Unit – 4

Developing Writing Skills

4.1          Planning, Drafting and Editing

Planning

Planning is the "generating ideas" part of the writing process when one works to determine the topic and the position or point-of-view for a target audience. Planning should be offered with the time necessary for an individual to create a plan or develop an outline to organize materials for the final product.

Planning Methods/ Techniques for the Planning Stage

There are a number of ways that one can tackle the planning stage of the writing process. Following are a few of the most common methods and strategies that one can use.

Brainstorming - Brainstorming is the process of coming up with as many ideas as possible about a topic without being worried about the feasibility or whether an idea is realistic or not. A list format is often the easiest to organize.

Freewriting - The free write strategy is when one writes whatever comes into their mind about the topic at hand for a specific amount of time, like 10 or 15 minutes. In a free write, one should not worry about grammar, punctuation, or spelling. Instead, they should try and come up with as many ideas as they possibly can to help them when they get to the writing process.

Mind Maps - Concept maps or mind-mapping are great strategies to use during the planning stage. Both are visual ways to outline information. There are many varieties of mind maps that can be quite useful as one work in the planning stage. Webbing is a great tool that has one write a word in the middle of a sheet of paper. Related words or phrases are then connected by lines to this original word in the centre. They build on the idea so that one has a wealth of ideas that are connected to this central idea.

Drawing/Doodling – Some individuals respond well to the idea of being able to combine words with drawings as they think about what they want to write in the planning stage. This can open up creative lines of thought.

Asking Questions - One often comes up with more creative ideas through the use of questioning. The point of asking questions to oneself is that these questions can help uncover a deeper understanding of the topic before the drafting process begins.

Outlining - One can employ traditional outlines to help them organize their thoughts in a logical manner. One would start with the overall topic and then list out their ideas with supporting details. It is helpful to point out that the more detailed their outline is from the beginning, the easier it will be to write on the topic.

Drafting

Drafting is the second step in any writing process. While drafting, the writer organizes his ideas into complete thoughts and translates them into sentences and paragraphs. The writer organizes his ideas in a way that allows the reader to understand his message.  He does this by focusing on which ideas or topics to include in the piece of writing.

While drafting, the writer must compose an introduction to the piece and develop a conclusion for the material presented.  At the end of this step of the writing process, the writer will have completed a “rough draft.” or the First draft of the text.

Below is the drafting process in detail:

Drafting: Stage 1

Follow your plan

Write your first draft using the plan and argument you have already prepared. If you stick to your plan, your first draft should be quite quick to write.

If new ideas occur to you, make notes in a separate document and insert them later, making sure they fit with your plan.

One point per paragraph

Focus on making sure each paragraph contains a point that elaborates on a different aspect of your argument. You will usually make your point in the first sentence of a paragraph. This is often called the topic sentence.

Signposting

As you draft, you might like to include section headings to help keep you on track. You can take them out later. Provide your reader with signposts so they can follow your line of argument without the headings.

At the end of a paragraph, indicate how your point leads on to the next one. Alternatively, use the first few words of the new paragraph to show how it links to the previous one.

Drafting: Stage 2

Check your argument

Now, check what you've written: your argument and how it is structured. Have you answered the question, and all parts of the question? Are the main points clear?

Check that your sections are in the best order for the argument to flow well. You can read through your topic sentences to see this.

You may need to expand one area and reduce another, and substitute quotes or references. But make sure you stick to roughly the right word count.

Keep track of changes by renaming your document as Draft 2. You could put the parts you take out in a ‘spare text' document in case you realise later that you need any of them.

Introduction and conclusion

Once you are happy with the main body of the text, check that your introduction and conclusion reflect what you have written.

Editing

Editing is generally considered as correcting grammar and syntax along with punctuation. That's somewhat correct, but only the tip of the iceberg. The editing process involves many sets of eyes and several layers to complete.

It’s important to understand the different types of editing to know what to expect from the process. The revision levels focus on specific individual needs, including stylistic and substantive content. The process of editing consists of four main steps which are to be covered: content and development, line, copy, and proofread.

Steps for Editing:

Step 1: Content and Development Edit

The first step of editing for most documents is content and development editing—reviewing the central content of the text. Developmental editing tackles the following:

• Flow
• Organization
• Chapter (arrangement, length, and number)
• Logic
• Descriptions
• Sentence Structures
• Pacing
• Impact of POV (first, second, third, or combination)

Content and development edits will often lead to reorganization of thought patterns in the text with changing or shuffling minor ideas due to incoherencies.

Step 2: Line Edit

Line edits focus primarily structural patterns of sentences and paragraphs with special attention towards:

• Words or phrases that are repetitious
• Restructuring sentences that are not complete or inaccurate
• Run-on sentences
• Usage of words that clarify meaning
• Enhances tedious wording

A line edit restructures sentences to elevate clarity and flow. Say there are two sentences describing something important, but they don’t quite pull together. During this step, the editor will take the two sentences and formulate them in such a way that they read effortlessly and are in a logical order.

Step 3: Copy Edit

Copy editing is focused on specific grammatical rules including but not limited to:

• Grammar and punctuation
• Spelling nuances (British English versus American English)
• Capitalizing, hyphenating, italicizing
• When to use numbers instead of letters

The copy edit can and must be automated using rules. While editing it is prudent to use two to three references to maintain consistency—specifically, a dictionary and a style manual. Use of dictionaries should be selective to ensure spelling and meaning is correct. Merriam-Webster dictionary is most common.

Step 4: Proofread

The proofread is the final and one of the most important aspects of editing. Proofreading is the last stage of editing and the proof-reader carefully looks for:

• Spelling errors
• Words that sound the same but spelled differently
• Correct usage of quotation and punctuation marks around
• Dialogue
• Missed words (of, and, the)
• Unwanted spaces

Technically proofreading is often considered outside the realm of general editing. An In-depth account of content and flow should be assured before a proofread. While proofreading one isn’t expected to criticize or provide an exhaustive review.

4.2          Precise Writing

By the term 'text' we refer to a passage consisting of different sentences written in continuous prose. It could be just a paragraph. When we read the paragraph, we can understand what is said and we can be able to follow the thinking of the writer. If we are not able to follow we can say that the concerned paragraph lacks cohesion and coherence.

Precise writing promotes two types of skills namely discourse skill and coherence.

1. Discourse skill:

It is a skill of presenting ideas and arguments of the writer logically. If this skill is developed we come to know what is coherence and cohesion. Every line has a logical link with the previous one in the text or paragraph which is called the link between sentences in a paragraph. They are:

i)    topical

Ii)  grammatical

Iii)     logical.

This type of link or inter connectedness is known as cohesion. Topical cohesion is lexical in nature. Logical cohesion is known as coherence.

i) Topical cohesion

In a text only one topic is dealt with. It has collocation of related make use of words. Whenever we are writing on a particular topic we appropriate register. So register is the term used to denote the variety of language which depends on its particular use. But using proper register is a hall mark of advanced mastery of the language. Hence it is sufficient to learn collocation rather than register. Topically connected words and its repetition is seen in the text. Synonyms are freely used.

Ii) Grammatical cohesion:

Here sentences can be interconnected by grammar. Grammatical relationship can be brought about by the use of pronouns appositives etc.

Iii) Logical cohesion or Coherence:

A sentence in a text should be logically connected. Logical cohesive is achieved by the use of certain words and expressions. There are a about a dozen logical devices used to promote cohesion.

      Addition: We add one sentence to another by using linguistic markers like and, besides, in addition, moreover, further, again etc.

e.g.:    He has a car. In addition, he owns a bike

      Amplification: Amplification means adding details to the text. It is more or less like addition. The same linguistic markers are used here also.

e.g.:    He came to see me moreover he brought good news.

      Comparison: Here the first sentence states something. Similar idea is expressed in the second sentence. Markers used are similarly and likewise.

e.g.:    Rama got his degree. Similarly, Gopal also got his degree

      Contrast: The second sentence strikes a contrast with the first sentence making use of linguistic markers like 'but, however, whereas, etc.

e.g.:     He is poor but he is kind.

      Concession: The second sentence makes a concession on the basis of the sentence. The linguistic markers used are through, although, even though.

e.g.:    He is poor. Though he is poor he is kind.

      Condition: The second sentence puts forth a condition-based idea with reference he first sentence if, unless, as long as are used.

e. g.: If you work hard, you will pass.

      Cause and effect: The first sentence states the cause or reason. The second sentence covers the effect of that cause. As a result, therefore are used as refers to the linguistic markers.

e.g.: He is suffering from fever. Therefore, he has not come to school.

      Enumeration: The sentence making, use of this device draw up a list. The markers used are 'first, to begin, finally' etc.

e.g.: He was persistently asking me for a loan. Finally, he went away.

      Exemplification: The second sentence gives an example for what is stated in the first sentence. The linguistic markers used are for example, for instance, etc.

e.g.: The government has implemented a number of good schemes.

For example adult education has been given great importance.

      Temporal Relationship: The second sentence refers to a time factor connected to the first sentence. 'before, after, during, meanwhile etc. are used.

e.g.: We were discussing the problem.

Meanwhile the problem has worsened.

      Conclusion: The second sentence arises at a conclusion based on the idea expressed in the first sentence. The markers used are" to conclude, to sum up, in brief etc.

e.g.: He has no clear alibi, to conclude he is the culprit.

      Reformulation: The second sentence 'remarks the first sentence. The markers used are in the other words, he is dishonest etc.

2.     Coherence in Writing:

Have you ever read something that was difficult to follow, where the author jumped from one idea to another and had no coherence or consistency in connecting words, sentences and paragraphs? That is something you want to avoid in your writing. But how do you do that?

Coherence writing is a logical bridge between words, sentences, and paragraphs. Comprehensive writing uses devices to link ideas within each sentence and paragraph. Key ideas and description can be difficult for the reader to follow when writing is not in line. In this tutorial, you will see some examples and read some tips for making your writing more consistent between words, phrases and paragraphs.

Coherence Between Words:
Between each word, an overlap can be created in parallel. Syntactic structure means using the same grammatical structure between words and sentences. Similarities are very important for words in lists. If you make a list of things that a person likes to do, then each employee on the list should take the same kind of language. For example, if one of the actions in the list takes the 'gaming' form of gerund, the same as 'running', the other items in the list should be in the gerund form.

An informal structure will:
Sara loves jumping, running, and boating.
Instead, the list should be like this:
Sarah loves to jump, run, and walk.

Coherence between Sentences:
Cohesion can be formed between sentences by using replication and transition devices. The repetition of words in every sentence helps to repeat the same thoughts between sentences. One way to use repetition to build consensus is to combine the repetition of the same word or phrase at the end of one sentence and at the end of the next sentence to show how thoughts come together. Here is an example of phrases that create reciprocal harmony:

The most important part of the essay is the thesis statement. The thesis statement introduces the contention of the text. Thesis statement also helps to shape the context.

In this example, the repetition of the word 'thesis statement' helps to combine the three sentences. It is a sentence that completes the first sentence and shifts to the next sentence starting with that sentence.

Another way to build consistency between sentences is transformational devices. There are many types of converging devices that show time and help ideas flow smoothly. Change words, such as 'first', 'later', and 'then', are just a few examples of interchange devices that show time to help ideas flow smoothly. Swap devices are like display signs that tell the reader what happened before and where the conversation is going.

Coherence Between Categories:
Temporary words can also be used between paragraphs. Words such as:

• Therefore
• However
• Thus
• First
• Later
• After that

It can be used not only between sentences, but between paragraphs to connect them. Other ways to build consistency between categories include paragraph structure and visual consistency. The structure of a related paragraph includes a topic sentence, which focuses on the main idea. The topic sentence usually comes first in the paragraph. The topic sentence is followed by supporting sentences that develop the idea and finally the concluding sentence to put it all together. Temporary words then close the gap between paragraphs, and then the structure begins with another topic sentence in the next paragraph.

Establishing Associations:
It is important to consider the conjunction when writing at the sentence level. However, cohesion shapes the flow of text and must be established.

There are various ways to ensure consistent cohesion:

• Write sentences that flow with varying lengths and structures, use punctuation, and extend your choice of words.
• Use simple modifications, such as "in addition, additionally, and, therefore, the opposite, in the same token, at the same time, in other words, etc."
• Repeat your keywords but beware of excessive repetition.
• Repeat sentence structures, used as a means of livelihood rather than unity to emphasize the similarities between sentences.
• Ensure consistency regarding them
• Begin each sentence or paragraph with information showing the content of the next sentence.

Academic writing is improved in terms of cohesion. Without unity and cohesion, students will become confused and ultimately disinterested in the subject. Your ideas are then lost and the original purpose of writing is lost.

Strategies for Coherent Writing

There are six ways to make a cohesive encounter, which you will find useful while researching your manuscript.
Building relationships is not as difficult as it seems, but you will need the right tools and strategies to achieve it.

Lexis creates cohesion using text templates, hyponyms, and superordinate. The use of lexical chains creates variety in writing and avoids monotony.

• The index creates combinations by using noun phrases (e.g. Yours, theirs, etc.), pronouns (e.g. He, I, etc.), and commentators (e.g. Those, these, etc.).
• Submission, which is to use a different name instead of the previously mentioned name (e.g. "I bought a designer bag today. You did the same.")
• Ellipsis removal or omission because its meaning is defined in context (e.g. "You go to yoga classes in the afternoon. I hope I can too.")
• Related nouns are also called umbrella nouns because they summarize many words in one.
• Suffixes include words that write ideas (e.g. First, next, then, last, etc.)

4.3          Precis

The term precis comes from a French word “précis”, which can be translated as "precise, clear, up to the point”. Therefore, the word precis in the context of writing means a summary of any writing piece, be it a book, an article, or a novel. What is typical while writing a precis is the outline of the main points and arguments presented in the given text. A precis does not contain a deep or critical analysis of the text, but it nevertheless objectively explains the situation narrated in a text.

Precis vs. Summary

A precis and a summary are quite similar to each other but they do contain certain major differences which set them apart. Below are the two main differences between a precis and a summary:

1. A summary consists of a number of brief statements which covers the main points of the text. It has no pre-defined word limit. A precis on the other hand, has its own title and should be 1/3 of the total words of the original passage.
2. A summary is a sort of general overview of the contents of a passage. Here only the main events in the passage are discussed. A precis, however, focuses on every detail and analyses a particular situation.

Rules

Below are the fundamental rules to be followed while writing a precis:

1. Understand the theme of the passage

The first and the most important thing is to thoroughly read and comprehend the purpose of the passage. Once you understand the theme, it is easier to grasp the key ideas in the passage, which will help you remember them while writing the precis.

b.     No copying from the passage

It is important in precis writing to use your own words and not copy from the passage. If you find certain sentences in the passage that you would like to incorporate in your precis, you need to understand them and then craft that sentence in your own words. Key words can be used but entire sentences should always be avoided.

c.      Carry clarity and conciseness

One of the most fundamental rules of writing a precis is clarity. The sentences should be clear, concise, meaningful and to the point. They should reflect the central ideas from the passage.

d.     A reflection of your intelligence

The precis should be written in such a way that it flaunts your writing skills. The use of language, vocabulary and structure of sentences should be perfect. A good precis will provide the readers a good impression of your writing skills and it will also make the precis comprehensible to the readers.

e.     Be original

Each and every sentence in the precis should be one's own creation with no plagiarism whatsoever. If you find a significant idea or motif from the passage that you want to include in your precis, read the passage again and again and try to re-construct the idea from your memory using your own words.

f.        Use of indirect speech

A precis must always be written in indirect speech since it employs the perspective of a third person. Direct speech leaves a personal impact and should be avoided while writing a precis.

g.     Use facts and statistics

To maintain the credibility of the text, try to include all the numbers and facts you read in the text. It will also help you enhance the quality of your writing and will build the interest of the reader in your precis. Therefore, any of the facts and numbers should not be missed while writing the Precis.

h.     An analysis of the various sections

Divide the text into sections and try to analyse each section carefully. A careful analysis of each section will let you draw in closer to the main themes and concepts in the text. Further, you can only mention the crucial content of the passage, if you have read it thoroughly and have identified the areas which carry high proportional value.

i.        An interpretation of the original passage

Always conclude the passage by providing your own understand instead of the writer's perspective. The conclusion has to be from your own point of view but should still be in the third person as if spoken by a third party. It is your interpretation of the text that gives meaning to the precis.

j.        The size of the precis

The size of a precis should always be one third of the original passage.  While writing the precis one should always be aware of the word count but one should also be able to retain the individuality of the passage in the prescribed word limit.

Precis Format

A precis should be short and concise and comprises of three parts: The introduction, the main body and the conclusion.

The Introduction

• The introductory sentence of a precis should mention the author’s name along with the article/book title. It should also include the date of publishing in parenthesis. After that, the topic that you want to discuss in your precis has to be elaborated using a few key words. Extravagant detailing of the topic should be avoided.

• In the introduction, try to include a rhetorical verb outlining the author’s primary purpose (e.g., “assert,” “argue,” “deny,” “refute,” “prove,” disprove,” “explain”). This will give a strong definition to the facts and concepts you are about to present in the main body of your precis.

• It is important to include the thesis statement of the text in the introduction. A thesis statement is the main idea or crux of a particular text. This thesis statement will be elaborated in the main body by providing facts and evidences in its favor.

The Main Body

• The main body should include clarification of how the author formulates and further explains the main themes in the text. It should be informative enough to incite the reader's interest and short enough to retain that interest.

• It should include a sentence that states the purpose of the author in writing the text. Phrases such as “in order” are helpful in developing this sentence.

• Describe how the author establishes his connection with the readers. Always keep the audience for whom you are writing in mind while writing a precis. This includes the using vocabulary and structuring sentences according to the needs of your audience.

• All key points and arguments must be contained in this section.

The Conclusion

• Present a finishing remark of 2-3 sentences to shed light on the author’s intended idea for the book or passage.

• Give a 1-sentence restatement of the major claim which the author used to develop their evidence in the reading.

Steps for Writing a Precis

Below are the steps involved in writing a precis

Step 1: As discussed, the very first step of Precis writing is to form a clear understanding of the passage. You should fully acquaint yourself with the subject first in order to get the meaning behind a passage before starting to write a precis.

Step 2: While reading the content, make sure you highlight the important points of the passage. It will help you in keeping track of the important information that needs to be written in your Precis. Also, you should omit the information, which you feel is not important for your Precis.

Step 3: Further, you need to remember that logical ordering is highly important when it comes to precis writing. Additionally, a logically organised text helps in making things much clearer to your audience and they tend to understand your take in a processed way.

Step 4: If you have some names to be mentioned in your Precis, remember, they should be with the designations, as it helps to increase the credibility of the content. In case, the designations are not mentioned in the passage, you can write the first name.

Step 5: Moving on, the word count of the passage should be taken into account, because one- third of the same has to be written in Precis. Therefore, conducting a word count before beginning the precis could be beneficial.

Step 6: Now, prepare the draft of your Precis by jotting all the important points together. While writing always remember to maintain the flow of your concepts and you should not miss any important information you have gathered while reading the passage.

Step 7: Before finally submitting your Precis, make sure you review all the details carefully. Also, you must do a thorough check of your grammatical and structural errors. Furthermore, one thing not to miss is to mention the total count in a bracket after the end point of your Precis.

4.4          Technical Definition and Technical Description

Technical Definition

A technical definition is a definition in technical communication describing or explaining technical terminology. Technical definitions are used to introduce the vocabulary which makes communication in a particular field succinct and unambiguous.

There are 3 types of technical definitions:

1. Parenthetical Definitions

Parenthetical definitions are words that quickly explain a term and are included within the same sentence as the word being defined. These informal definitions can be a synonym or a short phrase. The definition will be placed in parentheses immediately following the word being defined.

Parenthetical definitions are used to explain words that need clarification but are not the main focus of the document. For example, you might write, 'Our company should invest in creating sinistral (left-handed) office supplies to meet the growing market demand.'

Notice that the term being defined, sinistral, does not need a lengthy explanation for readers to understand the concept of the sentence. Instead, a simple synonym placed immediately after the word sufficiently explains the term.

2. Sentence Definitions

There are times when a few words are not enough to explain a technical term. In this case, the definition provided needs to be more extensive. Sentence definitions can provide the additional information needed to help increase comprehension.

Sentence definitions are an explanation of a word using one sentence. These are more formal explanations than parenthetical definitions. Sentence definitions follow a similar form, which includes:

• The word being defined
• The class to which the word belongs
• The feature that distinguish the term from other words

For example, 'The heart is an organ that pumps blood through the body.' Notice that the word being defined is provided first (heart), then the word is put into a class or category (organ), and finally, distinguishing features are explained (pumps blood).

Here are some other examples of sentence definitions:

     A pig is an animal that rolls in the mud.

     Scissors are an instrument that is used to cut items, such as paper.

     A hoyden is a girl who is boisterous and bold.

     A kickshaw is food served as an appetizer and is usually a delicacy.

Keeping the word-class-distinguishing feature format allows the readers to compare the word to terms they may already know, while also understanding how it differs from those words, which improves comprehension.

3. Extended Definitions

Although sentence definitions provide more specific details to define a word, there are times in technical writing when the term is so important to the document or so complex in its meaning that an entire paragraph or more is needed to help explain the term. This is when an extended definition is necessary.

Extended definitions are the use of a paragraph or more to expand on a word that may be difficult to comprehend. An extended definition almost always starts with a sentence definition, but then expands on the word by providing additional sentences about one or more of the following:

• The function of the term
• The location of the term
• The physical traits of the term
• The causes and effects of the term

Technical Description

A technical description is a type of text that describes an object or process with respect to its function, organization, parts and details. A technical description is the "building block" of technical documentation. Technical documents usually contain multiple technical descriptions.

Usually, a technical description consists of a general pattern. First, the author states the object or process and describes its function or functions. Second, they give an overview of the object or process, including its dimensions, parts (with organization of those parts) and other relevant information. Finally, the writer elucidates each significant component, provides explanations, locations and physical information of each component.

Before starting a technical description, it is imperative to consider carefully how the audience and the purpose of the document will affect what you write. Your sense of your audience will determine not only how technical your vocabulary should be but also how long your sentences and paragraphs should be.

Another audience-related factor is your use of graphics. Some audiences may require simple graphics; they might have trouble understanding complicated schematics or charts. While considering the audience, it is necessary to think about whether any of the readers are from other cultures and might therefore expect different topics, organization, or writing style in the description.

Drafting Effective Descriptions

There is no single organizational format used for technical descriptions. Because descriptions are written for different audiences and different purposes, they can take many shapes and forms.

Below are the elements of drafting an effective technical description:

1. Introduction: Plan the introduction to your description carefully. It must include the following:

• Indicate the specific object about to be described.
• Explain what the audience needs in terms of knowledge and background to understand the description.
• Provide a general description of the object.
• Include an overview of the contents of the description.

2. Background: If the object of description is not likely to be familiar to most of your readers, consider adding some background before you divulge into the actual description. If suppose you are about to describe the function of an SGO/3 density gauge, you must first explain what it is, what it does, and on where can it be used.

3. The Body (Discussion of the parts and/or characteristics): The main body of the technical description must consist of the discussion of all the parts or characteristics along with their technical specifications. The object of description must be divided into parts or characteristics, or both. For example, while describing a wooden pencil, divide it into a lead, a wooden barrel, an eraser, and a metal clip. Characteristics would describe the tangible and intangible aspects of a thing which are not parts: for example, the pencil has a certain weight, length, width, and so on.

Once the object of description is divided into parts and characteristics, the next section will describe each part and characteristic in detail. For mechanical objects, it works well to start by defining the part and then explaining its function. The description of each part should be from general to specific, using any of the sources of description that are appropriate.

It is noteworthy that while writing a technical description, you can mix other kinds of writing.

4. Discussion of the Related Operation or Process: While drafting a technical description, it is useful to summarize the operation or process associated with the object you're describing. For example, while describing the function of a mechanical pencil, you could briefly explain how it is used. If the described object is a snowflake, it must contain the discussion on the process by which it formed.

5. Conclusion: A typical technical description has a brief conclusion that provides an overall summary of the item. A frequently used technique for concluding descriptions of some mechanisms and objects is to state briefly how the parts function together as a whole. A professional description will contain a brief paragraph summarizing the principal steps or discussing the importance or implications of the process.

4.5          Report Writing: Features of writing a good Report, Structure of a Formal Report

The success of a business or industrial organization lies in doing its job for this purpose, gathering information and passing it on to those who need it is important. In the broader collection and transfer of information is happening all the time in every area of ​​formal life. So scientists, working brokers, testers, journalists, and various professionals, government and private organizations are asked to write and report to their management on important topics at the institution or the person involved.

Reports can be as short as a few sentences and as long as a few large pages. Although reports can be verbal and informal, here we are concerned with written and formal reports.

Features of Writing a Good Report

• Requirement:
  When organizing and preparing your reports you need to know who your audience is and whether or not your content meets their interests and needs.

• Accessibility:
  Legitimacy has to do with how easy or readable it is. As most reports in normal cases type, all meetings with good typing should be followed. If there are handwritten reports, special attention should be given to writing clearly and clearly. Any departure from the above requirement will prove displeasing to your audience.

• Clarity and Readability:
  Clarity, durability and systematic presentation of readable content. The concept is summarized better than the following:
  The author does a lot by giving his reader a lot of information and taking away from him a little time.
  In this regard the following five goals are met:

• Conciseness:
  Just like unwanted fat in the body, padding, prolixity and repetition violates the respect of good writing, not to mention the respect they wrote for you. So 'agree' and 'prefer' will be more acceptable than pompous 'agree with' and 'prefer'. As such, why use 'at that point in time' and at a time when we have the best and most economical holdings at that time 'and' when '. Viewed from the point of view of the report, or requested for the report, a good report will contain four important details, an analysis of the information, conclusions and recommendations. It should always be remembered that effective reporting requires special attention to the needs and expectations of the reader. It means that the author of the report has to 'snap a picture', he must think and understand himself.

Structure of a Formal Report

A formal report is comprised of the following sections:

1. Title Page

The title page includes the main title of the report, it must be short and concise. You can also include the word counts of your summary and main body.

B.     Table of Contents

Help your reader quickly and easily find what they are looking for by using informative headings and careful numbering of your sections and sub-sections.

For example:

C.    Introduction

The introductory part of the report comprises of statement of the objectives of the report and how the report should be treated by the readers. It should indicate towards the problem that is going to be addressed in the main body. It should be catchy and interesting to grasp the attention of the reader from the very start.

D.    The Body

The main body consists of the central theme or the main idea of the report. It can be divided into a number of sections and subsections to separate your research and subsequent findings in a logical order.

E.     Figures, Graphs, Formulae and Tables

This section consists of the statistical representation of the data you have collected. Ideas should be conveyed in the form which is most suitable to the reader and easily understandable by the reader. Excessive use of these tools should be avoided.

F.     Conclusion

The conclusion is a kind of summing up of all the points you have stated in the main text. It should be a definite solution to the problem introduced during the introductory part of the report. The conclusion must be short and to the point.

G.   Summary

Summarize all the key points stated in the report including your research, your findings and your conclusion. The summary should feel like a brief overview of your investigations and outcomes. The summary should be constructed in such a way that it can be called a stand-alone document on its own.

H.    References

References must include detailed information of all your citations and the sources of material quoted in your texts. It can also include bibliography for further reading.

I.       Appendices

This is the last element of a report. It refers to any material which can be useful in the detailed understanding of your subject. It is not meant for the casual reader but for readers who are highly interested in the subject.

4.6          Report of Trouble

Many companies encourage the use of complaint reports as the proper method of formally stating a trouble. These reports are usually used to address unsatisfactory transactions or conditions concerning a company. Writing a complaint report properly is key to getting your concern heard and the problem remedied.

A complaint report consists of the following elements:

The Heading

The heading part follows the format given below:

TO:              (The individual or company to whom the complaint is addressed)

FROM:           (The individual registering the complaint)

DATE:             (Current Date)

SUBJECT:           (The main purpose summed up in one sentence)

The Body

The body must contain an introduction where you should write the purpose of your report and what is the primary concern of the report. It should then include the main subject, in this case the complaint. The issue at hand should be properly discussed and you should try to provide reasonable solutions to the problem. The tone should not be aggressive at it would make it more difficult to find a suitable resolution to your grievances. The concluding sentence should sum up the report in 2-3 sentences, try to reiterate the key points you have mentioned earlier and try to suggest a few measures that would help in solving your issue.

4.7          Laboratory Report

A laboratory report is a formal, analytical and concise record of an experiment. The discussion of the experiment, the various procedures and the subsequent results obtained should be clear and specific enough that a reader could easily replicate the experiment. One of the main purposes of writing a laboratory report is to communicate the work done in the laboratory to the management on a regular basis. Another reason for writing a laboratory report is to record an experiment for the future and archive it.

Format

Although most laboratory reports will include the following sections, some experiments will require a

Different format. All reports should be tailored so as to meet the requirements laid down by the experiment.

Abstract: The abstract should contain a brief informational synopsis of your experiment. It is advisable to keep the abstract under 200 words. While writing the abstract, assertive or declarative sentences should be used rather than writing a long descriptive prose.

Introduction: Here the background of the experiment which is to be undertaken is explained in a few lines. The introduction should explain the objectives you hope to achieve from the experiment. When appropriate, the background should indicate theoretical predictions.

Procedures (or Methods): This section includes a detailed set of instructions of how the experiment is ought to be conducted. Each instruction should be so precise that the reader should be able to replicate it if he so desired. There should be no ambiguity and error when it comes to numbers and quantities. All statistical information should be well organised.

Results and Discussion (sometimes presented as separate sections): This section must convey results relevant to the goals of the experiment. Here the analysis of the results obtained from the experiment must be carried out along with its implications. All possible sources of error should be acknowledged with potential solutions if any. Results can also be presented in the form of graphs and tables if the experiment needs it.

Conclusions: Here you should place the specific results acquired into the context of the experiment as a whole. The discussion section should serve as sufficient conclusion if the experiment and report is short. Remember to evaluate the results you obtained in light of the objectives stated in the introduction.

Appendices: This section must include the information which is too extensive or tangential to warrant inclusion in the main body of the report, but necessary as procedural or analytical evidence.

4.8          Progress Report

A progress report is a type of report which is written in order to inform a supervisor, associate, or customer about progress you’ve made on a project over a certain period of time.

A progress report must answer the following questions:

• What percentage of the work is complete?
• Which part of the work is currently being performed?
• Which sections of the work are yet to be completed?
• What unexpected problems have arisen in the project?
• What is the overall status of the project?
• How much more time will be required to complete the work?

A progress report can be structured in three different ways:

a)     Memo – An informal memo report to be sent to someone within the organization.

b)    Letter – An informal or formal letter to be sent to someone outside of the organization.

c)     Formal Report – A formal report to be sent to someone outside the organization

You should choose the type of progress report depending upon your requirements.

A progress report has no specific structure but should always include the following elements:

• The title and the words “Progress Report” on top of the document
• Section headings to simplify the reading process.
• The name of the writer along with their designation and the receiver’s name and designation.
• The opening should be titled “scope and purpose” where the introduction defines the purpose of the report.
• Two sections titled “Progress….” And “Remaining work” should always be included. The former defining how much work has been successfully completed and the latter describing what part of it is yet to be done.
• A section projecting results and the tentative timeline of completion should also be included.
• The paragraphs should be short and concise and the tone respectful.

Status Report

A status report is a type of progress report which keeps the clients, project managers, supervisors and team members up to date regarding a certain project.

It comprises of the efforts, progress and risk associated with a project. A project status report can be a weekly, monthly or quarterly formulated report.

A project status report may be used to:

• Streamline communication efforts across the organization and stakeholders
• Make it easier to gather and disseminate information about key elements of the project
• Ensure stakeholders have all necessary information for decision-making
• Amplify key messages and goals around the project
• Act as a logbook for past key events and actions

What is included in a status report:

• Summary of Work Completed
• A Plan for What Comes Next
• Updates on Budget and Timeline
• Any Action Items/To-Dos
• Report on Risks, Issues, and Mitigation

Below is the format of a status report:

1. Project Name / Client Name

This section should contain the title of the project along with the name of the client. Make sure you record WHO the report is for and WHAT the report entails (ie. What project).

2. Project Vision

Here the main objectives of the project are to be listed in a clear and to the point manner. This is the only static unchanging section of a status report.

Examples:

Drive qualified customers to “purchase” mobile devices based on an improved UI.

With this project, we hope to increase online sales through the implementation of a drip email marketing campaign.

Launch a website by June 2018 that allows customers to purchase the highest quality & best-tasting product in its category.

3. Project Health

Here the health status of the project can be highlighted. The use of colours could be very helpful for notifying the health status for example, green for successful, yellow for a few complications and red for issues requiring immediate and critical attention. A note to support is always helpful.

Examples:

Green: We’ve obtained approval on drip email designs. No budget concerns at this time.

Yellow: The drip email designs need significant revisions; therefore, the final delivery date has been delayed by 1 week.

Red: The drip email campaign has drastically shifted direction since starting. We need to set-up a meeting to establish a wants/wishes for the project.

4. What We Completed This TIMEFRAME

These should be listed in bullet format. Keep these short & simple. Don’t explain the “how” just what.

Example:

Obtained approval for 3 drip email designs

5. What We Plan to Complete Next TIMEFRAME

This section should include what is planned in clear and precise bullet points.

Example:

Develop the three emails

Perform internal QA & testing

Pass off to client QA & testing

6. Issues/Roadblocks

This is where you can raise any red flags or obstacles keeping you from moving forward.

Example:

If we do not obtain client feedback by 06/02, we will be in jeopardy of not being able to send the email to consumers the same day as the product will be available in stores.

7. Upcoming Tasks & Milestones

This should include a set of goals to be achieved in the near future. Is there anything that the viewer should review? and what’s coming up next?

Examples:

Dd/mm: Client QA & Testing

Dd/mm: Email Deployment