Unit – 1
Introduction
Concept and Definitions of OB
Organizational Behavior (OB) is the study of human behavior in organizational settings, the interface between human behavior and the organization, and the organization itself. It is the study and application of knowledge about how people as individuals and as groups behave or act in organizations. It revitalizes organizational theory and develops a better conceptualization of organizational life.
According to Fred Luthans, “OB is directly concerned with the understanding, prediction and control of human behavior in organizations.”
According to L. M. Prasad, “Organizational Behaviour can be defined as the study and application of knowledge about human behavior related to other elements of an organization such as structure, technology and social systems”.
According to Davis and Newstram, “Organizational Behaviour is the study and application of knowledge about how people act within organizations”.
To sum up, OB is concerned with the study of how and what people act in organizations and also how their acts affect the performance of the organization. It also applies the knowledge gained about individuals, groups and the effect of structure on human behavior in order to make organizations work more effectively.
2. Organizational Behaviour is the study and application of knowledge about how people act within organizations.
Need and Importance of OB
The study of organizational behaviour gives insight on how employees behave and perform in the workplace. It helps us develop an understanding of the aspects that can motivate employees, increase their performance, and help organizations establish a strong and trusting relationship with their employees.
Motivation:
Every individual is unique based on their experiences and knowledge. Organizational behavior is able to help leaders understand the motivational tools required to facilitate their employees to reach their potential. It is significant for leaders to analyze the organizational structure that can act in their employee's interest. Recent years, large corporations such as Google are shifting to a flatter organizational structure. They enable employees to work independently, encouraging them to share knowledge and gain more control in decision making.
Performance:
There are a few factors where behaviours can affect one’s performance. According to a study from IJEMS , those that come to work with a positive attitude are more creative and it also lowers stress levels. In contrast, gossip and rudeness disrupt performance, lower productivity and decrease job satisfaction. Conflicts will arise causing miscommunications that will lead to a decrease in morale.
Office Characteristics:
According to an article from Cornell University, there are certain conditions that will affect employees reaction to their work and the setting such as openness and density. The office setting such as openness and density can generate different reactions. The openness of an office can make employees feel a sense of calmness. Density also has an impact on employee's wellness. It is important not to over-densify office space because small workstations can cause collaboration to suffer.
Employees want to belong in successful organizations that value a great company culture and provide opportunities for future growth. Recognizing ways to improve organization behaviours can help resolve underlying issues between employees and promote an appealing workplace environment.
Contributing Disciplines of OB:
6 Contributing Disciplines to the Organization Behavior Field are:
Psychology:
Psychology has perhaps the first influence on the field of organizational behavior because it is a science of behavior. A psychologist studies almost all aspects Of behavior.
Psychology deals with studying human behavior that seeks to explain and sometimes change the behavior of humans and other animals.
Psychologists are primarily interested in predicting the behavior of individuals to a great extent by observing the dynamics of personal factors.
Those who have contributed and continued to add to the knowledge of OB are teaching theorists, personality theorists, counseling psychologists and primary, industrial and organizational psychologists.
Some of the numerous areas of interest within the disciplines of psychology are:
a) General Psychology
b) Experimental Psychology
c) Clinical Psychology
d) Consumer Psychology
e) Personality and Social Psychology
f) Industrial Psychology
g) Counseling Psychology
h) Educational Psychology
i) Consulting Psychology
Understanding Psychological principles and its models help significantly in gaining the knowledge of determinants of individual behavior such as
a) The learning process,
b) Motivation techniques,
c) Personality determinants and development,
d) Perceptual process and its implications,
e) Training process,
f) Leadership effectiveness,
g) Job satisfaction,
h) Individual decision making,
i) Performance appraisal,
j) Attitude measurement,
k) Employee selection,
l) Job design and work stress.
Sociology:
The major focus of sociologists is on studying the social systems in which individuals fill their roles. The focus is on group dynamics.
They have made their greatest contribution to OB through their study of group behavior in organizations, particularly formal and sophisticated organizations.
Sociological concepts, theories, models, and techniques help significantly to understand better the group dynamics, organizational culture, formal organization theory and structure, corporate technology, bureaucracy, communications, power, conflict, and intergroup behavior.
Psychologists are primarily interested in focusing their attention on individual behavior.
Key concepts of Sociology are:
Most sociologists today identify the discipline by using one of the three statements:
Sociology deals with human interaction arid this communication are the key influencing factor among people in social settings.
Sociology is a study of plural behavior. Two or more interacting individuals constitute a plurality pattern of behavior
Sociology is the systematic study of social systems:
A social system is an operational social unit that is structured to serve a purpose.
It consists of two or more persons of different status with various roles playing a part in a pattern that is sustained by a physical and cultural base.
When analyzing organizing as a social system, the following elements exist:
a) People or actors.
b) Acts or Behavior.
c) Ends or Goals.
d) Norms, rules, or regulation controlling conduct or behavior.
e) Beliefs held by people as actors.
f) Status and status relationships.
g) Authority or power to influence other actors.
h) Role expectations, role performances, and role relationships.
Therefore, organizations are viewed by sociologies as consists of a variety of people with different roles, status, and degrees of authority.
The organization attempts to achieve certain generalized and specific objectives.
To attain some of the abstract ends such as the development of company loyalty, the organization’s leaders appeal to the shared cultural base.
Social Psychology:
It has been defined as the scientific investigation of how the thoughts, feelings, and behavior of individuals are influenced by the actual, imagined or implied the presence of others.
It deals with how people are affected by other individuals who are physically present or who are imagined to be present or even whose presence is implied.
In general, sociology focuses on how groups, organizations, social categories, and societies are organized, how they function, how they change.
The unit of analysis is the group as a whole rather than the individuals who compose the group.
Social Psychology deals with many of the same phenomena but seeks to explain whole individual human interaction and human cognition influences culture and is influenced by culture.
The unit of analysis is the individual within the group.
In reality, some forms of sociology are closely related to social psychology.
Social Psychologists study an enormous range of topics including conformity, persuasion, power, influence, obedience, prejudice, discrimination, stereotyping, sexism and racism, small groups, social categories, inter-group behavior, crowd behavior, social conflict, social change, decision making, etc.
Among them, the most important topics relevant to the organizational behavior field are behavioral change, attitude change, communication, group process, and group decision making.
Social psychologists making significant contributions. Social psychologists making significant contributions to measuring, understanding and improving attitudes, communication patterns in how groups can satisfy individual needs and group decision-making processes.
Anthropology:
The main aim of anthropology is to acquire a better understanding of the relationship between the human being and the environment.
Adaptations to surroundings constitute culture. The manner in which people view their surroundings is a part of the culture.
Culture includes those ideas shared by groups of individuals and languages by which these ideas are communicated. In essence, culture is a system of learned behavior.
Their work on culture and environment has helped us to understand differences in fundamental values, attitudes, and behavior among people in different countries and within different organizations.
Much of our current understandings of organizational culture, environments, and differences between national cultures are the results of the work of anthropologists or those using their methodologies.
The world is the laboratory of anthropologists, and human beings must be studied in the natural habitat. Understanding the importance of studying man in natural settings over time enables one to grasp the range of anthropology.
Familiarity within some of the cultural differences of employees can lead to greater managerial objectivity and depth in the interpretation of behavior and performance.
Anthropologists contribute to study some aspects of organizational settings – similar values, comparative attitudes, cross-cultural analysis between or among the employees.
Political Sciences:
Contributions of political scientists are significant to the understanding of behavior in organizations. Political scientists study the behavior of individuals and groups within a political environment.
They contribute to understanding the dynamics of power centers, structuring of conflict and conflict resolution tactics, allocation of power and how people manipulate power for individual self-interest.
In a business field, organizations wanted to attain supremacy in their field and indulge in politicking activities to gain maximum advantages by following certain tasks like Machiavellianism, coalition formation, malpractices, etc.
The knowledge of political science can be utilized in the study the behavior of employees, executives at micro as well as macro level.
Economics:
Economics contributes to organizational behavior to a great extent in designing the organizational structure. Transaction cost economics influence the organization and its structure.
Transaction costs economics implies cost components to make an exchange on the market.
This transaction cost economics examines the extent to which the organization structure and size of an organization varies in response to attempts to avoid market failures through minimizing production and transaction costs within the constraints of human and environmental factors.
Costs of transactions include both costs of market transactions and internal coordination.
A transaction occurs when a good or service is transferred across a ‘technologically separable barrier’ Transaction costs arise for many reasons.
So we can assume that there are various types of disciplines that involve organizational behavior. They, directly and indirectly, influence the overall activities of OB.
Nature and Scope of OB
Organizational behaviour has emerged as a separate field of study. The nature it has acquired is identified as follows:
1. A Separate Field of Study and Not a Discipline Only:
By definition, a discipline is an accepted science that is based on a theoretical foundation. But, O.B. has a multi- interdisciplinary orientation and is, thus, not based on a specific theoretical background. Therefore, it is better reasonable to call O.B. a separate field of study rather than a discipline only.
2. An Interdisciplinary Approach:
Organizational behaviour is essentially an interdisciplinary approach to study human behaviour at work. It tries to integrate the relevant knowledge drawn from related disciplines like psychology, sociology and anthropology to make them applicable for studying and analysing organizational behaviour.
3. An Applied Science:
The very nature of O.B. is applied. What O.B. basically does is the application of various researches to solve the organizational problems related to human behaviour. The basic line of difference between pure science and O.B. is that while the former concentrates of fundamental researches, the latter concentrates on applied researches. O.B. involves both applied research and its application in organizational analysis. Hence, O.B. can be called both science as well as art.
4. A Normative Science:
Organizational Behaviour is a normative science also. While the positive science discusses only cause effect relationship, O.B. prescribes how the findings of applied researches can be applied to socially accepted organizational goals. Thus, O.B. deals with what is accepted by individuals and society engaged in an organization. Yes, it is not that O.B. is not normative at all. In fact, O.B. is normative as well that is well underscored by the proliferation of management theories.
5. A Humanistic and Optimistic Approach:
Organizational Behaviour applies humanistic approach towards people working in the organization. It, deals with the thinking and feeling of human beings. O.B. is based on the belief that people have an innate desire to be independent, creative and productive. It also realizes that people working in the organization can and will actualise these potentials if they are given proper conditions and environment. Environment affects performance or workers working in an organization.
6. A Total System Approach:
The system approach is one that integrates all the variables, affecting organizational functioning. The systems approach has been developed by the behavioural scientists to analyse human behaviour in view of his/her socio-psychological framework. Man’s socio- psychological framework makes man a complex one and the systems approach tries to study his/her complexity and find solution to it.
SCOPE:
The scope of the organizational behavior is as under:
a) Impact of personality on performance.
b) Employee motivation.
c) Leadership.
d) How to create effective teams and groups.
e) Study of different organizational structures.
f) Individual behavior, attitude and learning.
g) Perception.
h) Design and development of effective organization.
i) Job design.
j) Impact of culture on organizational behavior.
k) Management of change.
l) Management of conflict and stress
m) Organizational development.
n) Organizational culture.
o) Transactional analysis.
p) Group behavior, power and politics.
q) Study of emotions.
The field of the organizational behavior does not depend upon deductions based on gut feelings but attempts to gather information regarding an issue in a scientific manner under controlled conditions. It uses information and interprets the findings so that the behavior of an individual and group can be canalized as desired.
Large number of psychologists, social scientists and academicians has carried out research on various issues related to organization behavior. Employee performance and job satisfaction are determinants of accomplishment of individual and organizational goals.
Organizations have been set up to fulfill needs of the people. In today’s competitive world, the organizations have to be growth-oriented. This is possible when productivity is ensured with respect to quantity of product to be produced with zero error quality. Employee absenteeism and turnover has a negative impact on productivity.
Employee who absents frequently cannot contribute towards productivity and growth of the organization. In the same manner, employee turnover causes increased cost of production. Job satisfaction is a major factor to analyze performance of an individual towards his work. Satisfied workers are productive workers who contribute towards building an appropriate work culture in an organization.
Organizations are composed of number of individuals working independently or collectively in teams, and number of such teams makes a department and number of such departments makes an organization. It is a formal structure and all departments have to function in a coordinated manner to achieve the organizational objective.
It is therefore important for all employees to possess a positive attitude towards work. They need to function in congenial atmosphere and accomplish assigned goals. It is also important for managers to develop an appropriate work culture. Use of authority, delegation of certain powers to subordinates, division of labor, efficient communication.
Benchmarking, re-engineering, job re-design and empowerment are some of the important factors so that an organization can function as well-oiled machine. This is not only applicable to manufacturing organizations but also to service and social organizations.
Organisational Behaviour Models.
There are four major models or frameworks that organizations operate out of-
1. Autocratic,
2. Custodial,
3. Supportive, and
4. Collegial.
1. Autocratic:
The basis of this model is power with a managerial orientation of authority. The employees in turn are oriented towards obedience and dependence on the boss. The employee need that is met is subsistence. The performance result is minimal.
2. Custodial:
The basis of this model is economic resources with a managerial orientation of money. The employees in turn are oriented towards security and benefits and dependence on the organization. The employee need that is met is security. The performance result is passive cooperation.
3. Supportive:
The basis of this model is leadership with a managerial orientation of support. The employees in turn are oriented towards job performance and participation. The employee need that is met is status and recognition. The performance result is awakened drives.
4. Collegial:
The basis of this model is partnership with a managerial orientation of teamwork. The employees in turn are oriented towards responsible behavior and self-discipline. The employee need that is met is self-actualization. The performance result is moderate enthusiasm.
Although there are four separate models, almost no organization operates exclusively in one. There will usually be a predominate one, with one or more areas over-lapping in the other models.
The first model, autocratic, has its roots in the industrial revolution. The managers of this type of organization operate mostly out of McGregor’s Theory X. The next three models begin to build on McGregor’s Theory Y. They have each evolved over a period of time and there is no one best model. In addition, the collegial model should not be thought as the last or best model, but the beginning of a new model or paradigm.
Key Takeaways:
2. Organizational Behaviour is the study and application of knowledge about how people act within organizations
3. The study of organizational behaviour gives insight on how employees behave and perform in the workplace.
4. Organizational behavior is able to help leaders understand the motivational tools required to facilitate their employees to reach their potential.
5.
Introduction and Meaning:
Individual behaviour refers to the way in which an individual reacts or behaves at his place of work. It can be defined as a combination of reactions to internal and external stimuli. Individual behaviour defines how a person will respond under distinct conditions and will express different emotions such as happiness, rudeness, love, anger etc. It refers to some concrete action by an individual. Study of individual behaviour reveals the behaviour of human at the working environment. Behaviour of an individual has a great influence on the performance of organization. Positive behaviour will lead to enhance the productivity. Whereas on another hand, negative behaviour will cause damages and bring heavy losses for company.
Factors affecting Individual Behaviour:
Various factors affecting the individual behaviour is classified into following categories: –
Personal Factors:
Personal factors are of 2 types: Biographic and Learned Characteristics
Biographic Characteristics: Biographic characteristics are genetic nature and are inherited by individual by their parents or forefathers. These are gifted features that an individual possesses by birth. All of these biographic characteristics are listed below: –
Psychical Characteristics- Personal characteristics relates to skin, complexion, vision, height, weight, size of nose etc. which influence the performance of individual. A person with good physical characteristics have an attractive personality, they dress well and behave gently in an organization.
Age- Age is an individual inherited characteristic that is determined by date of birth. Young people are expected to be more efficient, energetic, risk-taking, innovative and ambitious.
Gender- Gender is an inherited characteristic as being a men or women is genetic in nature. Woman are expected to be more emotional than men and generates high turnover rates. It is due to more likeness of woman quitting their job citing personal reasons.
Religion- Religious values of individual influence distinct aspects of his/her behaviour in organization. Highly religious person is stricter towards following moral values, ethics and code of conduct while performing their roles.
Marital Status- Researcher indicated that with marital status, responsibilities of individual get inclined and for them having steady proper job becomes more important. Such employees have less absences, low turnovers and more job satisfaction.
Learned Characteristics: Learned characteristics refers to the changes in persons behaviour that comes from his/her interactions with environment.
Personality- Personality solely do not refer to physical characteristics of person but indicates the growth of individual’s psychological system. These are the personal traits of persons that comprises of patience, extrovertness, dominance, aggressiveness etc.
Perception- It is a viewpoint of individual through which it interprets a particular situation. Perception is defined as a process via which information enters mind and an interpretation takes place for providing some sensible meaning to world.
Values- These are global beliefs that guides distinct actions and judgements in several situations. It comprises of idea of an individual that is based on good, right and desirable opinions.
Environmental Factors:
The external environment has an effective role in influencing the individual behaviour.
Employment level- Employment opportunities available within the country act as a major determinant of individual behaviour. In case of less employment opportunities, he/she will remain stick to same job level irrespective of how much satisfaction is attained. However, if there are more employment opportunities available then employees will shift to other jobs.
Wages Rate- Monetary compensation is a major factor that every employee considers before joining any organization. Therefore, a decision whether to stay in a particular company or shift anywhere else is taken on the basis of wages he/she is getting.
General Economic Environment- Economic cycle in a country greatly influences the behaviour of individual in an organization. They are subject to retrenchment and layoffs. Job security and a stable income are the most relevant factors of motivation for these type of employees. Whereas, employees of public sector undertakings are not affected by economic position within the country as they receive their fixed salaries irrespective of economic conditions.
Political Factors- Political factors indirectly influences the behaviour of an individual. In a politically stable environment, there will be large opportunities of steady job positions. It will provide better freedom to individual which will influence their career choice, performance and jib design.
Organizational Factors:
Wide range of organizational factors influence behaviour of individual which are listed below: –
Physical Facilities- Physical environment at work place have a great influence on behaviour of individual. It comprises of factors like lighting, cleanliness, heat, noise level, office furnishing, strength of workers etc.
Structure and Design- It is concerned with set-up design of departments within an organization. Individual behaviour is influenced by where an individual perfectly fits in a hierarchy of organization.
Reward System- Fair reward system adopted by company for compensating its employees enhances the overall performance and behaviour of individual.
Models of Individual Behaviour:
The five important models of individual behavior are (1) Rational Economic Man, (2) Social Man, (3) Organizational Man, (4) The Self Actuating Man, and (5) Complex Man.
1. Rational Economic Man:
From the organisational perspective, managers had, for a long time, viewed their employees as rational beings who are primarily motivated by money. They took the ‘ECONOMIC MAN’ and ‘RATIONAL MAN’ approach to understand and predict the human behaviour. This model is based on classical organisation theory.
The Scientific Management Movement was based on the belief that by rationally explaining the one best way to do things and offering incentives to workers in the form of piece rates and bonuses, organisational output can be increased. Psychologists have also studied this model for predicting human behaviour. For example, McGregor’s assumptions of Theory X reflect this model.
The basic assumptions of the concept of ‘Rational Economic Man’ are as follows:
(i) People are motivated primarily by economic incentives. They will do things which get them the greatest economic gain.
(ii) As the organisation controls the economic incentives, human beings are essentially passive agents, who are manipulated, motivated and controlled by the organisation.
(iii) The feelings of the people are essentially irrational and must be controlled to achieve rationality and self interest.
(iv) Organisations can and must be designed in such a way so as to neutralize and control people’s feelings and therefore their unpredictable traits.
In this model, people are induced to produce more by providing them with economic incentives. In this case, there is no organisation-employees conflict because both are satisfying their needs simultaneously. Management is getting more production and people are getting more money.
Drawbacks:
(i) As this model is based on the classical organisation theory, it suffers from the shortcomings inherent in that theory and do not suit the present day organisation.
(ii) The economic incentives can work till the man is not reasonably satisfied by the need of money.
Though, the need of money is inexhaustible and the man will never have enough, but after a certain stage, only money will not be sufficient for him. He will have some psychological needs also, which cannot be fulfilled by the organisation in this case. Therefore, it can be stated that the whole assumption of Rational Economic man are not sufficient in understanding and predicting human behaviour.
2. Social Man:
With the passage of time, the advocates of human relations school recognized that there is a lot more to human behaviour than just being social man economic and rational. Advocates of this school considered the worker as a social man. They recognized that man is a part of the social group he is influenced by the social forces and seeks satisfaction of the needs which are related to the maintenance of his social relationships. Eltan Mayo conceived the concept of the social man when he carried out Hawthorne studies during 1927-32.
From the reports of Hawthorne experiments the following assumptions about human beings can be drawn:
(i) Human beings are basically motivated by social needs and all their efforts are directed towards getting this satisfaction by maintaining relationships with others.
(ii) A human being is more responsive to the pressures and sanctions of his social group than to the incentives and controls of the management. The reason is that he values social relationship higher than his economic motives which are directly under the control of management.
(iii) The amount of work to be done by a worker is not determined by his physical capacity or by the management but by the social norms.
(iv) Generally people do not act or react as individuals but as members of a group.
(v) Informal leaders play an important role in setting and enforcing the group norms.
(vi) Management should change and organize work in such a way that it provides more belongingness not only in terms of interpersonal and group relationships, but also man’s relationship with his job.
The type of managerial strategy that is to be applied in the case of social man is quite different as compared to the strategy to be applied in case of Economic-Rational man. The total system of social man is directed towards people.
The following changes were required in the managerial strategy.
(i) Earlier the management was conceived only with the output given by the workers. In this approach, the management had to pay attention to the workers also as human beings.
(ii) Earlier, the only concern of die management was to provide economic incentives to the workers or in other words to look after their economic needs, but under this concept, the psychological needs were also to be considered.
(iii) Another required change was to analyze and motivate human behaviour in terms of groups rather than on individual basis.
(iv) Another change which was required was in the behaviour of the manager instead of being the controller of behaviour he was supposed to act as the supporter of workers.
The social man approach was also considered somewhat simplistic.
As time passed by, organisational behaviour theorists such as Argyris (1957), Likert (1961, 1967) and McGregor (1960) argued that people in organisations need opportunities to use their individual creativity and must have their growth needs met in order to function effectively.
3. Organisational Man:
Organisation man is an extension of social man. The concept of organisation man was introduced by William Whyte. He believed that it is very important for a person to be loyal to the organisation and cooperative with the fellow workers. Any person who believes in this value system and acts in this way is an organisation man. The basis of this concept is and that every individual should sacrifice his individuality for the sake of the group and the organisation.
This idea was initially suggested by Henry Fayol, when he suggested that individual interest should be subordinated to the general interest. Whyte had explained three major propositions, on which this concept of organisation man is based.
These propositions are as follows:
(i) The first proposition is that individual by himself is isolated and meaningless. The group is the source of activity. Individuals create only when they move in a group. A group helps to produce a whole that is greater than the sum of its parts.
(ii) The ultimate need of every individual is belongingness. He wants to belong to his families, friends, relatives, colleagues and other members of the society as a whole. Whyte says that there should be no conflict between man and society.
(iii) The goal of belongingness is achieved with the help of science. Whenever there is a conflict between the needs of the society and the needs of the individual, an equilibrium can be created by applying the methods of science. Science can help in removing all the obstacles to consensus.
The organisation man concept emphasis, that there is no conflict between the individual interest and the interest of the organisation. Even if there is any conflict, individual interest will be sacrificed in favour of the group interest to remove the conflict. However, there is a basic assumption behind this concept.
The assumption is that management will take care of the individual interests. It would be the duty of the management to satisfy the needs of the individuals. People will be willing to sacrifice their interests for the organisation only if they are positive that the organisation would take care of them.
4. The Self Actuating Man:
The concept of self actuating man is a further extension of social man and the organisation man models. The social man concept assumes that the formation of social groups is the basis of satisfaction for the individuals. But as against this the self actuating man assumes that man’s inherent need is to use his capabilities and skills in such a way that he should have the satisfaction of creating certain things. The earlier models do not allow him to satisfy his self actuating needs.
Following are the main assumptions about the self actuating man:
(i) The basic assumption about this concept is that the various needs of a man can be put in the order of priority. For example, MASLOW has put various needs in a hierarchy: Every unsatisfied need is a motivational factor for him. Self actualization according to this diagram is the ultimate goal, because it is last in the hierarchy and by the time his goal is achieved, all the other needs of the man are also satisfied.
(ii) In the process of self actualization, there are various changes in the behaviour of the individual and he moves from immaturity to maturity.
(iii) Another assumption is that a man is primarily self motivated and self controlled. Any incentives given by the management cannot motivate him after a certain level and any control imposed on him cannot threaten him.
(iv) The earlier models were based on the assumption that a man has got immature personality. However, the reality is that if a man is left free, he will put in his maximum efforts.
These assumptions are generally based upon McGregor’s theory Y and Argyris’s immaturity-maturity theory. To satisfy a self actuating man what are required are all the managerial actions meant to satisfy the social man with some additional features.
5. Complex Man:
Complex man presents the real picture of human picture of human behavior. All the previous models make very simplistic assumptions about people and their behaviour.
Researchers have proved that these assumptions are not correct as explained below:
(i) The earlier models assume that man will always behave according to certain set patterns. But research has indicated that there are many complex variables, which determine the human behaviour. These variables are quite unpredictable. So the human behaviour which is based on these variables cannot follow a set pattern.
(ii) The behaviour of man can be understood and predicted in the given conditions, depending upon the assumptions made. But research has indicated that even if cause-effect relationship is established between the variables and behaviour, it is not easy to understand and predict the individual behaviour because of the individual differences. It is not necessary that everyone will behave accordingly.Most behaviour in the organisation can be understood by taking assumptions of complex man.
Following are a few assumptions about the complex man:
(i) People are not only complex but are also highly variable. Though their needs can be arranged in a hierarchy, but this hierarchy is also not universal. Different people may have different hierarchies.
(ii) People are capable of learning new motives through their organisational experiences.
(iii) People’s motives in different organisations or different sub parts of the same organisation may be different.
(iv) People can respond to many different kinds of management strategies.
Though this model is quite complex, it indicates the real situation and lays emphasis on the fact that human behaviour is not as simple as assumed in the previous models. Hence current thinking on the subject is to take a ‘complex man’ approach and recognize that different individuals have different needs and personality traits and if there is a proper match between these and the environment they operate in, functional behaviour will emerge.
Key Takeaways:
Meaning
The term ‘personality’ is derived from the Latin word ‘persona’ this means a mask. According to K. Young, “Personality is a patterned body of habits, traits, attitudes and ideas of an individual, as these are organised externally into roles and statuses, and as they relate internally to motivation, goals, and various aspects of selfhood.”
Characteristics
Personality is the sum total of ways in which a person behaves with others and the environment. The following features of personality can be derived:
Determinants
Personality is the sum total of ways in which a person behaves with others and the environment. The following are the determinants of personality:
i) Environment:
The influence of physical environment on culture as per geographical environment sometimes determines cultural variability. That the Eskimos have a culture different from that of the Indians is due to the fact that the geographical environment is different.
ii) Heredity:
Some of the similarities in human’s personality are said to be due to his common heredity. Each and every group of human being inherits the same general set of biological needs and capacities. The origination of human characteristic starts right from the union of male and female germ cells into a single cell which is formed at the moment of conception.
iii) Culture:
Culture largely determines the types of personality that predominates in the particular group. Personality is the subjective aspect of culture. Personality and culture are considered as two sides of the same coin.
iv) Particular Experiences:
The particular and unique experiences determine personality. There are two types of experiences one, from continuous association with one’s group, second, sudden and do not recur. The type of people who meet the child daily has a major influence on his personality. The personality of parents affects a child’s personality.
Theories of Personality:
Personality psychology is the focus of some of the best-known psychology theories by a number of famous thinkers including Sigmund Freud and Erik Erikson. Some of these theories attempt to tackle a specific area of personality while others attempt to explain personality much more broadly.
Biological Theories:
Biological approaches suggest that genetics are responsible for personality. In the classic nature versus nurture debate, the biological theories of personality side with nature.
Research on heritability suggests that there is a link between genetics and personality traits. Twin studies are often used to investigate which traits might be linked to genetics versus those that might be linked to environmental variables. For example, researchers might look at differences and similarities in the personalities of twins reared together versus those who are raised apart.
One of the best known biological theorists was Hans Eysenck, who linked aspects of personality to biological processes.
Eysenck argued that personality is influenced by the stress hormone cortisol. According to his theory, introverts have high cortical arousal and avoid stimulation, while extroverts had low cortical arousal and crave stimulation.
Behavioral Theories:
Behavioral theorists include B. F. Skinner and John B. Watson. Behavioral theories suggest that personality is a result of interaction between the individual and the environment.5 Behavioral theorists study observable and measurable behaviors, rejecting theories that take internal thoughts, moods, and feelings play a part as these cannot be measured.
According to behavioral theorists, conditioning (predictable behavioral responses) occurs through interactions with our environment which ultimately shapes our personalities.
Psychodynamic Theories:
Psychodynamic theories of personality are heavily influenced by the work of Sigmund Freud and emphasize the influence of the unconscious mind and childhood experiences on personality.Psychodynamic theories include Sigmund Freud's psychosexual stage theory and Erik Erikson's stages of psychosocial development.
Freud believed the three components of personality were the id, ego, and superego. The id is responsible for needs and urges, while the superego regulates ideals and morals. The ego, in turn, moderates the demands of the id, superego, and reality.
Freud suggested that children progress through a series of stages in which the id's energy is focused on different erogenous zones.
Erikson also believed that personality progressed through a series of stages, with certain conflicts arising at each stage. Success in any stage depends on successfully overcoming these conflicts.
Humanist Theories:
Humanist theories emphasize the importance of free will and individual experience in the development of personality. Humanist theorists include Carl Rogers and Abraham Maslow.
Humanist theorists promote the concept of self-actualization, which is the innate need for personal growth and the ways that personal growth motivates behavior.
Trait Theories:
The trait theory approach is one of the most prominent areas in personality psychology. According to these theories, personality is made up of a number of broad traits. A trait is a relatively stable characteristic that causes an individual to behave in certain ways. It is essentially the psychological "blueprint" that informs behavioral patterns.
Some of the best-known trait theories include Eysenck's three-dimension theory and the five-factor theory of personality.
Eysenck utilized personality questionnaires to collect data from participants and then employed a statistical technique known as factor analysis to analyze the results. Eysenck concluded that there were three major dimensions of personality: extroversion, neuroticism, and psychoticism.
Eysenck believed that these dimensions then combine in different ways to form an individual's unique personality. Later, Eysenck added the third dimension known as psychoticism, which related to things such as aggression, empathy, and sociability.
Nature
“Perception refers to the interpretation of sensory data. In other words, sensation involves detecting the presence of a stimulus whereas perception involves understanding what the stimulus means. For example, when we see something, the visual stimulus is the light energy reflected from the external world and the eye becomes the sensor. This visual image of the external thing becomes perception when it is interpreted in the visual cortex of the brain. Thus, visual perception refers to interpreting the image of the external world projected on the retina of the eye and constructing a model of the three dimensional world.”
From the above explanation it becomes clear that perception is something more than sensation. It correlates, integrates and comprehends diverse sensations and information from many organs of the body by means of which a person identifies things and objects, the sensations refer to.
Perception is determined by both physiological and psychological characteristics of the human being whereas sensation is conceived with only the physiological features. Thus, perception is not just what one sees with the eyes it is a much more complex process by which an individual selectively absorbs or assimilates the stimuli in the environment, cognitively organizes the perceived information in a specific fashion and then interprets the information to make an assessment about what is going on in one’s environment.
Perception is a subjective process, therefore, different people may perceive the same environment differently based on what particular aspects of the situation they choose to selectively absorb, how they organize this information and the manner in which they interpret it to obtain a grasp of the situation.
Importance:
Importance of perception:
(i) Perception is very important in understanding the human behaviour, because every person perceives the world and approaches the life problems differently- Whatever we see or feel is not necessarily the same as it really is. It is because what we hear is not what is really said, but what we perceive as being said. When we buy something, it is not because it is the best, but because we take it to be the best. Thus, it is because of perception, we can find out why one individual finds a job satisfying while another one may not be satisfied with it.
(ii) If people behave on the basis of their perception, we can predict their behaviour in the changed circumstances by understanding their present perception of the environment. One person may be viewing the facts in one way which may be different from the facts as seen by another viewer.
(iii) With the help of perception, the needs of various people can be determined, because people’s perception is influenced by their needs. Like the mirrors at an amusement park, they distort the world in relation to their tensions.
(iv) Perception is very important for the manager who wants to avoid making errors when dealing with people and events in the work setting. This problem is made more complicated by the fact that different people perceive the same situation differently. In order to deal with the subordinates effectively, the managers must understand their perceptions properly.
Thus, for understanding the human behaviour, it is very important to understand their perception, that is, how they perceive the different situations. People’s behaviour is based on their perceptions of what reality is, not on reality itself. The world as it is perceived is the world that is important for understanding the human behaviour.
Perception Process
B. Selection: This is governed by two types of factors:
C. Organization: It is the process by which we sort stimuli into a meaningful pattern. It involves the following:
D. Interpretation: It is the formation of an idea about the information that is sensed, selected and organized. It involves the following phenomena: primacy effect, selective perception, stereotyping, halo effect, projection and expectancy effect. They are the types of perceptual errors.
Perception is an intellectual, psychological process which is subjective as individuals perceive similar incident differently.
Perpetual Errors and Distortions:
A perceptual error is the inability to judge humans, things or situations fairly and accurately. Examples could include such things as bias, prejudice, stereotyping, which have always caused human beings to err in different aspects of their lives.
Perceptual error has strong impact in organisation and it hampers in proper decision making skill while hiring, performance appraisal, review, feedback etc
There are many types of perceptual errors in workplace-
1. Selective Perception- People generally interpret according to their basis of interests, idea and backgrounds. It is the tendency not to notice and forget the stimuli that cause emotional discomfort. For example we might think that fresher graduates with above 80 % marks will exceptionally do well in technical interviews of respective subjects
2. Halo Effect- We misjudge people by concentrating on one single behavior or trait. It has deep impact and give inaccurate result most of the time. For example we always have an impression of a lazy person can never be punctual in any occasion.
3. Stereotypes- We always have a tendency to classify people to a general groups /categories in order to simplify the matter. For example-Women are always good homemakers and can do well in work life balance
4. Contrast Effect- We again sometimes judge people in comparison to others . This example generally found in sports , academics and performance review
5. Projection- This is very common among Perceptual errors. Projection of one's own attitude, personality or behavior into some other person. For example- To all honest people, everybody is honest.
6. Impression- We all know the term "first impression is the last impression" and we apply that too .For example-During the time of hiring, thought like this "The most decent and modest person in the interview can do very well in every roles and responsibilities " always arise.
Components of Attitude
Attitudes represent our evaluations, preferences or rejections based on the information we receive.
It is a generalized tendency to think or act in a certain way in respect of some object or situation, often accompanied by feelings. It is a learned predisposition to respond in a consistent manner with respect to a given object.
This can include evaluations of people, issues, objects, or events. Such evaluations are often positive or negative, but they can also be uncertain at times.
These are the way of thinking, and they shape how we relate to the world both in work and Outside of work. Researchers also suggest that there are several different components that make up attitudes.
One can see this by looking at the three components of an attitude: cognition, affect and behavior.
The three components of attitude are;
Cognitive Component:
The cognitive component of attitudes refers to the beliefs, thoughts, and attributes that we would associate with an object. It is the opinion or belief segment of an attitude. It refers to that part of attitude which is related in general knowledge of a person.
Typically these come to light in generalities or stereotypes, such as ‘all babies are cute’, ‘smoking is harmful to health’ etc.
Affective Component:
Affective component is the emotional or feeling segment of an attitude.
It is related to the statement which affects another person.
It deals with feelings or emotions that are brought to the surface about something, such as fear or hate. Using the above example, someone might have the attitude that they love all babies because they are cute or that they hate smoking because it is harmful to health.
Behavioral Component:
Behavior component of an attitude consists of a person’s tendencies to behave’in a particular way toward an object. It refers to that part of attitude which reflects the intention of a person in the short-run or long run.
Using the above example, the behavioral attitude maybe- ‘I cannot wait to kiss the baby’, or ‘we better keep those smokers out of the library, etc.
Sources of Attitude
Attitudes, are acquired from parents, teachers, and peer group members. We model our attitudes after those we admire, respect or fear. We observe the way family and friends behave, and we shape our attitudes and behaviour to align with theirs. People also imitate the attitudes of popular individuals and those they admire and respect. Attitudes are an integral part of the world of work. It is important for managers to understand the antecedents to attitudes as well as their consequences. Managers also need to understand the different components of attitudes, how attitudes are formed, and the major attitudes that affect work behaviour and how to use persuasion to change attitudes.
Measurement of Attitude
Though attitude is a hypothetical construct it is also subject to measurement. The most common and frequently used measures of attitudes are the questionnaires which ask the respondents to evaluate and rate their attitude toward a particular object directly, and to respond favorably or unfavorably about his belief regarding the attitude object. Generally,bipolar scales are used to assess the attitudes of individual employees in an Organisation. Different types of scales are in use with respect to measurement of attitudes viz., Thurstone’s scale, Likert’s scale, Bogardus’s social distance scale, Guttman’s scale etc. Let us throw a dim light on these scales.
Thurstone’s scale: The statements, both favorable and unfavorable, relating to the area in which attitudes were to be measured are placed into eleven piles; one representing the most favorable one and one representing the unfavorable. Individuals will then be asked to check those statements with which they agreed. The average of the scale values of the items, which they accepted, will give an indication of the placement of a person along the attitude continuum.
Likert’s scale: Another scale that is relatively easy when compared to the earlier is the one that is developed by Rensis Likert.
Likert’s scale consists of five boxes ranging from “strongly agree” to “strongly disagree”. Under each statement of attitude the respondent will be given a chance to check one of five boxes and finally all the ratings are summed up. The Likert’s scale is also known as summedrating measure, because several statements are collected in an attitude area, such as one’s attitude about, a job, and the scales are added up or summed to obtain a person’s attitude toward his job. The summed-rating scale provides a means of measuring the intensity of one’s attitude toward a particular object/event in addition to the direction.
Bogardus’s social distance scale: Perhaps the simple scale of measuring attitudes is the social distance scale developed by Bogardus in 1925. The scale is composed of a large number of statements regarding national, racial or ethnic groups.
Guttman’s scale: Guttman in 1950 developed cumulative scaling technique to measure attitudes. In the scale of one’s attitude toward work, an employee might be presented with six statements displaying successively higher degrees of dissatisfaction. It is assumed that the employee will reach some point beyond which he can no longer agree. The main threshold is considered to be the degree of satisfaction.
Measuring attitudes by means of projective tests: Other methods are, therefore, sometimes required to obtain a truer picture of attitudes. One such method is the projective test, which requires a person to respond to an unstructured stimulus situation.The rationale behind such tests is that, when the stimulus situation is unstructured, mainly his motives, expectations, and other personal factors determine the individual’s responses. Projective tests of attitude are particularly valuable in the study of prejudice, since so many of our prejudices operate at an unconscious level or are deliberately disguised to conform to prevailing taboos – against the expression of overt prejudice.
There are good many other scales to measure attitudes. From a practical standpoint, one should either use a standard questionnaire or consult an expert to obtain a valid estimate of attitudes of the employees in an Organisation.
Concept of Values
Values defined in Organizational Behavior as the collective conceptions of what is considered good, desirable, and proper or bad, undesirable, and improper in a culture.
Some common business values are fairness, innovations and community involvement.
According to M. Haralambos, “A value is a belief that something is good and desirable”.
According to R.K. Mukherjee, “Values are socially approved desires and goals that are internalized through the process of conditioning, learning or socialization and that become subjective preferences, standards, and aspirations”.
According to Zaleznik and David, “Values are the ideas in the mind of men compared to norms in that they specify how people should behave. Values also attach degrees of goodness to activities and relationships”
According to I. J. Lehner and N.J. Kube, “Values are an integral part of the personal philosophy of life by which we generally mean the system of values by which we live. The philosophy of life includes our aims, ideals, and manner of thinking and the principles by which we guide our behavior”
According to T. W. Hippie, “Values are conscious or unconscious motivators and justifiers of the actions and judgment”
A value is a shared idea about how something is ranked in terms of desirability, worth or goodness. Sometimes, it has been interpreted to mean “such standards by means of which the ends of action are selected”.
Sometimes, it has been interpreted to mean “such standards by means of which the ends of action are selected”.
Thus, values are collective conceptions of what is considered good, desirable, and proper or bad, undesirable, and improper in a culture.
Familiar examples of values are wealth, loyalty, independence, equality, justice, fraternity and friendliness.
Familiar examples of values are wealth, loyalty, independence, equality, justice, fraternity and friendliness. These are generalized ends consciously pursued by or held up to individuals as being worthwhile in them.
It is not easy to clarify the fundamental values of a given society because of their sheer breadth.
The values that are important to people tend to affect the types of decisions they make, how they perceive their environment, and their actual behaviors.
Sources of Values
Sources of value are a comprehensive guide to financial decision-making suitable for beginners as well as experienced practitioners.
It treats financial decision-making as both an art and a science and proposes a comprehensive approach through which companies can maximize their value.
Generally, no values tend to be relatively stable and enduring.
A significant portion of the values we hold is established in our early years from parents, teachers, friends, and others. There are so many sources from which we can acquire different values.
Sources of values are;
Family: Family is a great source of values. A child leams his first value from his family.
Friends & peers: Friends and peers play a vital role in achieving values.
Community or society: As a part of society, a person leams values from society or different groups of society.
School: As a learner, school and teachers also play a very important role in introducing values.
Media: Media such as – Print media, Electronic media also play the role of increasing values in the mind of people.
Relatives: Relative also helps to create values in the minds of people.
Organization: Different organizations and institutions also play a vital role in creating value.
Types of Values
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