Module 2
Grammar and Communication
A verb is a word that expresses the state of being or work being done by the subject. There are main verbs and there are also helping verbs known as auxiliary verbs. Verbs can also be used to express tense.
Ex – She vanished in the darkness.
Auxiliary verbs, also known as helping verbs because they help in the formation of tenses, mood and voices of other verbs. Auxiliary verbs therefore, add functional or grammatical meaning to the clause in which they appear. 'To be', 'to do' and 'to have' are the most commonly used auxiliary verbs. For example: the auxiliary 'to do' is needed to ask questions in the present and past simple tenses. The auxiliary 'to have' is used in the present and past perfect tenses. Some tenses such as the present perfect continuous, consist of more than one auxiliary verbs.
Below are examples of some commonly used auxiliary verbs:
Do you like German food?
Does your mother speak English?
Did you come to school yesterday?
Why are you talking? You should be listening to me!
I was having a bath when you called!
A new annex is being built behind the school.
Have you done your homework?
My father has never visited the USA.
How long have you been living in Germany?
By this time next year, I will have been learning French for 15 years!
Using Primary Auxiliaries
1. Be
The forms of “be” are:
- Present tense: is, am, are
- Past tense: was, were
- Past participle: been
i) To form continuous tense:
He is reading a book.
we were reading a book.
He has been reading a book.
Ii) For passive voice:
The work is done.
The work is being done.
Iii) To express a previous plan or agreement:
You were to visit the doctor.
I am to go to Meerut.
Iv) To express a command:
You are to get the work done by tonight.
The plumber is to repair the pipeline tomorrow.
v) To express feelings, age, size, weight, price, time etc.:
Today is a warm day.
I am not happy.
My weight is 50 kgs.
2. Have
The forms of “have” are:
- Present tense: has, have
- Past tense: had
- Past participle: had
i) To form perfect tense:
He has read the book.
We had done our household chores.
Ii) To form passive voice:
The work has been done.
The room had been cleaned.
Iii) To express a compulsion:
He had to go.
You have to obey the law.
Iv) To express a job got to be done:
I have my room cleaned every week.
She has bread and butter for breakfast.
v) To express the consumption of food, drinks, events etc.
I have tea in the morning.
He had the party at his house.
You have a test tomorrow.
3. Do
The forms of “do” are:
- Present tense: do
- Past tense: did
- Past participle: done
i) In additions to avoid repetition of verbs:
He likes to read and so do I.
You liked to dance and so did she.
Ii) In question tags and short answers:
You liked the film; didn’t you?
Yes, I did.
Iii) To form interrogative and negative forms of present and past indefinite tenses and imperatives:
Do not lean over the fence.
He does not work. Does he?
Iv) To stress some action in the present and past indefinite tenses and in imperatives:
I do go to the class every day.
I did the work daily.
Do finish the work for me.
Modal Auxiliary Verbs
Auxiliary verbs also consist of another set of verbs called modal verbs or modal auxiliary verbs. These verbs combine with other verbs to describe necessity, possibility, intention, or ability. Modal auxiliary verbs include - must, shall, will, should, would, ought (to), can, could, may, and might.
You must act promptly.
Can you speak Spanish?
I would go if I could afford it.
He said he might reconsider his decision.
I ought to visit my family.
We should get to London before midday.
May I come in?
Use of Modal Verbs
Below are some commonly used modal verbs
1. Can and Could
‘Can’ defines ability: I can run to the hotel.
It also indicates permission: You can go to the party tonight.
‘Could’ is used for a request: Could I go to the party tonight?
It is used as the past tense of can in indirect speech: You said you could help me.
Could is also utilised to indicate an ability in the past; He could dance well when I last met him.
2. May and Might
May is typically used to acquire permission: May I come in?
It may also be employed to express a wish: May you have a good life ahead.
'May' can also be used to express possibility: There may be some hope.
‘May’ points out a weak possibility whereas ‘might’ points out an even weaker possibility: I may come today. OR She might come tomorrow.
3. Shall, Should, Will, Would
i) Shall is used in the first person and will in the second and third person:
I shall not come today.
You will work for me.
He will not listen to you.
Ii) We can also use shall in second or third person to express a threat, command or a promise:
You shall be awarded suitably.
He shall never show up here again.
Iii) Shall can also be used in the first person to indicate an offer or suggestion:
Shall I accompany you?
Iv) Will is used to express a decision:
I will not come today.
v) It may also be used to indicate a habit:
He will drink a cup of coffee as usual.
Vi) We can also use will for an invitation:
Will you attend my cousin’s wedding?
Vii) In clauses that start with if, ‘should’ is used to express a probable event:
If it should rain, the match will be called off.
4. Must and Ought
‘Must’ is a modal verb that is typically used to express necessity: You must come tonight.
It may also be used to express fixed determination: I must have an opportunity to do what I wish.
Ought can express certainty: We ought to win this.
5. Used
The modal verb 'used' can indicate a discontinued habit: I used to go to the gym every evening.
6. Need
‘Need’ can be used to denote certainty: We need to win this.
We can also use need to denote requirement: I need you to stay.
7. Dare
Dare is a modal verb that generally indicates strong ability or being bold enough: How dare you argue with me?
We can also use dare to strike a challenge: I dare you to cross the bridge in 30 seconds.
Key Takeaways
- Auxiliary verbs, also known as helping verbs because they help in the formation of tenses, mood and voices of other verbs. 'To be', 'to do' and 'to have' are the most commonly used auxiliary verbs.
- Modal verbs combine with other verbs to describe necessity, possibility, intention, or ability. Modal verbs include - must, shall, will, should, would, ought (to), can, could, may, and might.
In simple terms, sentence linkers are used to link words, phrases or sentences. They help the reader to progress from one idea expressed by the writer, to another idea in the same vein. Therefore, transition words and linkers are important as they help the reader to establish coherent relationships within the text.
Transition words can typically be found at the start of a new sentence or clause followed by a comma, thereby defining how the clause or sentence relates to the previous one. Linguists often emphasize that there is a lack of reliable data to establish a clear correlation between these variables. However, it has been debated that a relationship does exist. Transition words may also be found in the middle of a clause or sentence. To convey the intended meaning, it’s important to place them correctly in a passage.
Transition words and linkers perform a vital function in writing. They act as signals which allow the reader to understand the direction the writer is taking. They facilitate this by connecting or linking ideas or concepts within a paragraph and providing a bridge between passages. While reading, it is essential to remember to proofread the text in order to make sure transitions are used effectively.
Below are examples of commonly used transition words and linkers and their functions:
To show addition:
- Additionally
- Again
- Also
- And,
- Another
- Besides
- Finally
- First, second, etc.
- Further
- Furthermore
- Incidentally
- Lastly
- Likewise
- Moreover
- Next
- Nor
- Too
- Along with
- As well
- Equally important
- For example
- For instance
- In addition
- What’s more
To show temporality:
- About
- After
- Afterward
- At
- Before
- Currently
- During
- Eventually
- Finally
- First, etc.
- Following
- Formerly
- Immediately
- Later
- Meanwhile
- Next
- Next week
- Previously
- Soon
- Subsequently
- Then
- Thereafter
- Till
- Today, etc.
- Until
- When
- After a few hours
- As soon as
- In the future
- Soon after
To show location:
- Above
- Across
- Adjacent
- Against
- Along
- Among
- Along
- Among
- Around
- Behind
- Below
- Beneath
- Beside
- Between
- Beyond
- By
- Down
- Inside
- Into
- Here
- Near
- Nearby
- Off
- Onto
- Outside
- Over
- There
- Throughout
- Under
- Away from
- At the side
- In the back
- In back of
- In the background,
- In the distance
- In the front
- In the foreground
- On top of
- To the right
To show comparison:
- Also
- As
- Like
- Likewise
- Meanwhile
- Similarly
- Simultaneously
- After all
- At the same time
- By and large
- In comparison
- In the same way
- In the same manner
- In the same way
To show contrast:
- Although
- But
- Conversely
- However
- Nevertheless
- Nonetheless
- Notwithstanding
- Otherwise
- Still
- True
- Yet
- Although this is
- And yet
- Even though
- For all that
- In contrast
- On the contrary
- On the other hand
- While this is true
To emphasize a point:
- Again
- Obviously
- Truly
- Undoubtedly
- As a matter of
- Fact
- For this reason
- In fact
- To emphasize
- To repeat
To give examples:
- Namely
- Specifically
- As an illustration
- For example
- For instance
- To demonstrate
- To illustrate
To introduce as a result:
- Accordingly
- Consequently
- So
- Therefore
- Thus
- As a result
- Due to this
To introduce conclusions:
- Accordingly
- Consequently
- Finally
- Hence
- So
- Therefore
- Thus
- As a result
- In brief
- In conclusion
- In short
- In summary
- On the whole
- To conclude
To summarize:
- Finally, by and large
- In brief
- In conclusion
- In summary
- On the whole
- Summing up
- To conclude
Key Takeaways
- Sentence linkers are used to link words, phrases or sentences. They help the reader to progress from one idea expressed by the writer, to another idea in the same vein.
- Sentence linkers help the writer/reader to establish coherent relationships within the text.
- Transition words can typically be found at the start of a new sentence or clause followed by a comma, thereby defining how the clause or sentence relates to the previous one
- Sentence linkers act as signals which allow the reader to understand the direction the writer is taking.
- Sentence linkers can be used to show addition, temporality, location, comparison, contrast; to emphasize a point; to give examples; to introduce as a result, to introduce conclusions and to summarize.
Use of Words
Words are the second smallest unit used during the construction of a sentence after the alphabets. They are the building blocks of any grammatical construction. Words are different combinations and sounds but unlike alphabets, each word carries meaning in itself.
Each word consists of two parts – the alphabet (A-Z) and the syllable. A syllable can be defined as a single or unbroken sound of a written or spoken word. It is a unit of uninterrupted speech which must contain a vowel sound a diphthong or a syllabic consonant. They are also known as beats of a spoken language.
Syllables often contain a vowel with a singular or multiple consonant but that does not mean that there are no syllables without vowels. Some syllables contain only consonants but they do have a verbal sound in them.
A word can be monosyllabic as well as polysyllabic. Monosyllabic meaning it will consist only one syllable for example the words dog, bat, try, shy, kill, heel etc. While polysyllabic words might contain two or more than two syllables, for example, computer (comp-u-ter), relax (re-lax), independent (in-de-pen-dent), extra (ex-tra), document (do-cu-ment).
Syllabus are not to be confused with phonemes as phonemes represent the smallest unit of sound whereas syllables represent and unbroken sound within the word. For example, the word chat is made up of three phonemes /ch/ /a/ and /t/, however it contains only one syllable – chat.
A word is that the simplest part of any language. While communicating or delivering any ideas or thoughts, one must use a correct word. Word choice may be a person’s choice or selection of words. There are many factors which determine or compel an individual for a word choice. A word choice is a crucial a part of any communication.
A person, generally, chooses words to which he feels comfortable, confident, and straightforward enough for a general audience to know.
Importance of Word Choice
A person must develop the habit of using correct words. While speaking or writing, one must use the foremost appropriate word. One must learn the importance of correct word choice. Some of them are:
- If an individual is using an incorrect word, the message delivered loses its meaning.
- Incorrect word choice may result in the misunderstanding among the audience.
- It may sometimes make a situation awkward and unclear.
- Many times, an incorrect word makes no sense.
- Correct word choice increases the impact on one’s mind.
- It reveals the attitude and personality of a person.
Methods for proper selection of words in writing and speaking
Selecting the proper words is an important a part of communicating, whether you’re writing a marriage speech or a technical report. You would like to settle on words that are appropriate for your material, that pitch your message at the proper level for your audience, and words that the majority clearly convey what you're trying to mention.
1. Choose everyday words
It is true that English features a vast and varied vocabulary. However, we mostly communicate using only a fraction of these words. A mere 3,000 are enough to form up 75 percent of all communication. They're all standard, everyday words like tall, eat, forget, and good. Those are the words that folks are most wont to. So, if you employ them instead of more flowery words, your writing are going to be easier for people to read and process.
2. Avoid clichés and buzzwords
Clichés are phrases and words which are used so often then vaguely that they lose their original impact. For instance, ‘at the top of the day’, ‘mass exodus’, ‘in any way, shape, or form’. Buzzwords are words or phrases, often items of jargon, that are fashionable in certain contexts, and as a result tend to be overused and sound meaningless. For instance, what does ‘a holistic approach’ really mean?
Clichés and buzzwords can irritate readers and either distract them from your message or make them question its validity.
3. Choose appropriate formal, neutral, and informal words
English is extremely rich in synonyms. But fairly often synonyms don't mean precisely the same thing. They're utilized in distinct sorts of writing; some are more formal; some are slangy.
For example, dozens of words express the thought ‘to steal’, but they're all different. Just to look at three of them: purloin is certainly formal, while steal is ‘neutral’, that's to mention it's neither formal nor informal. But nick is certainly informal: you'd be surprised to seek out it during a newspaper report of a crime!
In straightforward informative writing, it's helpful to use only neutral words.
4. There are many Englishes
English may be a world language with several national varieties, like Canadian English and Australian English. The 2 varieties which are most frequently contrasted are American and British. Aside from the well-known differences in spelling between them, as an example colour / colour, centre / centre, there also are differences within the use of words, a number of which aren't obvious.
To make sure that a specific meaning applies outside your own sort of English, it's advisable to see during a dictionary. As an example, in banking a British accounting may be a bank account in American English. Also, confirm your spellchecker is about to your sort of English.
5. Use inclusive vocabulary
It is important to respect groups in society like people with disabilities, older people, ethnic minorities, then forth. a method of doing this is often to settle on appropriate, non-stereotyping words. Especially, the words you employ should be gender-inclusive and not suggest a masculine bias. There are several ways of doing this. For instance, when pertaining to professions it's nowadays standard to avoid words that refer only to at least one sex, like actress (use actor) or policeman (use police officer).
6. Enrich your vocabulary
By widening your vocabulary you'll have more words to settle on from, which suggests you're more likely to understand a word that the majority precisely conveys your message. Reading is a superb thanks to learn new words. However, before you employ them, make certain to see the meanings of any words that are new you during a dictionary!
Phrases
Phrases are combinations of two or more words that form the component of a clause. They are meaningful grammatical constructions that expresses a concept and can be used within a sentence.
There are 5 basic types of phrases in the English language:
- Noun Phrase:
A noun phrase is a type of phrase which consists of one noun and/or a group of words surrounding that noun. These nouns can be proper nouns, common nouns, abstract nouns etc.
Examples: There is a red box on the table.
I saw two lost puppies on the street yesterday.
He bought a new sports car on his birthday.
2. Verb Phrase:
A verb phrase is a type of phrase which consists of a root verb and its auxiliaries. It is also known as a ‘verb group’.
Examples: They have been working since last night.
I have been waiting for the rain to stop for nearly an hour.
Jack lost the keys to his apartment when he was jogging.
3. Adjective Phrase:
Adjective phrases are phrases constructed around a single adjective. It may be a single adjective or a group of words surrounding that adjective.
Examples: The film was very boring, wasn’t it?
I ate a very big meal for lunch.
The blue umbrella stood out in a crowd of all red umbrellas.
4. Adverb phrase:
Adverb phrases consist of a single adverb and a group of supporting words surrounding that adverb.
Examples: They finished the task as fast as possible.
Please do it now, otherwise you’ll regret later.
He spoke very softly in front of his parents.
5. Prepositional phrase:
A prepositional phrase is a type of phrase which consists of a preposition which is followed by its object which is usually a noun phrase.
Examples: They kept quarrelling over money of all things.
The coin was stuck inside a large black futon.
You shouldn’t go swimming after having a large meal.
Idioms
Idioms are phrases or expressions that convey a meaning which cannot be derived from the conjoined meanings of its elements. These do not convey the exact meaning of the words but have a figurative or literal meaning.
How are they different from proverbs? Proverbs are well-known sayings, stating a general truth or advice. For example, the proverb ‘a picture is worth thousand words’ is a general truth. The idiom ‘bite off more than you can chew’, however, is neither a general truth nor an advice.
Below are some commonly used idioms in the English language with their meaning:
Penny for your thoughts - To ask what someone is thinking about
Actions speak louder than words - Intentions are clearer by actions rather than words
Add insult to injury - To mock someone's pitiable situation even more
At the drop of a hat - To do something instantly
Back to the drawing board - To restart something
Ball is in your court - It’s up to you to take the next step
Barking up the wrong tree - Looking in the wrong direction, accusing a wrong person
Beat around the bush - Speaking indirectly about something
Best of both worlds - All of the advantages without any drawbacks
Best thing since sliced bread - A good idea or innovation
Bite off more than you can chew - To accept a task which is bigger than one's capabilities
Blessing in disguise - Something which was considered as bad first which turned out to be good
Burn the midnight oil - To work all night
Can't judge a book by its cover - Cannot judge something based on first impressions
Costs an arm and a leg - Used when something is very expensive
Cross that bridge when you come to it - To deal with the problem as it presents itself
Cry over spilt milk - Complaining about the past
Curiosity killed the cat - Being Inquisitive can lead to a difficult situation
Cut corners - To cut expenses by performing in a subpar manner
Devil's Advocate - Counter argument
Don't put all your eggs in one basket - Not to put all resources in one direction
Every cloud has a silver lining - To be optimistic in difficult situations
Feel a bit under the weather - To feel slightly sick
Give the benefit of the doubt - To believe someone without proof
Hear it on the grapevine - To hear rumours
Hit the nail on the head - To perform a task perfectly
Key Takeaways
- Words are the building blocks of any grammatical construction. Words are different combinations and sounds but unlike alphabets, each word carries meaning in itself. They are the smallest unit of a sentence after alphabets.
- Words can be monosyllabic (single syllable) as well as polysyllabic (multiple syllables).
- Selecting the proper words is an important a part of communicating, whether you’re writing a marriage speech or a technical report.
- It is important to respect groups in society like people with disabilities, older people, ethnic minorities, then forth. a method of doing this is often to settle on appropriate, non-stereotyping words.
- Phrases are combinations of two or more words that form the component of a clause.
- Types of phrases include: noun phrase, verb phrase, adjective phrase, adverb phrase and prepositional phrase.
- Idioms are phrases or expressions that convey a meaning which cannot be derived from the conjoined meanings of its elements.
- Proverbs are well-known sayings, stating a general truth or advice, while idioms are simple expressions.
1. Develop a brief story, within 100 words, from the given outline. Suggest a suitable of the story. Write the moral of the story:
A boy used to weep for new costly shoes--- poor father--- factory worker--- meagre salary--- couldn't afford--- the boy cried a lot--- left home--- saw a beggar at the bus stop--- he had no legs--- realization happened--- thanked God for giving him two legs--- realized the love and care of his parents.
Count the Blessings, Not the Curses
There was once a young boy who always cried for new costly shoes. His father was a worker at a factory and he had a meagre salary. When the boy asked for shoes his father bought him a cheap pair from what he could afford from his salary but the boy was very displeased and left the house in anger. As he sat at the bus stop he wondered when he would get the expensive pair. Just then a beggar passed him by on his crutches. The boy was shocked to realize that the beggar had no legs. Because of this realization he felt lucky he at least had legs. He felt a deep sense of gratitude toward god for giving him a healthy body
Moral: Be happy with what you have.
2. On the premise of the given outline, write a brief story in about 200-250 words. Give a suitable title to the story.
A thief --- entered --- the house of a priest --- the priest, a kind-hearted man --- shown kindness to the thief --- thief --- thief stole --- caught --- brought to priest saved him from police --- thief --- was transformed.
Love and Kindness - The greatest virtues
Once there lived a kind priest in the small village of Ram Nagar. He was poor but had a heart of gold. He lived in his small hut together with his sister. Though he was poor, he was always able to help the poor and needy person of his village. He was respected by everybody in the village because of his generosity. His sister Santha was the complete opposite of him. She was not as charitable as her brother. She resented her brother for being so innocent and charitable. Many a times people took advantage of his innocence. In order to assist others, he was always ready to sacrifice anything.
Once the priest was meditating in the dead of night while Santha was asleep in her room. Suddenly, a thief broke into the house. He put a knife on the neck of the priest and said, “Don't scream for help, or I will kill you”. The priest said in a very calm voice, “What do you want my son.” The thief was quite surprised when the priest addressed him as son’. He responded, “I am hungry, give me food. The priest gave the thief his own share of food that his sister had kept for him. When the priest went to bring some clothes for him, the thief saw a shiny tin box. He thought the priest must keep money inside the box. He stole it and slipped away. But the cops saw a masked man running away from the priest’s house. They caught him and brought to priest. The priest told the cops, “He is my friend, please release him”. The cops released him as they respected the priest's word. The thief was very thankful to the priest for saving him from police and promised him to refrain from all the wrong ways and live a good life.
References
- Practical English Usage. Michael Swan. OUP. 1995.
Remedial English Grammar. F.T. Wood. Macmillan.2007
On Writing Well. William Zinsser. Harper Resource Book. 2001
Study Writing. Liz Hamp-Lyons and Ben Heasly. Cambridge University Press. 2006. - Communication Skills. Sanjay Kumar and Pushp Lata. Oxford University Press.
2011. - Exercises in Spoken English. Parts. I-III. CIEFL, Hyderabad. Oxford University
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