Chapter 1
Nature and Limits of Political Science
In the present time, the study of political science is a subject of great importance in it. It’s a topic that is quite widespread and almost all social, economic, political, foreign area, etc., of human life is obtained from the study of this subject, and it is the reason that this subject is known as master science.
Under this, the first question arises is that, what is politics, while discussing this a famous scholar Aristotle said that the word ‘political’ is derived from the word polis which means city-state, which mean politics. Generally, it means that the policy governing the governance of a state is called politics. Also, the study of governance along with the state is also a major field of politics. Nobody can say that that he or she isn’t a part of politics. Politics can be found on every community and every place. Whenever two or more people that come together being aware of a problem and tries to solve it, politics is born there.
The solution of this problem brings both struggle and conflict together. It wouldn’t be wrong if we call, the method adopted to solve the problem, politics. Famous scholar Laski believed that that every subject which is related to the state and the government is in politics.
This is that fact that he has done his famous work, Grammar of Politics, done within his country.
Fields of Politics: - We can discuss areas of politics by dividing it into the following parts:-
1) As a solution to social conflicts:- As we all know, that human being is a social being, and he wants to make more and more progress by using his limited resources, and this is attempted to be done by using Social Politics.
2) As a solution to international problems:- As we all know that on international level every country is making excessive efforts in order to increase its supremacy, and this situation leads to tension and conflicts at international level. This is the reason that justice in his book, Politics among Nation, called international politics a “struggle for power,” and are by the solution to these international problems.
3) Study of politics as a human activity: - Whenever we are explaining politics, it’s clear that politics has emerged as a result of internal relations between humans. Thus, it is clear that politics is studied as a human activity.
4) Study of politics as state and government: - Politics can also be explained by the different units of state and government. So, the jurisdiction of a state can be properly operated.
In this way, we get to see a broad and clear view of politics, which is an important operator all the time.
The influence of liberal system began to widespread from 19th century. The idea of grid addicted liberal is a system that, liberal politics generally emphasizes on giving a person freedom within each area. Under this politics, public welfare work and welfare state system can be seen.
The liberal approach to politics can be discussed by dividing it into the following parts:-
1 Focal Point of Liberalism: - This is the main fact of liberal politics, and has always been the focal point of liberal philosophy, and personal freedom provides a broad base to liberal politics. Whenever, there is a hit on the man’s freedom, then liberal scholar like Green, etc. for the protection of freedom, they move forward in order to protect their freedom by expressing their views.
2 Supporter of public welfare state: - The liberal system considers responsibility of a person’s social economy, whose purpose is the systematic progress of the society. All the public interest works are ruling in today’s time, which is the influence of the liberal.
3 Emphasis on the peaceful social change: - Liberal politics by not emphasizing on conflicts and violence, it teaches the legal protection, rights and freedom, to bring a social change, which is wholly based on the peaceful means.
4 Struggle for unity in the struggling society and state politics: - In today’s time, every person strives to have more convenience and power. Here, it is worth noticing that, every person has limited means for fulfilling his desires, but by ignoring each other, they wishes to be more prosperous. This is the reason for the rise of conflicting situation in the society. The liberal political system ends this struggle and brings political unity for all human beings and states. Because it visions a similar political system, in which social facilities and arrangements are made by the state for the up-liftment of all human beings, which paves the way for political unity of personality in place of confrontation.
5 Relationships of accumulation of justice in individuals and society: - It is also a prominent feature of liberal politics. This system is seen by us as supplement of democracy. In which democracy and rights is given to a person.
6 Relationships of accumulation injustice in individuals and society: - Under liberal politics, it is emphasized that man and society both complement each other. We cannot imagine the existence of anyone without each other, they have a mutual injustice accumulating relationship and both emphasizes on the development of each other. This side has also been confirmed by the renowned political scholar MacIver.
Valuation: - The widespread discussion of liberal politics has also brought before us many conflicting speakers. These liberals believe that state is necessary evil, and man and society in both the feeling of conflicts can be seen. Apart from this various critics also believes that the state, she actually works against the poor by talking about their hollow freedom and equality and works in support of capitalist husbands. The rich man buys the opinion of the poor on the basis of money, the democratic system becomes a farce, and it also promotes political struggle in the individual and society.
But despite this, we can definitely say that, liberal politics strongly supports individual freedom and administrated the path of democratic system.
Marxist concept of politics:-
According to Marxist system, there are two types of classes in a state: - one bourgeois and other the proletariat. For them, state and politics are considered as a means of exploitation. Because they believe that the state doesn’t work for the interest of an individual, but it has become puppet in the hands of capitalists. That’s why, politics is not untouched by them, and its proponent was Karl Marx. Marcus was deeply influenced by the economic theory of German philosopher Hegel and the Ricers and the state revolution of France. This is because the interpretation of principle was followed by the method of dialectical materialism, and they believe that within politics there are three levels of debate and federalism. Under the suit, state and politics have been treated as toy in the hands of capitalists, which exploits the poor. Contradiction in capitalism system, through the false hope of public welfare they create harmony between the capitalist and the poor by promoting socialism, which is the current state, by envisioning a conversation which is classless and stateless society and is free from exploitation is established by politics,, which is communism, which has not arrived yet. This concept is named scientific socialism by Marx, the idea is also effective today in 21th century, and movements have been killed by its thoughts. Capitalists are opposing this idea. Its ideas have provided a new revolutionary ideology. Their key points can be arranged by dividing them into the following parts.
1 The basis of politics as class struggle: - According to Marxist, there are two types of classes in a state: - rich and poor, there’s a mutual conflict between them. This is the solely reason for Marx to say this that, poor is being exploited by the rich.
2 Social human is the subject of Marx: - Marx has followed the principles of Hegel and the Ricers in relation to an individual that the study of a man can only be done as a social humans. According to Marx, social interest is given priority over personal interest.
3 Politics and classless society: - Marx advocated the end of the state as a classless society while expressing his views against the state. In which no place of state and politics have been given by them.
4 Political struggles is class struggle: - They believe that even in the world, the concept of rich and poor countries and in them extensive struggle can be seen. Thus whatever conflicts are there in politics, it is based on the struggle of rich and poor.
5 Study of opinion on public consent and respect: - Modern political science on any topic, studies the agreement, opposition, opinions and views of various people. It acquires knowledge of people’s opinion and thoughts through unjust ways, for this data, compilation, analysis, verification, etc. are the methods used.
Conclusion: - In conclusion it is clear that, the study of concept of modern political science is wide. It emphasizes on study of various activities of an individual and the government, and the study of inter-disciplinary has also started to come under this. As the importance of political science has increased. And now it also provides solutions to various problems.
As we know naturally that, the modern age began with many scientific inventions and industrial revolutions. Especially since the beginning of 20th century, traditional politics has been failing to adapt itself to the present times and paved the way for the modern political science. The rise of the new states, the beginning of the nuclear age within the international world, etc. has encouraged the development of modern political science. Dissatisfaction against traditional political science started arising in the country and their scholars started opposing the traditional political science. After World War II, behaviorism brought a major change in the nature of political science and its nature became very wide and vast.
According to modern political thought, political studies cannot be confined to the state or the governance. In modern political science, politics can be studied without state. Under this now, the importance of human action, behavior, and work outside the state has been emphasized. Now the scientific methods and techniques are being used to make the subject objective and useful. In this way modern political science has attempted to adopt such definitions, whom can properly explain their wider scope and also focuses on the future. Where Lasswell, Caitlin, Robert Hal, etc. had said that, in present times, the inter-disciplinary of political science in study of power, and relation of political science with various subjects is also increasing.
The definition of political science given by modern thinker Davis Eastern is the most reputed. According to him, “Political science is the study of the official division of the values in a society”
Areas: - After World War II, behavior in political science and attitude paved the way for modern political science. Its field is different from traditional political science. It is explained as following:-
1 Study of power: - It is a major subject in the study of modern political science. According to the behaviorists, various aspects of power within political science are studied. Caitlin has accepted the political science as a study of power. In addition, Lasswell also said that “The holding of power is the most fundamental concept in the whole political science”
2 Study of social values: - Social values are also studied under the field of the study of modern political science. In the words of David Eastern, political science needs to be called the study of society, for the reason, because the behavior of a person is not only towards himself but it is towards all the members of the society. “Modern political science is related to an individual’s activities and ethics, whose nature is social and common and impacts the entire society.”
3 Study of problems and conflicts: - In modern political science problems and conflicts are studied, which has the direct impact on the political life of an individual. According to modern scholars, due to lack of values and means and their problem of distribution, conspiracy, disputes and conflicts are arisen. Stress is born when any problem arises, and with this politics begins. This is the reason that, even today, the relationship of political science is established with various kinds of problems and conflicts
4 Study of political activities and political practices: - Modern political science along with the study of political activities of a person, also studies his behavior. The focus of its study is human bravery, and mainly studies the political aspects of human behavior. Rather than focusing on the study of government and other political institutions, it emphasis on the study of operational power and human behavior of these institutions.
5 Study of public consent and general opinion: - Modern political science, on any topic, studies the views, opinions, consents and disagreements of the committees and various people. It acquires the knowledge of people’s attitude and thoughts through research. For this, methods of compiling, verifying, analyzing, etc. are also adopted.
Conclusion: - In conclusion, it is clear that the nature of the study of modern politics has increased considerably. It also emphasizes on the study of various actions of individual and the government. And inter-disciplinary studies are being conducted under this, which has increased the importance of political science, and today it also provides reliable solutions for various problems.
In present time, day by day the importance of politics is increasing. Through this, it is possible to study various ambiences and disposition in the country and abroad. Major political scholar has considered this as a most important subject, and acknowledging it as master science, it was said that inclusion of every subject, is to be studied in political science, which gives it the most important place. Particularly, since 20th century the study of inter-disciplinary has been mainly emphasized.
Whole world’s concept of study and views are various. They have their own perceptions and disciplines. When different various topics are made within one topic, and then this is known as inter-disciplinary. Political science is a wide subject which can be seen related to law, philosophy, environment and social science, etc. this is the reason that the study of this concept is known as the most important study. Under this art and science both can be found. Because of this, the name political science is given. Penncok and Smith said that, in the form of political discipline, human elements like politics, civil administration, etc, along with political arts, science philosophy, all have to maintain a cohesion and co-ordination.
According to Arnandra Brekht, work of political scientists is that they political behavior, imaginary development, in relation with their meaning and result they present their scientific conclusions. Political scientists should not stay as silent audience thinking that political science cannot stand the tests of physical science. Political scientists want that, the promotion of disciplinary science of political science should be done, along with basic modern knowledge; politics should provide consultancy and other support for reconstruction. Political science should not pursue physics, in its bread meaning it should maintain a relationship with art and philosophy.
For the development of this, in the study of politics, through the study of inter-disciplinary, it is necessary to study the self-development of political science by trying to solve the problem in various sectors.
Characteristics of inter-disciplinary method:-
1 Traditionalist Views: - According to traditionalist views, the meaning of the concept of inter-disciplinary, in this systematic efforts to develop any subject of this particular field with the help of technical, achievements facts, and results. To assimilate to other subjects under this, they are inspired to judge critically and show gratitude for their source and writing. Socialization used in current political theory is an example of accustomed sociology. Under this, various sciences’ like Austin’s principle of sovereignty also comes under political science. History, religion, etc. were the main subjects of the study of political science in 1880, which still have influence.
2 Empiricist Ideas: - The concept of empiricist ideas derives from the different branches of American political science: - behaviourism and analytical are the result of the system. The main contributors are Charles Merriam, Lasswell, etc. Economics is same a study method and every arguments has the same effect in this. Because of this every subject is included in political science, because the formulation and implementation of rules in field is the work of political science.
3 Marxist Ideas: - According to Marx, the concept of historical materialism is the basic of the subject. According to Marxist, human history is progressive, dialectical and a unified process. The Marxist approach can be understood by studying various elements of history like political system, society, and cultural as a part of human history, which clearly shows the inter-disciplinary study of political science.
The importance and development of inter-disciplinary:-
1 The importance of studying political behavior: - The Human Behavior is not just political behavior; otherwise it is only a side of the whole behavior, it was felt important to study the overall behavior in order to study the behavior, which is the material for the study of various types of social science. Therefore, for political science, it is important to study, the social, economic, religious, moral, and accustomed factors, the influencers of political behavior of a person. That’s why; in order to study politics the study of inter-disciplinary is being done.
2 Social systems is the basis of political system: - Political system is the only helping hand of the entire social system, because the political system cannot work independently. Political system is not successful without the study of inter-disciplinary.
3 Use of various principles of social science in politics: - Various social sciences’ constitutional consideration and model, is used in the study of inter-disciplinary and is used for solving various problem of politics. The use of economics, philosophy and sociology in this makes political science most effective.
4 Use of various social science data in politics: - The belief of inter-disciplinary is that, the different factors of society are closely related to each other, and this is the reason that the study of one is not possible without the content and data of the either parties. Therefore the use of every scripture is necessary. So, the political scientist must study the economic condition and social organizations of the society.
Conclusion: - After the study of the points mentioned above, it is clear that the study inter-disciplinary can be done on a vast level and it is almost related to every topic. That’s why humans are very important, which are helping it getting the place of master science.
Key concepts of Politics:-
At present the study of political science is of most important. Nowadays, every political thinker believes that where politics is concerned with the politics of an organized social life of a man. There political science is concerned with methodical knowledge of political institutions, behavior, processes and a result related to these things. Many prominent scholars have explained many major concepts of political science. One of them is the following.
1) Experimental: - This is one of the most important concepts of political science. The concept of sociality is used in the study of natural science. Those things, whose truthfulness have to be checked, on that; many experiments are done inside the laboratory. Results of chemistry and physics are always true. Lord Bryce in his famous book “Modern Democracies” wrote that, in physics one after another continuous experiments are done till the time, until a final result is not found. But in politics we can’t do the same experiment again and again. Once an experiment is failed we have to try another experiment. In physics it might be true. There is a possibility in political science.
In political science it is not possible to do experiments like physics and nor does it contain the true and irrevocable principles like them. Nevertheless, such principles are created under political science, which are often subjected to the same type of situation. For example, if government makes a law and the public accepts it, then that experiment is considered successful. For example, article 370 is heading towards a success, but there’s also some opposition. Today, the Panchayat system is being mostly successful in the field of rural development. This is the reason that political science is being successful in the development of rural sector. Famous scholar Comte had said that “every change within a state is a political experiment.”
2) Historical point of view: - Political science has always thought of history as laboratory. It is a source and resolution of various kinds of events of human life. The story of rise and fall of human civilization and culture is hidden in it. Every governmental organization’s root can be found in the pages of history. So, the study of history is very essential in order to get the full knowledge of origin and success of any political organization. Its main supporters are seal and freemen. In reference to, the Constitution of India we can say that more than half of the provisions have been taken in from the old Act of 1935, which is clearly evident from the study of Indian Constitution. In this way, it is clear that history has a deep relationship with political science.
3) Comparative: - It is also a major concept in the study of political science. Its major supporters are Aristotle, Montesquieu, Bryce, and etc. Aristotle was the first person to adopt this method. After, the deep study of the constitution and governance of 158 countries, it was concluded that the economic inequality promote revolution.
As far as the Indian Constitution is concern, after studying many major countries of the world, the Constitution of India was made. For example, in India parliamentary system is from Britain, Fundamental Rights are from America and the emergency power of President is taken from Weimer Constitution of Germany.
Thus, the correct use of comparative concept is necessary in political science.
1) Supervision: - It is also a major concept in the study of political science. It was used in Italy, Aristotle, and etc. According to this, the deep examination of various countries and their diverse arrangements of government work system, etc., are studied. After that, here, we make a proper use of the political system. For example, a clear imprint of various countries is on the communist doctrine and education of Pluto.
In modern times, twenty two followed this system, and deeply studied the social system of America, Canada, France, Australia, and other countries, and in their creation modern democracies, its clearly glimpses can be seen.
5) Philosopher: - It’s main supporter Pluto, Russo, etc. Under them, in relation to some persistent truths and objectives, some things are said by various philosophers by keep their point, which are profitable for political system. For example, in India’s context, Gandhi’s approach to panchayat rule is very important, but should not say a wrong philosophical view. For example, Plato speculated ‘Order State’ under his creation republic. That seems beyond the truth. Thus, it is important to have the right philosophical vision.
6 Sociological: - It is also a main concept of political science. The outline of a person’s behavior depends largely on the social and cultural set. From this point of view, sociological concept is important in the study of political science. Activities, etc., will be complete by studying sociology.
7 Psychologies: - In the study of political science, humans are the main subject. And under this, the psychological, and emotional, and other thoughts of humans are observed as a scientific concept. Its main scholars are McDougal and Harold Laswell. By the supporters of this concept, the contradiction of traditional believes is done, as it told that in political science intellectual facts along with non-intellectual facts, also have place. Then they said, as conscience is important in the world of politics, and then unconscious is equally important place in human world. A correct conclusion cannot be derived by ignoring it.
Conclusion: - As a matter of fact we can say that, there are far more concepts in political science and political science fulfill its broad objective in all the areas, by studying all of the main and positive facts.
