UNIT 3
INDIAN AGRICULTURE
1. Support to National Income:
From the very beginning, agriculture is contributing a nain portion to our worth . In 1950-51, agriculture and allied activities contributed about 59 regardless of the total value . Although the share of agriculture has been declining gradually with the expansion of other sectors but the share still remained very high as compared thereto of the developed countries of the earth . As an example , the share of agriculture has declined to 54 %in 1960-61, 48 %in 1970-71, 40 %in 1980-81 then to 18.0 %in 2008-09, whereas in U.K. And U.S.A. Agriculture contributes only 3 refers back to the worth of these countries.
2. Source of Living:
In India over two-thirds of our working population are engaged directly on agriculture and also similarly depend for his or her living. According to an estimate, about 66 %of our working population is engaged in agriculture at this as compared thereto of two to 3 %in U.K. And U.S.A., 6 %in France and 7 %in Australia. Thus the use pattern of our country is extremely much common to other under-developed countries of the earth .
3.Main Source of Food Supply:
Agriculture is that the most source of food supply because it's providing regular supply of food to such a huge size of population of our country. It has been estimated that about 60 head consumption is met by agricultural products.
4. Contribution of Agriculture for Industrial Development:
Agriculture in India has been the nain source of supply of raw materials to varied important industries of our country. Cotton and jute textiles, sugar, vanaspati, edible oil plantation industries (viz. Tea, coffee, rubber) and agro-based cottage industries are also regularly collecting their raw materials directly from agriculture.
About 50 %of income generated within the manufacturing sector comes from of those agro-based industries in India. Moreover, agriculture can provide a marketplace for industrial products as increase within the extent of agricultural income may cause expansion of marketplace for industrial products.
5. Commercial Value:
Indian Agriculture is playing a very important role both within the interior and external trade of the country. Agricultural products like tea, coffee, sugar, tobacco, spices, cashew-nuts etc. are the foremost items of our exports and constitute about 50 %of our total exports. Besides manufactured jute, cotton textiles and sugar also contribute another 20 regardless of the total exports of the country. Thus nearly 70 %of India’s exports are originated from agricultural sector. Further, agriculture helps the country in earning precious exchange to satisfy the required import bill of the country.
6. Source of state Earning:
Agriculture is one of the nain sources of revenue to both the Central and State Governments of the country. The govt. Is getting a substantial income from rising land revenue. Another sectors like railway, roadways are also deriving an honest a neighborhood of their income from the movement of agricultural goods.
7. Role of Agriculture in Economic Planning:
The prospect of designing in India also depends much on agricultural sector. An honest crop always provides impetus towards a planned economic development of the country by creating a much better business climate for the transport system, manufacturing industries, internal trade etc.
A good crop also brings an honest amount of finance to the govt. For meeting its planned expenditure. Similarly, a nasty crop cause an entire depression in business of the country, which ultimately cause a failure of economic planning. Thus the agricultural sector is playing a very important role during a rustic like India and thus the prosperity of the Indian economy still largely depends on agricultural sector. Thus from the foregoing analysis it's observed that agricultural development is that the essential precondition of sectoral diversification and development of the economy.
An Enlarging quatity of agricultural output is extremely much essential in India for:
(i) Enlarging supply of food and raw materials at non-inflationary prices;
(ii) Widening the local marketplace for industrial products through higher purchasing capacities within the agricultural sector;
(iii) Facilitating inter-sectoral movement of capital needed for industrial development along-with infra-structural development;
(iv) Enlarging exchange earnings through Enlarging volume of agricultural exports.
During Independence there was very low productivity per hectare and per worker.
However, the previous trend of stedy agriculture was completely changed because of the introduction of economic planning since 1950-51, and with special emphasis on the agricultural development, after 1962.
(i) A slow and stable increase within the world under cultivation is noticed.
(ii) a substantial growth within the food crops is marked.
(iii) During the plan period there was a unbroken increase within the yield per hectare.
Importance of Agriculture in Indian Economy:
Though industry has been playing an important role in Indian economy, still the contribution of agriculture within the event of Indian economy cannot be denied.
This can be measured and gauged by the next facts and figures:
1. Agricultural influence on national income:
The contribution of agriculture during the first 20 years towards the gross domestic product ranged between 48 and 60%. Within the year 2001-2002, this contribution declined to only about 26%.
2. Agriculture plays vital role in generating employment:
In India a minimum of two-thirds of the working population earn their living through agricultural works. In India other sectors have failed generate much of employment opportunity the growing working populations.
3. Agriculture makes provision for food for the ever Enlarging population:
Due to the excessive pressure of population labour surplus economies like India and rapid increase within the demand for food, food production increases at a fast rate. The prevailing levels of food consumption within the se countries are very low and with slightly increase within the capita income, the demand for food rise steeply (in other words it are often stated that the income elasticity of demand for food is extremely high in developing countries).
Therefore, unless agriculture is during a position to continuously increase it marketed surplus of food grains, a crisis is wish to emerge. Many developing countries are passing through this phase and through a bid to ma the Enlarging food requirements agriculture has been developed.
4. Contribution to capital formation:
There is general agreement on the necessity capital formation. Since agriculture happens be the foremost important industry in developing country like India, it can and must play an important role in pushing up the speed of capital formation. If it fails to undertake to to so, the whole process economic development will suffer a setback.
To extract surplus from agriculture the next policies are taken:
(i) Transfer of labour and capital from farm non-farm activities.
(ii) Taxation of agriculture should be in such how that the burden on agriculture is greater than the govt. Services provided to agriculture. Therefore, generation of surplus from agriculture will ultimately depend on Enlarging the agricultural productivity considerable
5. Supply of staple to agro-based industries:
Agriculture supplies raw materials to varied agro-based industries like sugar, jute, cotton textile and vanaspati industries. Food processing industries are similarly enthusiastic to agriculture. Therefore the event of these industries entirely depends on agriculture.
6. Marketplace for industrial products:
Increase in rural purchasing power is extremely necessary for industrial development as two- thirds of Indian population sleep in villages. After revolution the purchasing power of the huge farmers increased because of their enhanced income and negligible tax burden.
7. Influence on internal and external trade and commerce:
Indian agriculture plays a crucial role in internal and external trade of the country. Internal trade food-grains and other agricultural products helps within the expansion of service sector.
8. Contribution in government budget:
Right from the first Five Year Plan agriculture is taken under consideration because the prime revenue collecting sector for the both central and state budgets. However, the governments earn huge revenue from agriculture and its allied activities like cattle rearing, farming , poultry farming, fishing etc. Indian railway in conjunction with the state transport system also earn a handsome revenue as freight charges for agricultural products, both-semi finished and finished ones.
9. Need of labour force:
A large number of skilled and unskilled labourers are required for the event works and in other fields. This labour is supplied by Indian agriculture.
10. Greater competitive advantages:
Indian agriculture features a price advantage in several agricultural commodities within the export sector thanks to low labour costs and self- sufficiency in input supply.
(i) Before Independence:
It may be seen that in the quantity 1901 to 1947, agricultural production declined.
The population increase by 38 %while the increase in cultivated area was to the extent of 18 percent. The annual production of food grains and pulses remained almost constant.
Farming
CEILING ON LAND HOLDINGS
• It means fixing maximum size of land holding that an individual/family can own.
• Land over and above the ceiling limit, called surplus land.
• if the individual/family owns more land than the ceiling limit, the excess land is removed (with or without paying compensation to original owner)
• This surplus land is
a. Distributed among small farmers, tenants, landless labourers or
b. Handed over to village panchayat or
c. Given to cooperative farming societies.
Why Ceiling on land holdings?
1. Because DPSP Art.38 seeks to attenuate the inequalities of income, status, facilities and opportunities. Land ceiling minimize inequality within the land ownership and thus reduces inequality of income.
2. Because DPSP Art.39 wants to make sure that the operation of financial system doesn't end in the concentration of wealth. during a village, land wealth, hence land ceiling is important to stop concentration of wealth within the hands of few.
3. Because DPSP Art.39 wants to offer right to adequate means of livelihood for all citizens. Land ceiling (and subsequent land redistribution) provides self-employment opportunities to landless agricultural laborers.
4. If there's no land ceiling, rich farmers will buy all the land of entire village and tehsil. But since they can't cultivate all the land by themselves- they’ll ‘lease’ it to small farmers (tenants). farmer (tenant) doesn’t have any ‘motivation’ to figure harder because he doesn’t own the land and he has got to give 30-50-70% of the produce thereto rich farmer, as “rent”= exploitation.
5. So, After abolishing Zamindari, IF State Governments had not implemented Land ceiling, then rich farmers/superior tenants would became the new de-facto/virtual Zamindars of recent India.
Although, economists who believe free market / capitalism, donot like land ceiling. We’ll see their anti-land ceiling arguments at the top of this text . except for the instant , let’s continue with the idea that land ceiling is useful .
Land Ceiling: Advantage and Anti arguments
Like I said within the middle of the article- the economists believing in free market / capitalism- they don’t like land ceiling. So let’s hear their arguments
Anti-Land Ceiling Pro Land Ceiling
• Land ceiling should be abolished. Even corporate sector should be allowed to shop for agri. Land.
• This will enable the enterprising farmer to enlarge his holding by buying or leasing lands of small farmers.
• Although landlessness will increase but these small farmers could find employment in agri. And allied sector as a results of capitalist mode of production. • Agricultural income= exempted from tax .
• So, if land ceilings are removed, the rich people will rush to shop for farm land.
• Thus land prices will soar. a replacement ‘intermediary’ group of Agri.land mafia will emerge.
• But many small and marginal farmers are going to be pushed off their land.
• Hence, the time isn't yet ripe to cause such drastic reforms (of removing land ceilings).
• Capitalist mode of agriculture=>more surplus income=> invested back to the agriculture economic growth.
• if corporate sector is allowed to enter in agriculture=> Agri. Exports will increase more exchange incoming Current Account deficit gone, rupee will strengthen. • Capitalist mode of agriculture uses more machines, less laborersunemployment increased.
• Yes, economic process are going to be achieved but at the value of unemployment and subsequent fall in human development.
• small farms aren't productive because they hinder mechanised farming
• Small farmers have limited capital to take a position in improving agro. Production. • large farms tend to prefer monoculture (single crop), because they will be easily managed with heavy machinery. More vulnerable to pest attacks, not good from soil fertility point of view.
• Small farmers usually have mixed crops (intercropping), they combine and rotate crops and livestock, with manure => soil fertility improves.
• Land ceiling and distribution => poverty and disguised unemployment continues.
• Some people got to be shifted from agricultural sector to manufacturing/service sector. there's no got to give land to every and each landless person. • Villagers should be kept self-employed, albeit on small and marginal farms.
• This fits with Gandhian ideas of village republics.
Land Ceilings: Benefits/Advantages/Positive Points
With political Will
States with political will in favour of land ceiling=showed great progress.
Example
1. Jammu and Kashmir, Land ceiling laws fully implemented and by the center of 1955 about 230,000 acres of surplus land had been handed over to tenants and landless labourers, that too without having to pay any compensation.
2. West Bengal had but 3% of total cultivate land in India. Yet quite 25% of the entire surplus land that was distributed throughout India, belonged to WB.
Production increased
1. Earlier large tracts of wasteland belonging to big zamindars/farmers remain uncultivated. Now this given to landless laborers= increases area under cultivation=food security.
2. More Production: Equal distribution of land will encourage intensive cultivation leading to increased agricultural production.
3. Some Farm management studies conducted in India testified that tiny farms yielded more production per hectare. it's so because relations themselves cultivate small farms.
4. Even one hectare of land is additionally an economic holding lately on account of improvement in agricultural technique. Hence, small size of holding thanks to ceiling won't have any adverse effect on agricultural production.
5. a number of the Land owners shifted to direct ‘efficient’ farming so as to urge ‘exemption’ from land ceiling.
Employment increased
1. Landless laborer= gets employment only during sowing and harvesting season but now he given land ownership = he's 24/7 self-employed farmer.
2. Albeit he didn't get land, still other farmers got land=> more demand for agri.labourers= wage bargaining power increased.
3. In other words, land ceiling increased employment opportunities.
Naxal reduced
1. With reduction in inequality among the villagers, possibility of sophistication struggle are going to be minimised.
2. they're going to accept perfect peace and harmony and not join Maoists/Naxals movements any more . (atleast in theory)
Social Justice
3. during a rural economy, whoever controls land, controls the facility .
4. Land ceiling Reduced this power inequality among villagers.
5. Promoted spirit of cooperation among villagers.
Ceiling on Landholdings was imposed together of the measures of agrarian reform in India after independence to redistribute land and land properties. the most aim of those ceilings was the demolition of the massive amount of land properties that had been captured by the large landowners.
• Reasons behind the ceiling:
Before independence, British government created a "Zamindari" system through which the Zamindars, i.e the large land owners, had the facility to take advantage of the poor farmers. they might also forcefully acquire the land of the farmer. There was no limit of this land occupation also .
Even the intermediaries between landholders and Government, developed by British , also captured the land of the cultivators.. Therefore, the farmers were hardly interested to take a position .
So, after independence, the ceiling for landholdings was absolutely necessary for tenancy reform and proper redistribution of land.
• Rules of the Ceilings for Landholdings:
At first, the limit was set just for those landholdings or land properties which might be captured in future. But later, a hard and fast upper limit was set for the quantity of landholdings. If the dimensions of land exceeded the prescribed limit then that might be taken by the govt and redistributed to the tiny and marginal farmers.
The landholders got the selection to make a decision which a part of the land they might give if the quantity of land exceeded the ceiling limit. therefore the obvious result was that the majority of the acquired land were infertile and wastelands. So afterward , the selection was transfered to the govt and therefore the limit was set in terms of land utility.
• Effects:
The ceilings for landholdings abolished the concept of massive land property and helped the tenancy reforms.
By the imposition of ceilings, land were redistributed in an equitable manner and no big landowners could capture the lands unlimitedly. This also helped to develop an honest land management system.
CONSOLIDATION OF LAND HOLDINGS
1. Converting many small and fragmented holdings into one big farm.
2. Process by which farmers are convinced to urge , one or two compact farms in situ of their fragmented farms.
3. Process during which farmers’ fragmented land holdings are pooled then re-allotted them during a way that every gets one farm of getting same total size and fertility like his previous fragmented landholdings.
Land Consolidation: Benefits, Advantages, Positive points
1. Scientific methods of cultivation, better irrigation, mechanization = possible on consolidated holdings = reduces cost of production + increases income.
2. Saves farmer’s time, energy and money in moving from one farm to the opposite .
3. Farmer feels encouraged to spend money on the development of his land.
4. No land is wasted in making boundaries between tiny farms.
5. Surplus land after consolidation are often used for construction of gardens, school, Panchayat Ghar, roads, play grounds and desi liquor dens for the advantage of entire village.
Land consolidation: Difficulties, Obstacles,
Negative points
1. Indian farmer has orthodox mindset. He doesn't want to spare the land of his ancestors, albeit it the principles of recent agri.science/business management advocate land consolidation.
2. Rich farmers own large tracts of fertile land. They oppose consolidation fearing another farmer will get a part of their fertilize land. (And typical frog mindset: if I cannot climb out of well, no problem, but I’ll not let the other frog to climb out of well either.)
3. In many areas, farming done on oral agreements, there are not any paper records.
4. Land quality/Price within tehsil will vary counting on irrigation and fertility. So, one farmer will need to pay money (or receive money) counting on land quality, while they exchange their land with one another .
5. But this price determination is difficult due to lack of land surveys, agri.surveys and inefficient/corrupt revenue officials.
6. Revenue official @village / Tehsil level are inefficient and not trained during this sort of technical work.
Consolidation of Holdings
The term ‘Consolidation of holdings’ refers to amalgamation and redistribution of the fragmented land with a view to bringing together all plots of land of a cultivator in one compact block. Thanks to growing pressure of population ashore and therefore the limited opportunities for add the non-agricultural sector, there's an increasing trend towards sub-division and fragmentation of land holdings. This makes the task of irrigation management, land improvement and private supervision of various plots very difficult. After independence, most states excepting Tamil Nadu , Kerala, Manipur, Nagaland, Tripura and parts of Andhra Pradesh enacted laws for consolidation of holdings. But the character of legislation and therefore the degree of success achieved varied widely. While in Punjab (including Haryana) it had been made compulsory, in other states law provided for consolidation on voluntary basis, if majority of the land owners agreed.
The consolidation acts provided for
(i) prohibition of fragmentation below standard area,
(ii) fixation of minimum standard area for regulating transfers,
(iii) schemes of Consolidation by exchange of holdings,
(iv) reservation of land for common areas,
(v) procedure for payment of compensation to persons allotted holdings of less market price in exchange,
(vi) administrative machinery for carrying consolidation schemes, and
(viii) filing of objections, appeals and penalties.
However, thanks to lack of adequate political and administrative support, the progress made in terms of consolidation of holding wasn't very satisfactory, excepting in Punjab, Haryana and western Uttar Pradesh where the task of consolidation was 39 accomplished. But in these states, there's a requirement for reconsolidation again thanks to subsequent fragmentation of holdings under the population pressure.
COOPERATIVE FARMING
It refers to an organisation in which:
1. Each member-farmer remains the owner of his land individually.
2. But farming is completed jointly.
3. Profit is distributed among the member-farmers within the ratio of land owned by them.
4. Wages distributed among the member-farmers consistent with number of days they worked.
In other words, Cooperative farming= pooling of land and practicing joint agriculture. Cooperative farming isn't a replacement concept in India. Since past , Indian farmers are giving international logistic support to every other in weeding, harvesting etc. Examples
Benefits/advantages/potential:
1. Economies of scale:
a. Because the size of farm increases, the per hectare cost of using tube-well, tractor comes down.
b. Small farms=some land is wasted in forming the ‘boundaries’ among them. When they’re combined into an enormous cooperative farm, we will also cultivate thereon boundary land.
c. Overall, Large farms are economically more beneficial than small farms.
2. Solves the matter of sub-division and fragmentation of holdings.
3. Cooperative farm has more men-material-money resources to extend irrigation potential and land productivity. Members wouldn't are ready to roll in the hay individually on their small farm.
4. Case studies generally means that with cooperative farming, per acre production increases.
1951-1956
• Apart from Cooperative farming, it also recommended ‘Cooperative Village Management’ as a more comprehensive solution for rural development.
• Encourage small and middle farmers to make cooperative farming societies
• If majority of farmers agreed to start out cooperative farming, then decision are going to be binding on the whole village.
• But didn't mention giving enforcement powers to States.
• Result ~2000 cooperative farming societies formed during the primary Plan period.
1956-61
• 1956: Indian delegations sent to China to review their cooperative farming. Recommended this techniques in to extend grain production.
• Develop cooperative farming as soon as possible.
• Target: Setup a minimum of one cooperative farm in every National Extension Block, or about 5000 for the entire country.
• Hoped to convert substantial proportion of Indian farms into cooperative farming by a period of ten years.
1961-66
• Observed that almost 40% of the cooperative farms aren't functioning properly.
• Advocated better implementation of community development program, credit societies, agri-marketing etc. for getting success in cooperative farming.
• 300 pilot projects in selected district. Each project having 10 cooperatives societies.
• Overall, Third Five year plan tried to place a brave face, again reaffirming the government’s faith in cooperative farming, but overall, wishful platitude not an idea of action.
1969-74
1. Observed that cooperative farming programs haven't made any substantial progress.
2.it's not been possible to propose any additional programmes for cooperative farming during this Plan
3. Instead, we should always specialise in development of agricultural credit, marketing, processing and consumer needs.
4. In co-operative farming, funding priority just for revitalizing of the prevailing weak societies.
5. But avoid fixing new cooperative farming societies, unless they need a possible for growth.
So, overall we will see that by early 70s, Planning commission’s faith/interest in cooperative farming is vanishing.
1974-79
1. Made no mention of cooperative farming.
2. It did allot some cash under the heading “Cooperation”, but it had been only meant for inter-farm co-operative service facilities e.g. Seed-fertilizer-water supply, use of tractors/agro-machineries etc.
After this era, five year plans give more attention (and cash) to wasteland management, poverty removal etc. and cooperative farming loses its relevance.
Failures
1) Miscalculations and false hopes
Early planners and policymakers had hoped that
1. Village panchayat and (Congress) party workers will help implementing cooperative farming, but response was lukewarm.
2. Cooperative farming = government will need to spend less money on agriculture (+less leakage in subsidies). But the scenario didn’t change.
• During 2nd FYP, the National Development Council proposed that within the next five years agricultural production be increased by 25-35% via cooperative farming. But most government shied faraway from taking necessary initiatives.
Bogus Farms
By and enormous Cooperative farming societies fell into two categories:
Big farmers = bogus farms
• They’d setup bogus cooperative farms by showing agri.labourers/tenants as bogus members. But actually none of them owned the land individually.
• This was done to evade land ceiling and tenancy reform laws.
• Adding insult to the injury: government even gave them subsidies for seeds, fertilizers etc.
• At times, non-working members had been enrolled so as to fulfil the minimum requirements of registration.
• Even in legit/genuine cooperative farming societies, the rich farmers dominate the management positions.
• Sometimes societies setup with members of only one or two families to urge various subsidies/support.
Fertilizer:
In the traditional agriculture nutrient supply to plants was from the organic sources except some fertilizers like sodium nitrate, (NaNO3, or ammonium sulphate (NH4SO4) was used which were utilized by progressive fanners otherwise farm yard manure, compost and oilcakes like neem were applied to soil.
These organic manures supplied a smaller percentage of major nutrients to plant also as micro-nutrients but there have been other ancillary advantages : these organic manures improved the soil fertility in an indirect manner by improving the physical and biological properties of soil just like the water holding capacity of soil increased in direct proportion of the availability of OM (organic matter), by the development in soil colour the heat absorbing capacity increased, the OM made the soil more pours by improving the soil structure leading to proper aeration. Additionally the population of beneficial microorganism increased which readily released the nutrient for the plant intake.
With the event of scientific agriculture and introduction of recent technology the importance of chemical fertilizer increased. Mere application of organic matter doesn't fulfill the nutrient requirements of the crop and thus has got to be made up through the appliance of fertilizers.
The crops and their varieties vary within the nutrient requirement and to reap the advantages of the full potential a balanced application of plant nutrient may be a must. The three major elements are nitrogen, phosphorus, and potash called NPK. There's a particular proportion during which these elements are required by the plants.
The fertilizers currently used are urea, di- ammonium-phosphate, mutate of potash, ammonium sulphate, soda niter etc. These fertilizers have different composition in terms of the three elements. As per recommendation of scientists a calculation is formed depending on the source of OM and fertilizer and it's calculated on how much quantity of those OM and fertilizer be mixed for the basal or later applications.
Since these fertilizers become an important a part of the modern farming these should be available to the farmers in each season within the quantity required at the reasonable cost and at the time needed.
The ideal utilization of fertilizer could only be possible when proper marketing of this important input is undertaken. It is, therefore, important to predict the demand for fertilizers with reasonable accuracy at the national and regional levels.
The idea of demand is sound, but it's useful tool only the systematic distribution is well organised. The entire exercise are going to be less useful if farms aren't furnished with the sort of fertilizer they need , at the time they have them, in quantities they require, and at the reasonable price.
Neglect of those aspects of distribution could lead on to the intense imbalance of the demand and supply at the farm level. The performance of the system of distribution is thus a very important consideration in estimating demand for fertilizers. It's regretful that it's a neglected area.
As a consequences of the expansion of irrigation facilities the area under HYV, and therefore the consumption of fertilizers in India has increased substantially from 1.5 million tonnes in 1967-68 to 11.04 million tonnes in 1988-89 to again 12.7 million tonnes in 1991-92 of nutrients NPK.
The consumption of fertilizer is correlated with the area under HYV crops. Table 6.2 gives the consumption of fertilizers from 1970-71 to 1992-93 in million tonnes in India. Similarly, table 6.3 gives the area under HYV crops like paddy, wheat, jowar, bajra and maize in million hectares for the amount 1979-80 to 1992-93.
The demand for fertilizer depends on the prices and therefore the availability of complementary inputs like irrigation and powerful relationship with product prices. The domestic production of fertilizer in India has not been sufficient to satisfy the wants and thus dependence on import became a requirement. Table 6.4 gives the production of fertilizer within the country and import and subsidies.
Only nitrogenous and phosphatic fertilizers are manufactured in India but the potassic fertilizers are exclusively imported. India doesn't produce the complete fertilizer needed by the farmers. There's a gap which is met by the import of the difference within the case of nitrogenous and phosphatic fertilizers but potassic is entirely imported.
Application of Fertilizers:
Agriculture department was recognized in 1905 and stress was paid on soil study and soil conditions which were reported to be deficient in plant nutrients. The essential fact is that the increased agricultural production is said to the increased consumption of fertilizer. In India the consumption of fertilizer per hectare is low as compared to developed countries. Table 6.6 gives the comparison.
The fertilizer doses are supported field experiments, crop variety, water availability, soil characteristics, and management efficiency. To realize economy and efficiency in fertilizer use soil testing is vital . The initial fertility level of soil because it is formed from the parent rocks and their reaction and interaction which end in soil types.
When manures and fertilizers are added they react with the soil constituents, thereby, altering the relative properties and form looking on the chemical, physical and micro-biological conditions of the soil.
The amount of nutrients removed by the crop varies widely depending on the species and sorts of plants, yields of grains and straw, moisture availability, soil reaction and other environmental conditions under which plants are gown. The analysis of grain and straw will indicate the extent of depletion by the crop and would help within the level and type of replenishment.
The natural recurpation takes place with the assistance of symbiotic and non-symbiotic bacteria’s, the instance of the previous is Rhizobium and the later Azotobacter. Green manuring helps in enhancing nitrogen content of the soil by natural process.
Under the waterlogging conditions, particularly within the production of paddy crops, blue-green algae are known to fix atmospheric nitrogen. Various techniques are evolved for these practices. Nitrogen is definitely lost and has got to be applied with certain precautions and care, on the opposite hand phosphate and potash are obtained from the soil source.
There are three classes products which add directly the nutrients or indirectly help their availability both in organic and chemical fertilizer form:
1. Chemical fertilizer-NPK;
2. Organic sources like FYM, compost, night soil, organic waste;
3. Soil amendments to correct soil reactions or adjust the pH value of soil.
Nutrient balance in soil is extremely important because plants demand proper balance of those nutrients. If the nutrient availability is in an unbalanced state these are reflected through the crop by the characteristic symptoms. The nutrition of the crop plant would maximize potential yields as shown by experiments. Specific crops have specific ration balance of the NPK within the sort of N2, P2O5 K2O.
Machinery:
There are a spread of implements utilized in the modern scientific agriculture but the most basic implements utilized in Indian agriculture are: Khurpi, sickle, spade, pickage, desi plough, patella and other local models are—local, models of hoes, harrows, cultivators, seed drill (malabasa) etc.
Efforts toward developing better implements started in 1900 by L.K. Kirloskar in his firm the manufacturing of agricultural implement and machinery started.
The Royal Commission on Agriculture (1928) laid emphasis on mass production of an inexpensive iron plough easily pulled by bullocks to switch desi plough because in England Jethro Tull had invented the soil turning plough which proved highly beneficial to tillage operation.
Mould board ploughs became extremely popular in India. At the Allahabad Agricultural Institute under the guidance of Prof. Mason Waugh Wahwah plough and cultivators and Shabash plough and cultivators were manufactured besides hand implements like hoe and rake which were very convenient to work and least tiring were manufactured.
Agricultural Development Society at Naini a factory established by the Allahabad Agricultural Institute, started producing agricultural implements on large scale.
Also came into manufacture of Punjab, U.P., No. 1 and 2 ploughs, Kanpur cultivators, Olpad Threshers etc. Now, variety of firms and factories are involved in manufacturing of agricultural machinery and implements.
Also development of seed drills, sugarcane crushers, diesel pump sets and other water lifting devices hand chaff cutter and use of pneumatic tyres and bullock carts came into use. Engineering cell has been created.
Education in agricultural engineering started at the Allahabad Agricultural Institute and now the State Universities and other agricultural colleges have agricultural engineering or technology departments:
1. Tillage implements:
Ploughs both mould board, disc, desi.
2. Seed bed preparation implements:
Harrows, clod crushers, levellers, and other general tillage implements.
3. Seeding implements. Seed drills:
Tractor run or bullock pulled.
4. Weeding and inter culture:
Cultivators and harrows.
5. Harvesting, Threshing and Winnowing:
Threshers, combines, reaper, power operated or wind operated or hand operated winnowers.
6. Water lifting devices:
Tube wells, pumping sets, charsa, moot. Egyptian screw, Rahat, Dhenkali, duggali etc.
7. Miscellaneous appliances and hand tools:
Spades, crowbars, handhoes, rakes, khurpi, sickles, etc.
General Improvements:
In India the essential tools of operation and power are hand tools and bullock drawn implements and bullock or buffalo as implements and power respectively. The work performed are hard and inefficient at an equivalent time.
The rewards of the hard work within the agricultural operation in terms of productivity doesn't commensurate. The rationale for the low yield has been that farmer are often unable to hold out the varied operations in time and efficiently.
Under the above observations a team from the Michigan State University from USA recommended that:
1. Adoption of tools for more efficient work performance efficiently .
2. Minimize fatigue by improved balance and dealing position.
3. Reduce injury or wear to man and animals.
4. Keep weight low for easy transport.
5. Construct tools from the locally and readily available materials.
6. Choose the foremost simple design appropriate to the work .
7. Design for specific tasks, and with only simple adjustment.
8. The tools or implements must require the smallest amount maintenance cost and preparation to be used .
9. Construct that the parts could fit together just one way.
10. Secure firm fastening between handle and blade.
11. Eliminate wherever, possible, the necessity for wrench or spanner or special tools for adjustments.
12. Make simple tools clamps with no nut or pieces to loose.
13. Use self-locking pin chained to border for joining parts.
14. Design to accommodate high work-loads caused by unusually dry and hard conditions (animal tools bars should be capable of picking up to 454 kgs.
15. Give careful attention to improving draw bar hitches.
These points should be kept in mind while making improvements in tools or implements.
In general, the objectives should be to develop implements and machinery which can raise productivity, reduce drudgery and which may be worked with ease, speed and accuracy. In designing new implements local talents shouldn't be ignored.
In the field of mechanical and electric power, it's the tractor which is that the most versatile in farming operations. All tillage operations might be performed through it. It also can be used for stationary jobs like threshing, operating any machine like water pumps, harvesting crops or threshing. It's versatile use.
The design and development work which has been going on within the early sixties and seventies in India were for the subsequent machinery:
1. Seed bed preparation and land shaping.
2. Seedling and planting machinery.
3. Machinery for fertilizer application.
4. Equipment of inter cultivation.
5. Plant protection equipment.
6. Harvesting equipment.
7. Threshing and processing equipment.
It has been felt that there's a good need for:
(a) Quality control-ISI standard,
(b) Need for market survey and demand studies,
(c) Supply and service.
(d) Employment opportunities—in the firms manufacturing agricultural machinery and equipment.
Irrigation:
Irrigation is that the artificial application of water to crops. Within the rainy season if the spread of rainfall is evenly distributed and rains within the right intensity the crops are raised as rainfed crops, if the rainfall is erratic and insufficient then supplemental irrigation is required . Within the Rabi season, during the amount of receding monsoon irrigation is required which depends on the nature of the crop and its requirement.
During this era the crop production is very successful if assured irrigation is in existence. Therefore, irrigation is as much a basic infrastructure within the development efforts as roads, market facilities, credit agencies and other rural structures are.
In itself, it cannot do much by way of development but combined with other factors it creates a potentially favourable situation for agricultural development. When irrigation permits double or multiple cropping its potential to market changes is especially great.
Introduction of irrigation appreciates land value, it helps in adoption of innovations like double or multiple cropping except for this purpose other infrastructures got to exist.
Agricultural development in India heavily depends on the provision of irriga¬tion. However, water for irrigation appears to be potentially briefly supply within the country but consistent with R.K. Sivaappa, “India is endowed with abundant water resources. The typical precipitation (1250 mm over 328 million hectares) is about 400 MHM. Annual water resources in basins are estimated about 187 MHM. Thanks to tropical climate. India experiences spatial and temporal variations within the precipitation. About one-third area within the country is drought prone. There's a huge variation within the average per capita availability of water. Of the available water resources of 187 MHM about 69 MHM of the surface and 45 MHM of spring water is out there through conventional structures. This utilization is 60 MHM which is probably going to go up to 105-110 MHM by 2010-2020 AD. But many areas like Tamil Nadu , are facing water shortages. At an equivalent time certain regions have surplus thanks to large water resources potentials.”
By present estimate the ultimate potential through conventional sources is probably going to irrigate about 125 million hectares because of more ground water availability from 40-64 million hectares. If the water basin transfer is implemented a further of 35 million hectares are going to be under irrigation.
Development of Irrigation Potentials through the Plans has been as follows:
The irrigation is that the life of agriculture particularly within the use of modern technology in agriculture viz., HYV crops. The area under the HYV crop is on increase because the years roll on, and therefore the role of irrigation is spectacular.
Irrigation Needs of Crops:
Crop vary in their irrigation need supported dry matter and quantity of water relationship.
Following table gives irrigation needs for crops:
Crucial Role of Minor Irrigation:
Minor irrigation resources comprises of tube-well, surface wells, tanks, reservoirs, masonry well etc. Rainfed area accounts for 40 per cent of overall farm output.
The poor production in rainfed areas is that the cumulative effect of variety of things and major reasons are:
1. Erratic monsoon.
2. Unavailability of protective irrigation.
3. Resource poor farmers.
4. Cost intensive techniques.
5. Lack of credit facilities, and
6. Inadequate marketing facilities.
In India, minor irrigation covers an area of 55 million hectares, out of this 40 million hectares is covered by ground water and 15 million hectares by surface irrigation. The gestation period for a minor irrigation project is far but for major and medium projects. Minor irrigation is cost effective.
Therefore, minor irrigation should be utilized in rained areas by construction of tanks, malabandis, check dams, percolation wells including land treatment. Tank irrigation has the advantage of not having the ill effect of water-logging and salinity. With these facilities the rainfed agriculture will sustain production.
Types of Irrigation:
1. Sprinkler Irrigation:
Sprinkler irrigation system may be a mechanical device of throwing water with the help of a perforated iron tube or an iron tube having a nozzle with water spraying device covering a radius of some meters with a force created by the pressure of water at the source.
There are losses in canal, tank irrigation by seepage but sprinkler irrigation prevents seepage losses and controls irrigation. It's used for closely spaced crops like millets, pulses, oilseeds, and sugarcane. By this method about 30-40 per cent water are often saved.
To save upon the costly water which seems depleting from wells, the micro-irrigation (drip/mini sprinkler/bi-well) is suitable for all row crops, specially wide spaced and high valued crops. Studies have shown that about 50-70% water are often saved and therefore the crop yield also enhances by 10-70 per cent. Drip irrigation is prevalent in Maharashtra for crops like grapes, bananas, vegetables, oranges, and sugarcane.
2. Drip Irrigation:
The water use efficiency brings about impact in productivity, Thus, agro-tech scientists in advanced countries are engaged in evolving micro- irrigation systems since sixties. These are tested for reliability and economic Utilization and have adaptability to a vastly different agro-climatic conditions in several arid countries like Israel, Arabia and a part of USA.
The system is usually headed by a filter station and a control panel. It's a network of main, sub and lateral lines with emission points spaced along their length. Each emitter or orifice supplies a controlled, uniform and precise quantity of water drop in drop-right at the plant roots.
It performs an ideal conduit for delivery of fertilizers, nutrients and other required growth substances. Water nutrient enter the soil and more into the basis zones through the combined forces of gravity and capillarity .
Thus, the plants withdrawal of moisture and nutrients from the soil is replenished soon creating a continuing and more favourable root zone environment. Consequently, the plant does not suffer stress or shock. This enhances plant growth making it more even, vigorous, and optimum.
The increase in yield under drip irrigation goes up to 230%. There is’30% economy within the input costs of fertilizers, weedicides, pesticides, power, and irrigation. The operating expense and want for installation and other farm operations are reduced by 50 per cent.
The plant growth is quicker by 49% leading to early fruiting and high market realization and there's uniformity and quality in fruit making, grading and standardization easy and meaningful.
The system of irrigation can bring under farming those areas like desert, hilly regions, salty and waterlogged soils area. The water use efficiency is as high as 95% as compared to furrow and flood irrigation leading to 60% saving of water.
Various crops on one lakh acres are reported to possess been brought under drip irrigation. It's been very successful in most crops. It's been proved very beneficial for fruit crops like banana, grapes, pomegranate, citrus, mango, and custard apple. It's been efficacious for sugarcane as field crops and vegetables.
It has been found suitable for arid and semi-arid areas, black clay soils to sandy soils in hot regions of Rajasthan. Also, it's been found effective in cold regions of Jammu and Kashmir and Himachal Pradesh, for the fruit crops like apples, peaches and strawberries.
Drip irrigation may be a boon to small farmers because this system are often installed easily and quickly with none gestation . Micro-irrigation vastly improves the compatibility of growers to manage and manoeuvre the soil, water, crop, climate with greater ease and flexibility.
Irrigation Scene in India:
In India the irrigation potential has increased from 22.6 million hectares during the pre-plan period to 83.4 million hectares in 1992-93. Of this 31.3 million hectares are under major and medium irrigation and 52.1 million hectares under minor irrigation projects. Irrigation has been a priority under the Eighth plan. The use was 75.1 million hectares against the created potential of 83.4 million hectares.
There is a gap of 4.5 million hectares under major and medium and 3.8 million hectares under minor irrigation.
This gap is because of delay involved in development of on farm work like construction of field channels, land leveling and adoption of the water ‘warabandi’ system (network of distributions and movement over the command area) and finally time taken by the farmers in switching over to the new cropping pattern, i.e., from dry farming to irrigated farming.
In order to bridge the gap between potential and utilization a centrally sponsored command area development scheme (CAD) are initiated in 1974-75. The programme inter alia envisaged execution of the on farm development work like construction of field channels, and leveling and sloping, implementation of warabandi for rotational supply of water and construction of field drains.
In addition the programme also encompasses adaptive trials, demonstration and training of farmers and introduction of suitable cropping patterns.
As the observation goes there's an exact underutilization of potentials of irrigation. This average production is 2.2 tonnes per hectare under irrigated and 0.75 tonnes / hectare under non-irrigated land. This output per hectare under the two conditions got to be increased to 3.5 t/ha and 1.5 t/ha respectively.
In order to urge the desired food production it's necessary to bring gross irrigated to 150-160 million hectares by 2050. The irrigated area has increased from 22.6 million hectares to 90.0 million hectares from 1951 to 1995-96. The use of irrigation area is 80 million hectares but there's a niche of 10 million hectares.
This gap is as already mentioned earlier thanks to delay in construction of water channels, land leveling and switching over to irrigated crops like HYV. There's tons of innovation in irrigation technology but India’s response thereto is very slow.
We have surface irrigation in 99 per cent of the irrigated area and even here the water management practices haven't yet protracted, like giving irrigation to paddy only 5 cm depth after irrigated water disappears within the field and use of pair rows/steep furrows, alternate furrow irrigation for row crops.
Sprinkler irrigation is employed for six lakh hectares and drip irrigation in 1 lakh hectares only. Not much attention is paid to drainage. This results in waste of water and lower yields of crops. Water management practices, therefore, would need to necessarily include many advanced irrigation methods and non-conventional sources of water for irrigation.
There is over use of surface water. Rice consumes over 45% of irrigation water allotted to agriculture, even in Tamil Nadu it's 80%, but average productivity is just too low, 4-5 tonnes per hectare. The evaporation-transpiration (E & T) requirement for growing paddy is about 800-1000 mm.
In canal/tank command area farmers use 2000-2500 mm affecting yield as low output thanks to drainage problem and may be a wasteful practice. There's no got to flood paddy to a depth of 15-20 cm as is practiced but the needed depth is 3-5 cm thus reducing 30% water needs over this and which can increase the productivity also .
In row crops, cotton, sugarcane, vegetables the furrow method is most fitted, alternate row method if adopted saves 25-30% waters without affecting yields.
The orchard crops like grapes, bananas, basin method rather than flooding or irrigation through channels will save water to an extent of 25-30 per cent.
Sprinkler irrigation should be used for closely spaced crops like millet, pulses and oilseeds. Micro irrigation in well irrigated areas for widespread and high value crops like coconut, banana, and grapes might be used. During this method water saving is to an extent of 40-80% and therefore the yield is also double.
To maximize production per unit quantity of water and profitability to farmers, there's an urgent got to diversify the crops and cropping pattern based on the supply of water/rainfall in canal and tank irrigated areas. Paddy, since it consumes more water, are often grown within the area where yield is 7-8 tonnes per hectare.
Another technology is green house where moisture and temperature are controlled. This method is widely adopted in countries like Israel, Netherlands, Japan, and Italy.
Pitcher irrigation are often used for orchards and fruit crops. For an efficient water allocation the connection between fertilizer use and irrigation be necessarily known. The connective use of water, i.e., the simultaneous use of canal and ground water will avoid drainage and salinity also as water are often conserved in reservoirs.
Agricultural marketing system is an efficient way by which the farmers can dispose their surplus produce at a good and reasonable price. Improvement within the condition of farmers and their agriculture depends to a large extent on the elaborate arrangements of agricultural marketing.
The term agricultural marketing include all those activities which are mostly associated with the procurement, grading, storing, transporting and selling of the agricultural produce. Thus Prof. Faruque has rightly observed: “Agricultural marketing comprises all operations involved within the movement of farm produce from the producer to the last word consumer. Thus, agricultural marketing includes the operations like collecting, grading, processing, preserving, transportation and financing.”
Present State of Agricultural Marketing in India:
In India four different systems of agricultural marketing are prevalent:
1. Sale in Villages:
The first method open to the farmers in India is to sell away their surplus produce to the village moneylenders and traders at a extremely low price. The moneylender and traders may buy independently or work as an agent of a much bigger merchant of the nearly mandi. In India quite 50 per cent of the agricultural produce are sold within the se village markets in the absence of organized markets.
2. Sale in Markets:
The second method of disposing surplus of the Indian farmers is to sell their produce within the weekly village markets popularly referred to as ‘hat’ or in annual fairs.
3. Sale in Mandis:
The third sort of agricultural marketing in India is to sell the excess produce though mandis located in various small and enormous towns. There are nearly 1700 mandis which are spread everywhere the country. As these mandis are located during a distant place, thus the farmers will need to carry their produce to the mandi and sell those produce to the wholesalers with the help of brokers or ‘dalals’. These wholesalers of mahajans again sell those farm produce to the mills and factories and to the retailers who successively sell these goods to the consumers directly within the retail markets.
4. Co-operative Marketing:
The fourth sort of marketing is that the co-operative marketing where marketing societies are formed by farmers to sell the output collectively to require the advantage of collective bargaining for obtaining a far better price.
Defects of Agricultural Marketing in India:
Following are few defects of the agricultural marketing in India:
1. Lack of Storage Facility:
There is no proper storage or warehousing facilities for farmers within the villages where they will store their agriculture produce. Per annum 15 to 30 per cent of the agricultural produce are damaged either by rats or rains thanks to the absence of proper storage facilities. Thus, the farmers are forced to sell their surplus produce just after harvests at a really low and un-remunerative price.
2. Distress Sale:
Most of the Indian farmers are very poor and thus haven't any capacity to attend for better price of his produce within the absence of proper credit facilities. Farmers often need to choose even distress sale of their output to the village moneylenders-cum-traders at a really poor price.
3. Lack of Transportation:
In the absence of proper road transportation facilities within the rural areas, Indian farmers cannot reach nearby mandis to sell their produce at a fair price. Thus, they like to sell their produce at the village markets itself.
4. Unfavourable Mandis:
The condition of the mandis also are not in the least favourable to the farmers. Within the mandis, the farmers need to await disposing their produce that there's no storage facilities. Thus, the farmers will need to lake help of the middleman or dalal who lake away a serious share of the profit, and finalizes the deal either in his favour or in favour of arhatiya or wholesalers. A study made by D.S. Sidhu revealed that the share of middlemen just in case of rice was 31 per cent, just in case of vegetable was 29.5 per cent and just in case of fruits was 46.5 per cent.
5. Intermediaries:
A large number of intermediaries exist between the cultivator and the consumer. Of these middlemen and dalals claim a decent amount of margin and thus reduce the returns of the cultivators.
6. Unregulated Market’s:
There are huge number of unregulated markets which adopt various malpractices. Prevalence of false weights and measures and lack of grading and standardization of products in village markets in India are always going against the interest of ignorant, small and poor farmers.
7. Lack of Market Intelligence:
There is absence of market intelligence or information system in India. Indian farmers aren't conscious of the ruling prices of their produce prevailing in big markets. Thus, they need to accept any un-remunerative price for his or her produce as offered by traders or middlemen.
8. Lack of Organisation:
There is lack of collective organisation on the a part of Indian farmers. a really bit of marketable surplus is being delivered to the markets by a huge number of small farmers resulting in a high transportation cost. Accordingly, the Royal Commission on Agriculture has rightly observed, “So long because the farmer doesn't learn the system of selling himself or in cooperation with others, he can never bargain better with the buyers of his produce who are very shrewd and well informed.”
9. Lack of Grading:
Indian farmers don't give importance to grading of their produce. They hesitate to separate the qualitatively good crops from bad crops. Therefore, they fail to fetch a good price of their quality product.
10. Lack of Institutional Finance:
In the absence of adequate institutional finance, Indian farmers need to come under the clutches of traders and moneylenders for taking loan. After harvest they need to sell their produce to those moneylenders at unfavourable terms.
11. Unfavourable Conditions:
Farmers are marketing their product under advice circumstances. a large number of small and marginal farmers are forced by the rich farmers, traders and moneylenders to fall under their trap to go for distress sale of their produce by involving them into a vicious circle of indebtedness. Of these worsen the income distribution pattern of the village economy of the country.
The economic conditions of agricultural labour are indeed pitiable. They need been getting low wages and leading a particularly miserable life.
(1) Low Social Status:
Most agricultural workers belong to the depressed classes which are neglected for ages. The low caste and therefore the depressed classes are socially handicapped and that they had never the courage to say themselves. They need been like dumb-driven cattle.
(2) Unemployment and under-employment:
Unemployment and underemployment are two important factors liable for low income and consequently low economic position of the agricultural labour in our country. The farm workers don't have continuous work.
It has been estimated by the Second Agricultural Labour Enquiry that on a mean an agricultural laborer finds employment for about 197 days during a year and for the remainder of the year he's idle. Aside from under-employment there's also unemployment in rural areas. Lack of continuous work is liable for low income and consequently low living standard of farm workers.
(3) Paucity of Non-agricultural occupation:
Another important factor for the low wages and poor financial condition of the farm labourers is paucity of non-agricultural occupation in rural areas. For one thing, the growing population pressure is increasingly felt in rural areas and therefore the number of landless labourers is steadily on increase.
For another, the absence of the other occupation in rural areas and lack of inter-regional mobility are liable for worsening the population pressure ashore . It follows that the financial condition of the labouring classes are often bettered by the supply of supplementary jobs.
(4) Unorganised, Illiterate and Ignorant Workers:
Urban workers in industries are organised in trade unions and that they are ready to secure high wages. Farm workers are illiterate and ignorant and sleep in scattered villages. Hence they might not be organised in trade unions.
In urban areas workers could organise themselves and it had been convenient for political parties to require interest in union activity. This is often almost difficult just in case of Agricultural labour. Accordingly, it's difficult for them to bargain with the landowners and secure high wages.
(5) Indebtedness Farm workers are heavily indebted:
Normally, the agricultural labourers borrow from the landowners under whom they work. Naturally, they're forced to simply accept lower wages from them.
Sometimes, the workers might not have their own houses, or if they need their own houses, they'll have constructed them ashore contributed by the landlords. For this also, the workers feel obliged to the landlords. Thus heavy indebtedness may be a basic factor of poor financial condition of agricultural labourers.
Thus the agricultural labourers are getting very low wages and need to sleep in a miserable sub-human condition partly due to factors beyond their control and partly due to their inherent poor bargaining power.
Improvement of Agricultural Labour:
Many suggestions are put forth for the development of farm workers which are as follows:
(1) Abolition of Agricultural Slavery:
According to our Constitution the practice of slavery in any form isn't permissible. Agricultural slavery which exists in many parts of India will need to go. Agrarian serfdom which has been hip for hundreds of years cannot go so easily.
This is so because the workers are helpless, ignorant and illiterate. Education of the agricultural masses and better opportunities are a number of the remedies for the removal of the system of agricultural slavery. When the lower classes are sufficiently educated and made aware of their rights, they're going to fight certainly against slavery.
(2) Minimum Agricultural Wages:
Measures should be taken, to reinforce the wages of farm workers. Unless this is often done it's impossible to boost their financial condition . Farm workers are getting very low wages except in Punjab. Minimum Wages Act has been passed in most of the States. There are limitations in properly enforcing them. Minimum legislation alone isn't sufficient but steps should be taken to enforce it.
(3) Provision of Land:
The basic difficulty is that the majority of our agricultural labourers don't have any land of their own. To enhance their condition, the landless workers should be given land. a method is to allot to them the newly reclaimed land. Differently is to redistribute the prevailing land among all people either on a voluntary basis or by employing a specific amount of compulsion.
Ceiling of landholding serves this purpose. The Bhoodan movement is additionally one among the methods by which those that possess land, contribute voluntarily for those that don't possess any land. Another method is co-operative farming. The landless labourers can improve their lot only through acquiring land.
(4) Co-operative Fanning:
The measures suggested above will help in promoting the economic conditions of farm workers but the last word solution probably lies within the creation of co-operative system during which all per sons including this labor , will have equal rights. The differences between the massive and little farmers will need to go and similarly the landless labourers who are affected by numerous handicaps will need to be delivered to the extent of all others.
(5) More and Fuller Employment:
Because of seasonal characters of Indian agriculture, the farm labourer don't have full-time employment. Both intensive cultivation and extension of irrigation are considerably required to extend agricultural work. There'll be double cropping and employment are going to be available for the entire year.
There is much scope for the fixing of village and rural industries which can make use of the raw materials readily available within the villages and which can provide occupation for the agricultural population. Samples of such industries are sugarcane crushing, cotton finning, production of oils and soaps, brick-kilns, manufacture of paper, etc.
The fixing of small industrial units supported by rural electrification will help farm labour in some ways , as for instance reduction of seasonal unemployment, diversion of surplus labour power to rural industries, reduction of the pressure of population on agriculture, to boost agricultural productivity and also raise wages of farm labour, etc.
(6) structure Programmes:
The fixing of small industries and structure programmes have great importance within the mobilisation of manpower resources in villages and in raising the wages of the agricultural masses and, indirectly, the income of the country.
In this connection the usefulness of structure could also be emphasized. The govt can plan its projects within the rural areas carefully, in order that the workers who could also be unemployed during the off-seasons could also be gainfully employed. Such projects include the development of roads, the digging and deepening of tanks and canals, afforestation etc.
The condition of most farmers is terrible. About 80% of farmers in India are marginal (less than 1 hectare) or small farmers (1–2 hectare) category.
Agriculture supports about 60% of employment but contributes only 17% to GDP.
Every day, there are reports of Indian farmer suicides from different parts of the country. People sitting in air conditioner rooms are formulating policies to rectify the issues of farmers.
THE SITUATION OF INDIAN FARMER IS AS FOLLOWS:
The moneylenders still play a crucial role in agricultural glory, where the interest paid to them are going to be more than the profit from cultivated crops.
MGNREGA Effect: it's very difficult to urge workers after the Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Act (MGNREGA).
It ruined agriculture with labour shortages and therefore the schema is anti-agricultural.
Productivity vs. Price: the worth of a crop is that the opposite of productivity. If the productivity is higher then the worth will be lower and vice versa.
Good rainfall, good yield and good prices never close . Therefore the income of the farmers are going to be either marginal or there'll be any profit or loss.
Only large farmers can use machines and achieve good productivity with low production costs.
Nowadays the value of paddy cultivation is similar to the final production, only paddy grass is useful for farmers, which they will use as fodder for cattle.
Too much rain or drought will destroy crops or if everything is sweet and productivity is low then the worth are going to be low.
Urban consumers who used to get the best media attention would protest if food prices rise, but they might not understand the problems of farmers, i.e. 100rs per kg breaking news, onion 1rs per kg is not any news.
Middlemen: These are the people that earn by sucking the blood of farmers. We wont to sell onions for 10rs per kg, for instance , but i buy the foremost in Mumbai for 50rs per kg.
Every farmer wants his children to urge out of agriculture because they're aware of the problem in agriculture.
There are many schemes implemented by the govt by agriculture, NABARD and central / state agencies, but i feel even 10% has not reached the farmers.
Rural Indebtedness
Rural indebtedness has been the ever green companion of the Indian peasants. Consistent with a well known saying, the Indian peasant is born in debt, lives in debt and dies in debt. The prevalence of poverty among agricultural labouring households is underlined by the prevalence of the agricultural indebtedness. With the rise within the level of poverty, the level of debt increases.
The burden of debt passes on from generation to generation. The number of these in the grip of this vicious problem is even now very large, despite vigorous attempts to unravel it. Rural indebtedness has eaten into the very vitals of our rural social organization . Hence it's drawn the attention of sociologists, economists, planners, bureaucrats et al. Since while past.
While borrowing money the borrower doesn't pay attention to his repaying capacity and for him even a touch debt becomes a trap out of which he cannot come out. Loans from the money-lender support the farmer because the hangman’s rope supports the hanged.
Rural borrowing and rural debt signify two different things. There's nothing wrong in borrowing especially when the funds are required for agricultural operations. But indebtedness arises when the income of the farmer isn't sufficient to repay the debt incurred or when he spends his income for unproductive purposes and doesn't but the purpose of paying off his debt. When the borrower fails to repay the loan in time and therefore the loan goes on accumulating, he becomes indebted.
Causes of Rural Indebtedness:
The factors accounting for rural indebtedness are many and varied. They're as follows:
1. Poverty of the farmers:
The basic reason for the rural indebtedness in India is that the extreme poverty of the farmers. The farmers being poor need to borrow for various purposes. Sometimes, the crops fail due to the failure of monsoons, or due to floods etc. they have to get seeds, implements, cattle etc. and since they need no past savings to draw upon, they're forced to borrow. Even as poverty forces him to borrow, it's his poverty again which forces him to possess so little for paying off his debt.
2. Passion for land:
The farmers within the Indian context have a tremendous passion for land. They're keen to form improvements ashore . They do it mostly through borrowing.
3. Ancestral debt:
The most important explanation for the prevailing rural indebtedness is that the ancestral debt. Many agriculturists start their career with an important burden of ancestral debt and drag the loan for the whole of their lives, taking it to be a spiritual and social obligation.
This increases the debt burdens on the inheritors, whenever the debt is thus passed on. The Royal Commission on Agriculture has aptly described this situation, in its observation that the farmer “is born in debt, lives in debt and dies in debt.”
4. Simple taking loan:
Institutional agencies have fixed hours and stipulate that some formalities should be observed before the loans are sanctioned then paid. On the opposite hand, a money lender has been easily approachable even at odd hours. This encourages borrowing.
5. Litigation:
Litigation, civil or criminal, is another explanation for rural indebtedness. Agriculturists of standing are generally involved in various sorts of disputes like intra-family disputes, inter-family disputes, and disputes over boundary lines, theft of crops, and division of ancestral lands etc. which frequently force them to go to courts of law. Such prolonged litigations involve heavy expenditure and to meet these expenses, farmers take loans which further aggravates the burden of rural indebtedness.
6. Small sized holdings:
Approximately 72.6 per cent of the operational holdings in India are but 5 acres in size. When the holdings are small, modernisation of agriculture becomes impossible. The cultivation ceases to be economical even within the better of years and therefore the yield from land becomes insufficient for the upkeep of the farmer and his family. On account of this reason the farmer incurs debt.
7. Illiteracy and ignorance:
The illiteracy and ignorance of the peasants substitute the way of improving the economic conditions. They're not conscious about the utility of small family norms. In view of the big size of the family, they're compelled to borrow money for fulfilling the essential necessities of life.
8. Extravagant expenditure:
Being sure to customs and tradition, the ruralites consider the expenses on the occasion for marriage, birth, death, and caste dinners on auspicious occasions and on some religious observance as unavoidable. Being poor, they need no reserve to fall back upon. This makes them to borrow.
They borrow a minimum of for 2 reasons. Within the first place, if they are doing not spend on these occasions, their image within the public eyes are going to be tarnished. Secondly, they need ambition to excel others in pomp and grandeur.
9. Malpractices of the money-lenders:
The private money-lenders are known to possess adopted various malpractices.
(a) they need been charging exorbitant rates of interest varying between 40 to 60 per cent once a year .
(b) they need also been found keeping false accounts.
(c) they're more curious about forcing the borrowers to spare their land by encouraging the farmers to borrow from them and obtain their lands mortgaged to them.
(d) they need been purchasing the crops of the farmers at very low price when the latter approach them for selling their crops so as to repay their debts.
(e) When the farmers’ debt has accumulated to a sufficient amount, they deduct the land of the borrowers. Sort of a fly within the cobweb, which may rarely escape, similarly, the farmer once caught by the money-lender can rarely begin of his clutches.
10. High rates of interest:
The high rates of interest also compel the cultivators to borrow. The rates vary from state to state but because of the poor financial condition of the peasants, the interest accumulates per annum . Very often it's extremely difficult to clear up even interest charges alone. The Bombay Banking Committee rightly observes, “It isn't that the agriculturist” repays insufficient , he often repays an excessive amount of . It's the high rate of interest and therefore the malpractices followed by the money-lenders that tend to perpetuate his indebtedness.”
11. Pulls of high standard of living:
Sometimes high standard of living constitutes the explanation for indebtedness. Of late, the advantages of urbanization have reached the doorsteps of the ruralites. Poor peasants have fallen a prey to the consumeristic culture. They're attracted by the temptations of the amenities of city life. They're induced to shop for them albeit there's no great need for them.
12. Excessive burden of land revenue and rent:
During British rule, the land revenue was fixed high. Therefore the farmers weren't ready to pay in time. Hence, they were forced to borrow. Even within the Post-Independent India excessive land revenue with its rigid procedure of collection is squarely responsible for aggravating the matter of rural indebtedness.
The rent is tasking for the tiny and marginal farmers. The dues being fixed, they're sure to pay even when production suffers during conditions of flood and drought. Therefore, the farmers are forced to require loans to form these payments. Consequently the burden of indebtedness increases.
13. Addiction to drinking:
Drinking results in rural indebtedness in two ways. Within the first place, it gives rise to variety of quarrels and crimes leading to litigation. Litigation as all folks know entails unnecessary expenditure. Secondly, drinking is itself an expensive habit and a decent share of the peasant’s income is spent for drinking.
14. Inflation:
Inflation unaccompanied by corresponding increase within the income of the ruralites compels them to borrow to satisfy their basic needs.
15. Inadequate infrastructural facilities and institutional arrangements:
Inadequate infrastructural facilities substitute the way of improving the financial condition of the farmer. Thanks to inadequate marketing facilities, he has no other alternative but to sell away the produce immediately after harvest at the unreasonable prices. The heavy indebtedness of the farmer also makes it difficult for him to store the produce for sale on favourable terms at a later date.
Agriculture under First Plan:
The chief objective of First 5-Year Plan was to revive the disequilibrium created by the Second war and therefore the Partition. The Partition of the country resulted during a transfer of the fertile wheat areas of the Punjab and rice areas of Bengal to Pakistan. Pakistan also benefited by getting the long-stapled cotton and jute-growing areas. And a comparatively much large acreage of the irrigated area.
Overcome these short¬falls, the primary 5-Year Plan gave a predominant importance to the development of agriculture and irrigation out of a complete actual investment of Rs. 1960 crores made within the first plan. Rs. 601 crores i.e. 31% was allocated for agriculture.
The above referred targets were expected to be achieved through various measures like institutional reforms. Organisational changes, structural changes and technical progress. The belief of targets was due not only to those changes but also the weather gods. As a results of planning.
Nearly 12 lakh acres of land were reclaimed and brought under farming. As many as 14 mn. Acres were brought under irrigation. At an equivalent time the japanese method of rice-cultivation was largely extended. Nearly 40% of the villages were brought under CDP, and NES.
The effects of increase in food production were quite favourable. India became self-sufficient in food grains. The price index for agricultural commodities (1952-53 = 100) decreased to 92.8. Thus the rise in farm output during the primary Plan helped to finish inflation, stabilized the economy and paved the way for a better rate of development during the second plan.
Agriculture under Second Plan:
The over-fulfillment of First 5-Year Plan target of food output made the planners think that the food problem was solved which the agricultural base was strengthened. Hence, they devoted a comparatively less outlay for agriculture 20% of the public outlay (or Rs. 4800 crores) as compared to 33% within the First Plan.
In money terms, however, the outlay within the Second Plan was higher. It was Rs. 1050 crores as compared to only. Rs.758 crores within the First Plan. The targets originally fixed for the Second Plan which were much lower were revised upward and that they got as within the following table. These targets were to be achieved by an equivalent measures as those within the First Plan. The following table gives the actual production at the top of Second Plan.
The actual progress in agricultural front was quite substantial but fell far in need of targets fixed earlier, e.g. Against 21 mn. Acres of additional land to be brought under irrigation, the particular achievement was about 16 mn. Acres only.
The consumption of fertilizer increased very slowly. In short the methods of increased agricultural production didn't make the maximum amount headway as was originally visualised by the planning Commission. However the particular output by the top of Second Plan was far more than the actual output of the start of the Second Plan. But these was a shortfall within the Production of all commodities except sugar cane and tea.
The Planning Commission has been blamed for all this on the ground that it didn't give enough emphasis to agricultural development and instead it turned its attention to the growth of heavy and basic industries. We are of the opinion that such a criticism wasn't fair to the design Commission. It did understand the importance of increased farm output, but it believed that with a smaller outlay, it might be possible to cause a larger output.
The poor development of agriculture during Second Plan led to an honest number of difficulties within the Indian economy. The foremost important effect was the increase within the price level. During this Plan, the wholesale price level of all commodities increased by 35%.
As a results of rise in farm prices, other commodities also recorded rise in prices. An inflationary situation rapidly appeared. The imports of food grains which were cut during First Plan had to be resumed and precious foreign exchange meant for machinery and other industrial raw materials had to be wasted in importing food grains.
Agriculture under Third Plan:
Third 5 year Plan gave a Predominant emphasis to agriculture. One of the main objectives of the Plan was to realize self-sufficiency in food grains and to extend agricultural production for exports.
It says, within the scheme of development during the Third Plan the primary priority necessarily belongs to agriculture. Experience under the primary two plans and especially within the second plan has shown that the speed of growth within the agricultural production is one among the main limiting factors within the process of Indian economy.
Agricultural production has therefore, to be increased to the most important extent feasible, and adequate resource need to be provided under the Third Plan for raising the agricultural production. The agricultural economy has got to be diversified and therefore the proportion of the population dependent on agriculture gradually diminished.
There are essential aims if the income and levels of the agricultural population are to rise steadily and to stay pace with income in other sectors. Both in formulating and implementing programmes for the event of agriculture, the guiding consideration is that whatever is physically practicable should be made financially possible and therefore the potential of every are a should be developed to the possible extent.
With this end in sight , the Plan allocated almost 10% of the entire public sector outlay of the Plan i.e., Rs. 1310 crores out of Rs. 6300 crores. Actual expenditure worked out to be Rs. 1754 crores.
The targets and actual production of the main agricultural corps were as follows:
In short, the Third Plan failed on the agricultural front. In contrast to the targeted increase of 30% or 6% per annum in food grains a bare 10% or 2% per annum was realized: at an equivalent time, the index of food grains prices had short up from 118.4 in 1961-62 to 168.8 in 1965-66. As a consequence of the shortfall in food production food-grains worth Rs. 1.10 crores were imported between 1961-62 and 1965-66. This strained our exchange position still further.
Agriculture under the Annual Plan:
The Third 5 Year Plan, consequently the Fourth Plan couldn't be introduced in April 1966. Instead the govt. . Introduced the annual plans for three years-1966 to 1969. During these annual plans actual expenditure on agriculture figured out to be Rs. 1624 crores which was 24% of the entire plan investment of 6757 crore rupees.
The three years of the ‘Plan Holiday’ viz. 1966-67 to 1968-69 witnessed the adoption of the new agricultural strategy, which has come to be commonly known.as the green revolution, and consists of a package, chiefly of 4 improvements, none of which is wholly effective without the others: improved varieties increased use of fertilizers, improved water supplies and better agricultural practices. With it also are associated increasing mechanisation of agricultural operations and measures of plant protection from pests and diseases
On account of the drought conditions during 1966-67 minor irrigation received a high priority and therefore the programmes were undertaken on an emergency basis. Additionally to the present , programmes of high-yielding varieties along side the requisite application of chemical fertilizers were undertaken.
A good year of rainfall coupled with efforts to enhance production with a replacement technological resulted during a record food grains production of 95.6 mn. Tonnes in 1967-68. Although the targets for 1968-69 was 102 mn. Tonnes, it had been impossible to reach the target in view of the failure in some regions in India. However the assembly of food grains. Was maintained at the extent of 95.6 mn. Tonnes in 1968-69. The consumption of chemical fertilizers also touched the extent of 1750 thousand tonnes in 1967-68.
Agriculture under Fourth Plan:
The bitter experience of the Third Plan made the design Commission realize the fact that planning would be a failure unless agricultural production was increased rapidly. Accordingly planning commission assigned a high priority to agriculture.
Even within the case of industries, the planning Commission emphasised those industries which supply fertilizers, agricultural machinery etc. The approach to Fourth Plan emphasised the necessity of creating favourable economic conditions for the formation of agriculture, a scientific effort to extend the appliance of science and technology to agriculture and generally intensify agricultural programmes to the utmost possible extent in selected areas.
The Fourth Plan had the subsequent two main objectives within the agricultural sector:
(i) to supply the conditions necessary for a sustained increase of about 5 per cent per annum over subsequent decade.
(ii) To enable as large a sector of the rural population as possible, including the tiny farmer, the farmer in dry areas and agricultural labourers to participate in development and share its benefits.
The strategy of agricultural development was based largely on the further extension of the high yielding varieties (HYV) and multiple cropping programmes.
The Fourth Plan envisaged an expenditure of Rs. 3814 crores on Agriculture which was 24% of the entire expenditure of Rs 15902 crores. But the particular outlay was less.
The Fourth Plan postulated an annual growth rate of fifty for agriculture as an entire . The compound rate of growth target for food’ grains worked out to be 5.6% p.a. Frankly speaking none of the targets fixed within the Fourth Plan was realised.
The target for food grains was 129 mn. Tones for 1973-74, but the actual production therein year was only 103 mn. Tonnes. The target for what was attained easily-intact, it had been exceeded in 1971-72 when wheat output was 26 mn. Tonnes as against the target of 24 mn. Tonnes for the ultimate year of the Plan.
As against the target of 15 mn. Tonnes in 1973-74,. The actual production of pulses therein year was only 98 mn. Tonnes. In rice against the target of 52 mn. Tonnes, the particular production was 43.7 mn. Tonnes. In important commercial crops like cotton and jute actual production was much below the target level.
As against the target of 80 lakh bales the particular production of cotton in 1973-74 was only 38 lakh bales. In jute as against a target of 74 lakh bales, actual production was only the order of 62 lakh bales in 1973-74. With respect to oilseeds and sugarcane too the progress was below expectation.
Two factors were liable for better production in wheat:
(i) Area sown under wheat grew by 10 8% and
(ii) As a results of revolution , productivity per acre also showed a substantial improvement under high- yielding varieties with a better consumption of fertilizers.
Taking an overall view the achievements in agriculture.in Fourth Plan showed substantial shortfall compared with the targets laid within the Plan.
Two major factors besides several others, were responsible for this:
(1) it had been hoped that consumption of fertilizers would reach a target of 55 lakh tonnes in 1973-74 from an assumed base level of 16.5 lakh tonnes in 1968-69. Actual production of fertilizers was estimated at only 30 lakh tonne in 1973-74. Failure to extend fertilizer production in view of raw materials like naphtha and non-availability of fertilizers in international market were liable for the shortfall during this area.
(2) The targets of irrigation couldn't be fulfilled. In sight of the rising costs, although the financial expenditure exceeded targeted provision, the physical achievements in terms of additional irrigated areas got reduced. Thus the Target of food self-sufficiency receded further and the country was forced to import 3.6 m. Tonnes of food-grains in 1973 and 48 mn. Tonnes in 1974.,
The overall rate of growth of agricultural production during Fourth Plan was only 2’8% p.a. During a number of crops, the expansion of output had fallen in need of the growth of population, resulting in a decline in the per capita availability of essential wage good. The unsatisfactory performance of the agricultural sector was the basis explanation for the stagnation of value and inflationary pressures since 1972-73.
Agriculture under the Fifth Plan:
During the Fifth Plan, Rs. 7,411. Crores are going to be spent on the development of agriculture and irrigation which accounts for 20% of the total Plan outlay. Beside this, investments by the private sector shall be of the order of Rs. 2,950 crores.
Taking public and private, sectors, together, total outlay on agriculture, are going to be of the order of Rs. 10,361 crores. With this level of outlay, the Fifth Plan has targeted a growth rate of 4.2% for food-grains as an entire . This is often distinctly, less ambitions as than the target set out within the Fourth Plan.
In determining targets the Fifth Plan has clearly stated its objectives:
“It is envisaged that the fulfillment, of those targets will make country not only self-sufficient in respect of food grains but also leave a cushion for building a buffer stock. The dimension of growth in commercial crops envisaged within the Plan are like to take care of export requirement additionally to meet the indigenous needs by way of industrial raw material.” In other words, the target is food self-sufficiency and self-reliance.”
Agricultural Development under Sixth Five Year Plan:
The Sixth Five Year Plan (1980-85) was started in a particularly different circumstances because the year of 1979-80 witnessed a worse drought. It affected agricultural production adversely. However, the achievements of the plan were satisfactory.
Agricultural Production:
Among the various crops, only wheat has been keeping pace with the plan targets. The production of rice came on the brink of the target of 55 million tons in 1980-81 but did not show any improvement within the following years. Kharif crop also suffered a setback because of drought weather in many parts of the country during 1982-83. The entire production of all food grains within the terminal year of sixth plan was recorded 138.1 million tons. Out of it, the production of rice and wheat was about 54.5 and 41.2 million Ions, respectively.
Similarly, oilseeds production was 11.4 million tons against as target of 12.5 million tons. Millet production has moved nearer to the target in 1984-85. Table 29.8 shows the trends of agricultural production ending 1984-85. Similarly ,indeed number for a similar period exhibits the agricultural production has been highlighted in table.
Inputs and Other Supporting Programmes:
Weather conditions were favourable during 1978-79 and 1981-82 which enabled the farmers to form better use of inputs and infrastructure leading to bumper harvest. This period can specifically be considered as a turning point in Indian agriculture because it could stand a challenge to natural calamities with comparatively less damage.
The plan has set a target of additional irrigation of 5.6 million hectares from major and medium and eight million hectares from minor schemes. The utilisation potential for major/medium and minor schemes of irrigation was 60.58 million hectares in 1984-85 against 54.1 million hectors in 1980-81. Under the 20-Point Programme, the target was raised to 14.00 million hectares against 13.6 million hectares.
The achievement within the first three years is 6.22 million hectares. By 1981-82, a neighborhood of 46.5 million hectares was brought under high yielding varieties, which increased to 54.1 million hectares in 1984-85. Chemical fertilizer obtained anticipated achievement in 1982-83 of 60.64 lac tons against the target of 46.50 lac tons. The consumption of fertilizer during 1981-82 was 60.6 lac tons which increased to 82.2 lac tons in 1984-85.
For the event of dry farming during 1982-83.3824 micro watersheds covering 3.8 million hectares were to be identified by various states. It had covered 4111 micro-watersheds against the total target of 3824 watersheds by the top of March 1983. Upto July 1983, 43.31 lac acres of land had been declared surplus under the revised land ceiling laws. 29.45 lac acres are taken over by the states and out of this 20.05 lac acres are distributed among 14.82 lac eligible families of landless agricultural workers. The consumption of plant protection materials was below expectations i.e. actual consumption in 1984-85 was only 56000 tons.
Minikits and Other Programmnes:
The central sector scheme of community nurseries of rice and minikit distributions of rice, wheat, jowar, bajra, maize and rabi were intensified so as to make a clear impact on production of cereal crops. The physical target of coverage of area under the community nurseries of rice was raised from 15000 hectare to 25000 hectares during 1982-83.1.42 lac minikits were distributed during 1982-83 against 14000 minikits during 1981-82.
Agricultural marketing and Rural Godowns:
In 1982-83, 40 selected regulated markets, 2 terminal markets. 350 primary rural markets in country and 20 wholesale markets in backward area are provided the central assistance for the event of infrastructural facilities. 2371 godowns having a storage capacity of 10.65 lac tons were sanctioned upto 1981-82. In 1982-83, 4 lac tons capacity of additional target was expected to own been achieved.
Agricultural Credit:
The national bank for Agriculture and Rural Development (NABARD) was found out in July 1982. As on 30th June 1981, there have been 27 State Cooperative Banks, 327 Central Cooperative Banks, 94019. Primary Agricultural Credit Societies and 19 State exploitation Banks with 1731 Primary land development Banks. The Commercial Banks had 17658 rural and 8370 semi urban branches within the country. The entire credit under multi-agency was recorded to be Rs.5556 crores in 1984-85.
Agricultural Development in Seventh Plan:
The outlay for agriculture and allied sector including forestry and wild life was Rs. 10524 crore in Seventh Plan against Rs.6440 crores in Sixth Five Year Plan Period. The typical level of annual production of food grains during the plan period was around 155 millions tonnes. In 1990-91 grain production reached to the extent of 176-92 million tonnes against the production of 140.35 million tonnes in 1987-88.
Wheat production has increased to 2244 Kg/ha in 1989-90 while the assembly of cereals reached to the extent of 34.76 million tonnes within the same year. The assembly of pulses and oilseed peaked to the level of 14.06 and 18.46 million tonnes in 1990-91. The assembly of sugarcane reached a record level of over 240 million tonnes in 1990-91.
The certified seeds distributed were 57.04 lakh quintals ending 1989-90 against the target of 70 lakh quintals. The entire consumption of N, P and K was 11.5 million tonnes while pesticides was of 72.47 thousand tonnes ending the plan period. The area under high yielding varieties was 63.1 million hectares against the target of 70.00 million hectares. The assembly of tea and rubber was increased from 652 million Kgs. And 201000 tonnes in 1984-85 to 703 million Kgs and 297000 tonnes in 1989-90 respectively.
During the plan period, disbursement of agriculture credit through co¬operatives commercial and regional rural banks increased from Rs.5810 crores in 1984-85 to Rs. 12570 crores by 1989-90. The debt relief scheme was announced in 1990-91, affected the recovery climate leading to a lower volume of credit flow.
There were 76,000 fertilizer retailer outlets and 40 lakh tonnes of fertilizer nutrients were distributed during 1989-90. The amount of co-operative godown/warehousing capacity increased from 80 lakh tonnes in 1984-85 to 100 lakh tonnes in 1987-88. Soil and water conservation activity in 27 catchments taken up in 17 states covering 2.4 million hectares by the close of plan period.
The contribution of the livestock sector has increased to Rs. 27,700 crores in 1987-88 as compared to Rs. 10,000 crores in 1980-81 which constitutes 25.5 percent of the entire agricultural output. By the top of Seventh Plan, 22.75 lakh tonnes of marine and 14.02 lakh tonnes of inland fish were produced, indicating a mean annual rate of growth 6.25 per cent. However, during 1990-91 export of marine products was 138400 tonnes valued at Rs.8.90 crores while fish production stood at 38.36 lakh tonnes over an equivalent year.
The number of national dairy co-operative societies increased from 34523 in 1984-85 to 64000 in 1991-92. The progress in case of milk, eggs and wool was 41.5 million tonnes; 14252 millions and 3S.0 in. Kgs. In 1984-85 respectively which rose to the extent of 51.1 million tonnes 920204 and 41.7 m. Kgs. For milk, eggs and wool ending 1989-90.
Agricultural Development within the Eighth Plan:
Eighth Plan envisages to spend Rs. 22,467 crore on agricultural development. For rural development a complete sum of Rs. 34,425 crore has been fixed whereas Rs. 6,750 crore on special area programme and Rs. 35,525 crore on irrigation and control are proposed within the draft of the plan.
In this way agricultural sector alone will attract 22.2 percent of the total plan expenditure. Self-sufficiency in food grains and development and diversification of agriculture to get export surplus are the most objects of the plan. Aside from this, plan emphasises to extend food grains production to 2100 lakh tonnes, of sugarcane to 2,750 lakh tonnes, of cotton 140 lakh bales and of jute to 95 lakh bales.
Eighth Five Year Plan envisages to continue work on 312 medium and 182 major projects initiated during the seventh plan. The draft of the plan emphasizes to form Command Area Development Programme more effective. Within the draft of the plan, medium irrigation projects were accorded high priority. Control programmes are going to be made more meaningful. Thus, in Eighth Plan, a sum of Rs. 35,525 crore are proposed on irrigation development and control measures.
In the agricultural sector, the country has achieved 5 per cent rate in 1992-93 and a couple of .3 per cent rate of growth in 1993-94. Total production of food grains has increased to 179.5 million tonnes in 1992-93 showing a rate of growth of 6.6 per cent then it slightly increased to 184.0 million tonnes in 1993-94 showing a growth rate of 1.4 per cent and further 199.0 million tonnes in 1996-97. Thus the agricultural sector both in respect of food grains and fibre crops has registered almost a stagnation during the primary two years of the Eighth Plan.
In 1994-95, production of food grains has increased to 191 million tonnes which shows a growth of only 3.7 per cent. Thus the new policy couldn't create any favourable impact on the performance of the agricultural sector of the country. The potential of irrigation increased from 728 lakh hectares to 894 lakh. The achievements of agricultural sector during the first four years of eighth plan were presented within the following table.
Agricultural Development in Ninth Plan:
The agricultural development strategy during Ninth Five Year Plan is predicated on the Policy of food security announced by the govt to double the assembly and make India hunger free in ten years.
Accordingly the Ninth Plan target is to attain a rate of growth of about 4.5 per cent once a year in agricultural output and production of 234 million tonnes of food grains by 2001-02. So as to realize the goal of doubling the food output and alleviation of hunger, a regionally differentiated strategy supported agro-climatic regional planning are going to be adopted.
Agro-climatic based planning is to be promoted for high productivity zone, low productivity-high potential zone, low productivity zone and ecologically fragile regions. The table below presents the targets of production for agricultural commodities for 2001-02. Plan emphasised on raising the capabilities of small and marginal fanners and conserving and maximising the worth from scarce natural resources. Emphasis was laid on infrastructure development and minor irrigation.
Regional programmes was formulated particularly for hilly backward and tribal areas. Agricultural credit got special attention and efforts were made to extend public investment during the plan period. In every district rural infrastructure development fund was wont to promote productive projects.
A high emphasis was placed given for the development of the allied sectors like horticulture, fisheries, live-stock and dairy. Agricultural exports will receive special attention and therefore the co-operative will be strengthened.
It has also been emphasised that agro-processing and agro-industries are going to be encouraged. The consumption of fertilizers (NPK) during 1996-97 was 14.31 million tonnes, during the Ninth Five Year Plan greater use of Bio-fertilizers and bio- technological research are encouraged. However, targets of production is given in table
Agriculture and allied sector has attained 2.7 per cent rate of growth against its target of three .9 per cent. An equivalent sector attained the growth rate of (-) 2.4 per cent in 1997-98,7.1 per cent in 1998-99 and a mere 0.7 per cent in 1999-2000 and 0.9 per cent in 2000-2001.
The index of agricultural production (1981- 82=100) increased from 165.3 in 1997-98 to 178.1 in 1998-99 then declined to 176.8 in 1999-2000 and 170.6 in 2000-2001. Total production of food grains has also increased substantially from 192.3 million tonnes in 1997-98 to 203.5 million tonnes in 1998-99 then to 208.9 million tonnes in 1999-2000. It, further declined to 199.0 million tonnes in 2000-01. Thus, the agriculture and allied sector has shown a mixed performance during the Plan period of Ninth Five Year Plan.
Agricultural Development within the Tenth Plan:
Although the draft Tenth Plan had set a target to achieve annual average rate of growth of three .97 per cent in Agriculture and allied sector, but during the Tenth Plan it's attained (-) 7.2 per cent in 2002-03 then to 10 per cent in 2003-04 and 6.0 per cent in 2005-06 and is predicted to achieve only 2.7 per cent in 2006-07.
Total production of food grains increased from 179.4 million tonnes in 2002-03 to 212.4 million tonnes in 2003-04 then to 208.3 (P) million tonnes in 2006-07. The index of agricultural production in 1981-82 = 100) increased from 150.4 in 2002-03 to 181.0 in 2003-04 then to 197.1 in 2006- 07. Thus the agriculture and allied sector has been showing a mixed performance.
Agricultural Development in 11th Plan:
Although the agricultural sector of the country has a great potential but the growth rate of the sector is extremely low. The best challenge before the Eleventh Plan is to double the growth rate of agriculture so achieved within the Tenth Plan. This may require steps both on the demand side also because the supply side.
On the demand side there's evidence that farmers face adverse demand conditions. Not only the agricultural growth has been low within the last decade but the prices received for the agricultural products have also did not keep step with the costs or the overall price index and as a result profitability of the world has declined.
The Approach Paper of the Eleventh Plan is of the view that a number of the steps already taken like introduction of National Rural Employment Guarantee Programme (NREGP) along side expansion of public sector schools and health facilities would directly and indirectly generate demand support for agriculture.
Moreover, improved rural connectivity envisaged through Bharat Nirman also can trigger growth of an integrated national market where rural areas are more ready to meet each other’s demand.
Such expanded rural—rural trade is probably going to be important within the initial years beside other efforts of demand support like promoting agricultural exports, for strengthening support to agricultural diversification for domestic processing which are likely to draw in private corporate investment into rural areas.
The supply side challenge of doubling agricultural growth is additionally formidable. This is often mainly because no dramatic technological breakthrough like the green revolution is presently visible. We also are not initiating or exploiting the potential of existing technology. In fact, most of the expansion required in cereals, pulses and oilseeds is feasible merely through plausible yield increase in currently low yield regions untouched by revolution .
The National Commission on Farmers has also drawn attention to the knowledge deficit which constrains agricultural productivity. So as to overcome this problem farmer will need effective links to universities and best practices through an honest extension system. The matter of lack of credit facilities must be addressed.
Accelerated agricultural growth would require diversification into horticulture and floriculture, effective marketing linkages supported by modern marketing practices adopted through grading post- harvest management, cold-chains, etc. to be established for expanding domestic market and also the export market.
There is also the necessity for risk management through expansion of crop insurance. The govt must devise the viable policy packages to hide all agro-climatic zones. There's also the necessity for stimulating agricultural research to deal with the newer and more formidable challenges. The contract farming may be a potentially effective way of attracting corporate investors to help establish linkages with markets and also provide farmers with necessary inputs, extension and other support and advice.
Moreover, there's also need for better water management and effective irrigation facilities. Watershed management, rainwater harvesting and ground water recharge also can help in augmenting water availability in rainfed areas. Side by side there's also the necessity for developing farming and fishery activities to revive agricultural dynamism.
However, there's urgent need for taking agriculture into a better growth trajectory of 4 per cent annual growth and such target can only be met with improvement within the scale also as of quality of agricultural reforms undertaken by the varied states and agencies at the varied levels.
These reforms must aim at efficient use of resources and conservation of soil, water and ecology on a sustainable basis and in holistic framework which must incorporate financing of rural infrastructure like water, roads and power.
The approach paper to the Eleventh Plan has aptly highlighted such holistic framework and suggested the subsequent strategy to boost agricultural output:
(a) Doubling the speed of growth of irrigated area;
(b) Improving water management, rain water harvesting and watershed development;
(c) Reclaiming degraded land and that specialize in soil quality;
(d) Bridging the knowledge gap through effective extension;
(e) Diversifying into high value outputs, fruits, vegetables, flowers,, herbs and spices, medicinal plants, bamboo, bio-diesel. But with adequate measures to make sure food security;
(f) Promoting farming and fishery;
(g) Providing quick access to credit at affordable rales;
(h) Improving the incentive structure and functioning of market, if necessary, through state intervention for improving the costs of agricultural produce and
(i) Refocusing ashore reforms issues. National Commission on Farmers has already laid the foundation for such a framework.
Moreover, R&D expenditure on agriculture in India is low by international standards, despite its high social return. Increased R&D expenditure backed by modern technologies and compatible institutions must be focused within the coming years.
With proper implementation, the National Agricultural Innovation Project initiated in July, 2006 for enhancing livelihood security in partnership mode with farmer’s groups panchayati raj institutions and personal sector would go a long way in strengthening basic and strategic research in frontier agricultural lances.
Agricultural policy of a country is usually designed by the govt for raising agricultural production and productivity and also for raising the extent of income and standard of living of farmers within a definite time-frame . This policy is formulated for all round and comprehensive development of the agricultural sector.
In India, the most objectives of agricultural policy are to remove the main problems of agricultural sector associated with improper and inefficient uses of natural resources, predominance of low-value agriculture, poor cost-benefit ratio of the sectoral activities and insignificant progress of cooperative farming and other self-help institutions.
Main Objectives:
The following are a number of the important objectives of India’s agricultural policy:
(i) Raising the Productivity of Inputs:
One of the important objectives of India’s agricultural policy is to enhance the productivity of inputs so purchased viz., HYV seeds, fertilizers, pesticides, irrigation projects etc.
(ii) Raising Value-Added per Hectare:
Another important objective of country’s agricultural policy is to extend per hectare value-added instead of raising physical output by raising the productivity of agriculture generally and productivity of small and marginal holdings especially .
(iii) Protecting the Interest of Poor Farmers:
One of the important objectives of agricultural policy is to protect the interest of poor and marginal farmers by abolishing intermediaries through land reforms expanding institutional credit support to poor farmers etc.
(iv) Modernizing Agricultural Sector:
Modernizing agricultural sector is another important objective of agricultural policy of the country. Here the policy support includes introduction of modern technology in agricultural operations and application of improved agricultural inputs like HYV seeds, fertilizers etc.
(v) Checking Environmental Degradation:
Agricultural policy of India has set another objective to see environmental degradation of natural base of Indian agriculture.
(vi) Agricultural Research and Training:
Another important objective of Indian agricultural policy is to market agricultural research and training facilities and to percolate the fruits of such research among the farmers by establishing a close linkage between research institutions and farmers.
(vii) Removing Bureaucratic Obstacles:
The policy has set another objective to remove bureaucratic obstacles on the farmers Co-operative societies and self help institutions so that they will work independently.
National Agricultural Policy Document, 2000:
On 28th July, 2000, the NDA Government made public a National Agriculture Policy envisaging over 4 per cent annual growth through efficient use of resources and technology and increased private investment while emphasizing on price protection to farmers within the WTO regime.
The policy aimed toward catapulting agricultural growth to over 4 per cent once a year by 2005. This growth is to be achieved through a mixture of measures including structural, institutional, agronomic, environmental, economical and tax reforms.
The policy formulation has been necessitated thanks to the relatively poor growth of agriculture experienced during the 1990s. The Policy Document observed, “Capital inadequacy, lack of infrastructural support and demand side constraints like controls on movement, storage and sale of agricultural products etc. have continued to affect the economic activity of agricultural sector. Consequently, growth has also attended slacken during the 1990s”.
As the agricultural sector ensures the food security and nutrition to the present huge size of population of India and also supplies huge quantity of raw materials for expanding industrial base along side creating surplus for exports thus a quick and equitable reward system for the farming community along side attaining faster rate of growth of the world should be the important components of agricultural reforms.
Thus, the National Agricultural Policy (2000) has taken the subsequent important objectives:
1. Attaining a rate of growth above 4.0 per cent per annum within the agricultural sector;
2. Attaining a growth which is predicated on efficient use of resources and also makes provision for conservation of our soil, water and bio-diversity;
3. Attainment of growth with equity, i.e., attaining a growth whose impact would be widespread across regions and different classes of farmers;
4. Attaining a growth that's demand-driven and cater to the necessity of domestic markets and ensuring maximization of enjoy exports of agricultural products within the face of challenges from economic liberalization and globalization;
5. Attaining a growth that's sustainable technologically, environmentally and economically.
Sustainability in Agriculture:
The new policy seeks to introduce economically viable, technically sound, environmentally non-degrading and non-hazardous and socially acceptable use of natural resources of the country for promoting the concept of sustainable agriculture.
In order to satisfy this strategy, the following measures are suggested within the new policy:
1. To use unutilized barren wastelands for agriculture and afforestation.
2. To contain biotic pressures ashore and to control indiscriminate division of agricultural lands for non-agricultural uses.
3. To boost cropping intensity through multi-cropping and inter-cropping.
4. To stress rational use of ground and surface water in order that over-exploitation of ground water resources are often checked. To adopt better technologies like drip and sprinkler irrigation system so on arrange more economic and efficient use of water.
5. To adopt vigorously a long-term perspective plan for sustainable rain-fed agriculture by adopting watershed approach and water harvesting method for development of two-thirds of cropped area of the country which depends on rainfall.
6. Involvement of farmers and landless labourers will be sought within the development of pastures/ forestry programmes on huge public wasteland by providing adequate financial incentives and entitlement of trees and pastures.
Some of the main causes responsible for the food problem are as follows:
(a) Population Growth:
Population explosion is one among the major causes of food problem in India. There's less food production as compared to increasing demand.
(b) Low Productivity
One of the reasons of low agricultural productivity in India is that the use of low grade technology and traditional farming. Other causes of low productivity are small land holding, forest destruction, insufficient manure and defective land tenures etc.
(c) Vigorous Farming:
Due to much demand of food in market, the farmer uses the agricultural land vigorously to earn more money because of which pressure ashore increases as a result its mineral content get reduced year after year.
(d) Natural Calamities:
Frequent occurrence of natural calamities also resulted within the large loss of food production. These mainly include
The game of rainfall which is such in some areas there's deficit of water causes drought, at same time some part receives quite normal rain resulting into floods which directly affect the crop production.
(e) Less Support from Developed Countries:
The availability of advanced technique in developed countries is liable for their high production which isn't available in poor and developing countries. These developed countries don't transfer their techniques to poor and developing countries so as to increase their export.
INTRODUCTION TO FOOD PROBLEMS IN INDIA:
India has been facing food problems since long period. During Second war India experienced a severe food crisis resulting in a phenomenal increase within the prices of foodgrains. Again in 1943, Bengal faced a significant Agriculture and its Development in India famine where nearly 3.5 million people died out of starvation.
In order to satisfy the situations, the rationing system was introduced and about 45 million people were covered by this rationing system. But thanks to corrupt and inefficient administrative structure, the whole system failed resulting in a widespread hoarding and speculation of foodgrains causing huge suffering of many people of the country.
The partition of India in 1947 again aggravated the food crisis as after partition the country received about 82 per cent of the population but had to manage with nearly 45 per cent of the entire cultivated area under cereals and with 69 per cent of the irrigated area. The country had to forego the excess area of West Punjab and Sind.
Thus, while the separation of Burma aggravated things and forced the country to import rice but the partition of the country again forced the country to import wheat from foreign countries.
2. Food Problem and Food Policy in India since Independence:
India had to face a heavy food crisis at the time of independence.
To meet the deficiency within the supply of foodgrains in the short run, the govt made the subsequent provisions:
(a) Extension of the rationing system to cover both urban and rural areas;
(b) Import of foodgrains to create easy the situation and the amount of import reached the extent of 2.7 million tonnes in 1947; and
(c) Introduction of subsidy for the distribution of imported food grains because it was expensive as compared to indigenously produced foodgrains. But the public distribution system which was mostly maintained within the urban areas primarily had been affected by huge degree of inefficiency and corruption. .
To meet things , the primary Five Year Plan accorded highest priority to agriculture. During the first Plan period, the country experienced a series of good harvests resulting in an improvement within the food supply situation, curtailment of imports and a consequent fall within the prices of food grains by 23 per cent.
Considering things the planners became considerably optimistic and an impact was created that the food problem was finally solved. But things was short-lived because whatever improvement in food situation was achieved that was mainly because of better climatic conditions and timely arrival of monsoons.
PL-480 Agreement, 1956:
Soon after, the Second Plan again experienced a significant food crisis especially in 1958-59, in various parts of the country thanks to drought, floods and cyclone. To satisfy the crisis the govt of India entered into an agreement in 1956 with U.S.A. To import 3.1 million tonnes of wheat and 0.19 million tonnes of rice for subsequent three years. This agreement was called Public Law-480 (PL- 480) Agreement, 1956 which the govt utilised to reduce and stabilise the costs of foodgrains within the country.
That marked the beginning of this public distribution system (PDS) which was introduced to distribute cheap imported foodgrains through network of “fair price shops” at a price which was far below the prevailing market price.
Again the Third Plan set a target to raise the production of foodgrains by 100 million tonnes but the plan did not achieve the target. Under such a situation the govt had no other alternative but to import foodgrains heavily.
Thus, the quantity of import of foodgrains which was a negligible 6 lakh tonnes in 1955-56 went up to 1.4 million tonnes in 1956-57 (the first year of PL-480 imports), 3.6 million tonnes in 1956-57, 6.3 million tonnes in 1963-64, 7.4 million tonnes in 1964-65 then to 10.3 million tonnes in 1965-66.
Foodgrains Enquiry Committee, 1957:
This huge import of foodgrains was endorsed by the foodgrains Enquiry Committee appointed by the govt in 1957. This committee categorically observed that, “Food problem was likely to stay with us for an extended time to return , assurance of continued imports of certain quantities- of foodgrains will constitute the very basis of a successful food policy for a few years to come.”
Thus, under such a situation a stable and long term food policy supported heavy imports of foodgrains emerged gradually. Accordingly, India signed an agreement with U.S.A. For importing 16 million tonnes of wheat and 1 million tonnes office for subsequent 4 years.
During this 10 years period (1956-66), the food policy of the govt of India was mostly supported imports (under PL-480) from U.S.A. And the country imported nearly 60 million tonnes of foodgrains or an annual average of 6 million tonnes.
About 75 to 80 per cent of foodgrains distributed through public distribution system was brought through imports which was really a humiliating dependence. Instead of of these steps, the prices of foodgrains began to rise continuously and thus the govt realised that its food policy based on imports failed to save the situation.
In order to satisfy the growing pressure of population growth and to provide food and nutritional security to such an outsized population, special efforts are going to be made for raising the productivity and production of crops and thereby to meet the need of raw materials of expanding agro-based industries. Special stress will be made for the event of latest crop varieties, especially food crops, with higher nutritional value.
The policy has paid due emphasis for the event of rain-fed irrigation, horticulture, floriculture, roots and tubers plantation crops, aromatic and medicinal plants, bee-keeping and sericulture for augmenting food supply and boosting exports along side generation of employment in rural areas.
High priority has also been given on the development of animal husbandry, dairy, poultry and aquaculture so on diversify agriculture, increasing animal protein availability in food basket and also for generating exportable surpluses.
The policy also encouraged the cultivation of fodder crops and fodder trees so on meet the growing need for feed and fodder requirements. The policy has encouraged the involvement of co-operatives and therefore the private sector for the promotion and development of animal husbandry, dairy and poultry farming.
Development and Transfer of Technology:
The policy suggested that the govt should encourage application of biotechnology, remote sensing technologies, energy saving technologies, pre- and post-harvest technologies, and technology for environmental protection. Moreover, the govt will make a fresh plan to move towards a regime financial sustainability of extension services during a pleased manner. The govt also will undertake special measures for empowering women and also to create their capabilities for improving their access to inputs, technology process and other farming resources.
Incentives and Investment in Agriculture:
The policy suggested that the govt should make adequate efforts for improving the terms of trade for agriculture along side associated manufacturing sector. Accordingly, attempts are going to be made to review and rationalize the structure of taxes on food grains, other commercial crops and also excise duty on farm machinery and implements. The govt has committed to keep agriculture outside purview of taxes and decided to continue this regime of agricultural subsidies.
The, new policy statement accepted the matter of fall publicly sector investment in agricultural sector and decided to boost up public investment for narrowing regional imbalances and also for accelerating development of supportive infrastructure.
In addition to the present , private sector investment in agriculture are encouraged in some sophisticated areas like agricultural research, post-harvest management, marketing and human resource development. Moreover, attempts would be made for fixing agro-processing units together between the producer co-operatives and therefore the corporate sector.
Policy on Institutional Structure:
The policy gave due emphasis for reforming the Institutional structure where the approach on rural development and land reforms will give stress on the subsequent issues:
1. Consolidation of holdings throughout the country following the pattern of north western states.
2. Steps for redistribution of ceiling surplus lands and waste-lands among the landless farmers and unemployed persons.
3. Adopting tenancy reforms for recognizing the rights of tenants and sharecroppers.
4. Promotion and development of lease markets for raising the size of holdings by making legal provisions so on give private land on lease for cultivation and agro-business purposes.
5. Recognizing the rights of women on land.
6. Making provision for updating and improvement of land records through computerization and also by issuing land pass books to all or any the farmers.
The policy has made arrangement for promotion through contract farming and land leasing arrangements for allowing accelerated technology transfer, capital inflow and guaranteed marketing arrangements for a few crops, especially of oilseeds, cotton and horticultural crops.
Risk Management:
The National Agricultural Policy (2000) gave due importance for the promotion of National Agriculture Insurance Scheme (NAIS) so on cover all crops and every one farmers over the country by giving package policy ensuring protection from all risks in pre- and post-harvest operations, including marketing fluctuations in agricultural prices.
Privatization of agriculture and price protection to farmers within the post-quantitative restriction (QR) regime would be a part of the Government’s strategy to synergies agricultural growth. The focus of the new policy is on efficient use of resources and technology, adequate availability of credit to farmers and protecting them from seasonal and price fluctuations. Over the next two decades, the policy aims to achieve a rate of growth in more than four per cent once a year within the agricultural sector.
The policy document observed that private sector participation would be promoted through contract farming and land leasing arrangement, to permit accelerated technology transfer, capital inflow, assured markets for crop production, especially of oilseeds, cotton and horticultural crops. Moreover, private sector investment in agriculture would be encouraged, particularly in areas like agricultural research, human resource development, post harvest management and marketing.
In view of dismantling of quantitative restrictions (QRs) on imports as per WTO agreement on agriculture, the policy has recommended formulation of commodity wise strategies and arrangements to protect farmers from adverse impact of undue price fluctuations within the world market and promote exports.
The policy also observed that the govt would enlarge coverage of future markets to minimize the wide fluctuations in commodity prices as also for hedging their risks. The policy hoped to realize sustainable development of agriculture, create gainful employment and raise standards of living.
The policy has also envisaged evolving a “National Livestock Breeding Strategy” to satisfy the need of milk, meat, egg and livestock products and to reinforce the role of draught animals as a source of energy for farming operations and transport.
The policy document mentioned that plant varieties would be protected through a legislation to encourage research and breeding of new varieties, particularly within the private sector, in line with India’s obligations under the “Trade-related property Rights” (TRIPs) agreement.
The farmers would, however, be allowed to save lots of , use, exchange, share and sell their ‘farm saved seeds’, except branded seeds of protected varieties for commercial purpose. The policy document observed that the event of farming , poultry, dairy and aquaculture would receive high priority to diversify agriculture, increasing availability of animal protein within the food basket and for generating exportable surpluses.
A high priority would be accorded to evolve new location specific and economically viable improved sorts of agriculture and horticulture crops, livestock species and aquaculture as also conservation and judicious use of germplasm and other bio-diversity resources. Moreover, the domestic agriculture market would be liberalized.
The policy further mentioned that the restrictions on the movement of agricultural commodities throughout the country would be progressively dismantled. The structure of taxes on food grains and other commercial crops would be reviewed and rationalized.
The excise duty on materials like farm machinery and implements and fertilizers used as inputs in agricultural collection system. Appropriate measures would be adopted to ensure that agriculturists, by and enormous , remained outside the regulatory and tax collection system.
The policy also observed that so as to guard the interest of farmers within the context of quantitative restrictions, continuous monitoring of international prices would be undertaken and appropriate tariff protection would also be provided.
The policy document further mentioned that rural electrification would tend high priority as a major mover for agricultural development. The utilization of latest and renewable sources of energy for irrigation and other agricultural purposes would be encouraged.
Finally, the policy document observed that the progressive institutionalization of rural and farm credit would be continued for providing timely and adequate credit to farmers. Moreover, endeavor would even be made to provide a package policy for the farmers, right from sowing of crops to post-harvest operations, including market fluctuations within the prices of agricultural produce.
