in case of rescission of contract, the aggrieved or casualty is discharged from all his obligations of the contract.
UNDER FOLLOWING CASES THE COURT MAY REFUSE TO GRANT RESCISSION:
EXAMPLE:
'A' contract to provide 10kg of tea leaves for Rs.8, 000 to 'B' on 15 June. If 'A' doesn't supply the tea leaves on the appointed day, 'B' needn't pay the worth. 'B' may treat the contract as rescinded and should sit quietly reception. 'B' can also file a ‘suit for rescission’ and claim damages. 12 A B Breach of contract when ‘A’ don’t supply to ‘B
SUIT FOR DAMAGES
Damages are a monetary compensation allowed to the casualty for the loss or injury suffered by him as results of the breach of contract. The elemental principle underlying damages isn't punishment but to compensate the aggrieved party for the loss suffered by him within the original position as he would fare.
Rules regarding damages
Types of damages
EXAMPLE: Mr. A to pay 3 lacs to Mr. on 1st April. Mr. doesn't pay the cash thereon day. Mr. B is unable to pay her debts and suffer a loss. Mr. A is susceptible to pay B principal amount and also interest thereon. 16 A B Breach of contract when ‘A’ don’t give money to ‘B’. Payable money
SUIT FOR QUANTUM MERUIT
It means “AS much as EARNED” or “in proportion to the work done.”
Right to ‘Quantum Meruit’ literally means a right to say the compensation for the work already done.
EXAMPLES Mr. engages Mr. a contractor, to create a 3 storied house. After a neighborhood is made ‘A’ prevents ‘B’ from working any longer. ‘B’ the contractor, is entitled to urge reasonable compensation for work done under the doctrine of quantum merit additionally to the damages for breach of contract. 18 Breach of contract when ‘A’ told ‘B’ to prevent building construction. A B
SUIT FOR PERFORMANCE
Suit for performance means demanding the court’s direction to the defaulting party to hold out the promise consistent with the terms of contract Cases where suit for performance isn't maintainable
i. Where compensatory damages arising from breach aren't measurable
ii. Where monetary compensation isn't an adequate remedy.
Example agreed to sell an old painting to Y for Rs50, 000. Subsequently, X refused to sell the painting. Here, Y may file a suit against X for the precise performance of the contract.
SUIT FOR INJECTION
It means demanding court’s stay order.
An order of the court which prohibits an individual to try to a specific act
A party to a contract does something which he presumed to not do; the court may issue an order prohibiting him from doing so.
EXAMPLES: A, a singer contracts with B the Manager of a theatre to sing at his theatre for one year and to abstain from Singing at other theatres during the theatre. She absents herself, B cannot compel A to sing at his theatre, but he may sue her for an injunction restraining her from Singing at other theatres.
G agreed to require the entire of his supply of electricity from a particular company. The agreement was held to import a negative promise that he would take none from elsewhere. He was, therefore, restrained by an injunction from buying electricity from the other company.
Key takeaways:
The word contingent means when an event or situation is contingent, i.e., it depends on some other event or fact. Section 31 of the Indian Contract Act, 1872 defines the term ‘Contingent Contract’ as follows:
‘A contingent contract is a contract to do or not to do something, if some event collateral to such contract does or does not happen’.
In simple words, contingent contracts are the ones where the promisor performs his obligation only when certain conditions are met. The contracts of insurance, indemnity, and guarantee are some examples of contingent contracts.
Illustration:- A contracts to pay to B Rs. 70,000 if B’s house is burnt. This is a contingent contract.
Essentials of Contingent Contract are as follows:
Key takeaways:
1. ‘A contingent contract is a contract to do or not to do something, if some event collateral to such contract does or does not happen’.
(Sec 68-72)
Quasi Contract: Quasi contracts are based on principle of Equity hence a person should not receive or accept any benefit unjustly. If so, he has an obligation to give it back to the right owner. Such obligation is called “Quasi Contractual Obligations”.
In such situation a person is obliged to compensate another although the basis of this obligation is neither a contract between the parties, nor any tort on the part of the person who is bound to compensate.
Every Contract has two parts:
Formative: It gives procedures as to how contract is formed step by step e.g.,. offer, acceptance, agreement etc.
Consequential: It gives rise to rights and liabilities of the parties.
For valid contracts both the parts should be present
i.e., Formative part + Consequential part = Absolute Contract
But when Formative part of the contract is absent but Consequential part is present, such situation gives rise to Quasi Contracts.
The basis of the obligation under quasi contracts is that no one should have unjust benefit at the cost of the other. For example:
a) A leaves his hand bag at B’s house by mistake. B has quasi contractual obligation to return it to A.
b) A and B jointly owe Rs. 100 to C, A alone pays the amount to C and B not knowing this also pays Rs. 100 to C. C is bound to repay the amount to B or A.
c) A receive some money in his account by mistake of bank.
Kinds of Quasi Contracts
Explanation
Claim for supply of necessaries to incompetent person (Section 68): “Necessaries” means goods or services which are most eventual for the survival of human life. It includes food, clothing, shelter, education, medical, legal aid etc. to a person who are minor or of unsound mind by another person.
The claim cannot be enforced against such incompetent person but reimbursement can be claimed only from the property of such a person.
What is luxury to one person may be necessity to another and vice versa.
e.g. A supplied suits to the defendant who is a school going boy. When the boy becomes major, plaintiff demanded the price of 10 suits, the defendant refused. The court held that minor is not liable to pay for 10 suits because it was excessive of necessaries suited to life.
The necessaries supplied, could be to such person or his dependents. e.g. A supplies the wife and children of B, a lunatic, with necessaries suitable to their condition in life. A is entitled to be reimbursed from B’s property.
Payment by an interested person (Section 69): A person who is interested in the payment of money which another is bound by law to pay, and therefore pays, is entitled to be reimbursed by the other.
B hold a land belongs to A. A has to give revenue to govt. which is due. The govt. advertises for the sale of land to recover its revenue. As per law, if this is done B’s lease will be nullified. B, to prevent the sale and the consequent annulment of his own lease, pays to the govt. the sum due from A. B is entitled to claim reimbursement from A.
The following two conditions must be satisfied for the application of this section:
One person is interested in the payment of money, and therefore he pays it
Another person is bound by law to pay the same, but he fails to pay.
E.g. A is the owner of the house and B is the tenant. There is water connection provided by the corporation and it was agreed that water expenses should be paid by ‘A’. The corporation asked for the payment from A but A failed to pay. B made the payment to avoid further consequences. Here B is entitled to recover the money so paid from A
Non-Gratuitous act (Section 70): Non-Gratuitous act means –an act or service done with the expectation of something in return.
When a person does something for another person or delivers anything to him non -gratuitously, he is entitled to claim compensation for the same from such other person.
E.g. A tenant of a property makes improvements and additions in the property and the landlord accepts the same, the presumption is that the tenant did not intend to do so gratuitously and he can recover compensation for the same from the landlord.
P.C. Wadhwa v. State of Punjab
In this case the appellant got selected in the service of the Forest Department of the Punjab State. He was given practical training and education for about 10 months. He was supposed to sign a bond to serve the department for 5 years after such training and education or otherwise to refund the cost of the same incurred by the State of Punjab.
He was selected in I.P.S and he left the training in between. The Punjab govt. brought an action to recover a sum of Rs. 3250, being the cost of training and education.
He refused to pay and contended that he did not take any benefit from the training. This plea was rejected and it was held the act of the Punjab govt. was not a gratuitous act but it was non-gratuitous act and he voluntary enjoyed the benefits of training.
Responsibility of finder of lost goods (Section 71): A finder is a person who finds goods belonging to another and takes the goods into his custody.
The position of the finder of goods is similar to that of a bailee. Like bailee the finder is bound to take as much care of the goods as a man of ordinary prudence would, under similar circumstances, take of his own goods of the same bulk, quality and value as the goods found by him. The finder is entitled to claim the reward, if any offered.
The finder of goods however has been authorized to sell the goods found by him, when:
The owner of the goods cannot be found after reasonable search or if he refuses to pay the lawful charges of the finder and
If the goods found is of perishable nature or goods are not perishable but the lawful charges of the finder, amounts to 2/3rd of its value.
Payment of Mistake or under Coercion (Section 72): When a person receives any money or goods by mistake or under coercion, he must repay or return it.
e.g. a) A received Rs. 100000 in his account by mistake from the employee of the bank, A is obliged to return it.
b) A railway company refuses to deliver up certain goods to the consignee except upon the payment of an illegal charge for carriage. The consignee pays the sum charged in order to obtain the goods. He is entitled to recover.
Even if some govt. authority has charged some amount by mistake or illegally, the said authority is obliged to refund it.
No refund if the plaintiff did not pay from his own pocket
A paid excise duty by mistake, but A had already recovered the whole of the paid duty from their customers. A is not entitled to refund. Refund in such a case would amount to unjust enrichment of the petitioners.
Money not recoverable if there is no unjust enrichment of the defendant
If the receiver of the money is no longer the same and has further paid it under a similar mistake, he cannot be asked to repay the same.
E.g. A told to B that he had given B address to receive a courier. B received the courier and gave it to A. It was later found out by the courier company that the delivery was to a wrong person. They sued B. Court held B is not required to pay as B has enjoyed no unjust enrichment.
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Key takeaways:
i.e., Formative part + Consequential part = Absolute Contract
References:
