Module 2

Grammar and Communicative Skills

2.1. Use of Articles

Articles are words that precede a noun and define the specificity of that noun. In other words, they imply how specific a particular noun is.

There are two types of Articles in the English language, Definite and Indefinite Articles.

1. Definite Article

The definite article is the word ‘the’. This article is only used when a particular place, thing or activity is being referred to. It limits the meaning to one particular thing or activity.

For example, in the sentence “I won’t be attending the party this weekend.” ‘The’ is used before the noun party therefore it refers to a specific party which the subject is talking about. The definite article can be used with both singular and plural words.

Uses of “The”:

1. The definite article can be used to make general things specific, for example, “Please pass me a pen.” when changed to “Please pass me the pen.” Changes the meaning of the sentence entirely. In the former the subject requests for a pen in general whereas in the latter he refers to a specific pen.
2. ‘The’ is used by geographical areas such as rivers, mountains, seas, oceans etc.

“The Middle East”, “The Atlantic Ocean”, “The Himalayas”

c.      Unique things always requite the article ‘the’

“The Sun”, “The Moon”

d.     Musical instruments use ‘the’

“He plays the cello.”

e.     Countries generally don’t use articles in front but if their names are plural they use the article ‘the’

“The Netherlands”, “The United States of America”

f.        Abbreviations and classes of people always use the article ‘the’

“The U.N” “The Poor” “The British” “The IMF”

2.     Indefinite Article

The Indefinite Article is of two types, namely, ‘a’ and ‘an’. The word ‘a’ is used when it precedes a word that starts with a consonant and the word ‘an’ is used when it precedes a word that starts with a vowel. Unlike the Definite Article, the Indefinite Articles refer to a general idea and not a particular one. The Indefinite Article only appears with singular nouns. For example, in the sentences “I would like a good book to read.” Or “I am craving for an apple pie.” The subject talks about books or apple pies in general rather than a specific book or apple pie.

Uses of ‘a’ and ‘an’:

1. Uncountable nouns cannot use either ‘a’ or ‘an’. For example, advice is an uncountable noun, therefore a sentence such as “Can you give me an advice.” Does not make sense. Rather “Can you give me some advice.” Is more appropriate.
2. Jobs use Indefinite Articles

“I want to become a teacher” “My dream is to become an actor”

c.      There are a couple of exceptions to the overall rule of employing ‘a’ before words that start with consonants and ‘an’ before words that begin with vowels. The first letter of the word honour, for instance, may be a consonant, but it’s unpronounced. In spite of the way it is spelled, the word honour begins with a vowel. Therefore, we use an. For example, consider the following sentences:
My mother is a honest woman.
My mother is an honest woman.

d.     When the first letter of a word is a vowel but is pronounced with a consonant sound, the article 'a' must be used. For example:

She is an United States senator. (wrong)

She is a United States senator.

Use of Articles

     The use of A/An with plural Or uncountable noun:

a fact = OK (singular)

a facts = INCORRECT (plural)

An information = INCORRECT (uncountable)

An advice = INCORRECT (uncountable)

a piece of advice = OK (“piece” is countable)

a pants / a glasses / a scissors = INCORRECT (plural)

a pair of pants/glasses/scissors = OK (“pair” is countable)

a rice = INCORRECT (uncountable)

a grain of rice = OK (“grain” is countable)

a work = INCORRECT (uncountable)

a job / a task / a project = OK (countable)

     The articles ‘A’ and ‘An’ always follow the sound, not the letter

a university (pronounced like you – ni – ver – si – ty)

An umbrella (pronounced like um – brel – la)

a hat (h is not silent)

An hour (h is silent)

An X-ray (pronounced like ex – ray)

An NGO (pronounced like en – gee – oh)

a non-governmental organization (when we say the full words, they start with the N sound)

     The use of A and An without a noun following it.

I am a Japanese. = INCORRECT (“Japanese” is an adjective, not a noun)

I am Japanese. = OK

He is an intelligent. = INCORRECT (“intelligent” is an adjective, not a noun)

He is intelligent. = OK

He is an intelligent man. = OK (now it’s OK because we have the noun “man” after “an intelligent”)

     The use of "The" for Singular or Plural and for Countable or Uncountable nouns, when something specific is being talked about (Not General)

I love pasta. (general)

I love the pasta at that restaurant. (specific)

That store sells furniture. (general)

The furniture in my living room is all new. (specific)

Vegetables are good for you. (general)

The vegetables at the market are always fresh. (specific)

I need advice. (general)

The advice you gave me was very helpful. (specific)

     Use of the article "The" for proper nouns:

NAMES OF CONTINENTS/COUNTRIES*/STATES/CITIES/STREETS:

We’re traveling around Asia for three months.

I’d like to visit Russia.

Paris is my favourite city in Europe.

Have you ever been to California?

They live on Rosewood Avenue.

*Exceptions: The United States (the U.S.), the United Kingdom (the U.K.), the Philippines, the Czech Republic, the Central African Republic, the Marshall Islands

• COMPANIES & UNIVERSITIES*

My uncle works at Samsung.

Microsoft reported high profits this quarter.

She graduated from Harvard.

New York University is very large.

*Exceptions: If the university’s name BEGINS with “university,” then use “the”:

The University of Pennsylvania, the University of Miami

• LANGUAGES & HOLIDAYS

I’m studying Spanish.

He speaks Italian.

My whole family gets together at Christmas.

The office will be closed on New Year’s Day.

     "The" can be used while referring for certain places:

• DO NOT USE THE WITH INDIVIDUAL LAKES OR MOUNTAINS:

Mount Everest is the highest mountain the world.

We went sailing on Lake Ontario.

• USE THE WITH OCEANS, RIVERS, VALLEYS, DESERTS, MOUNTAIN RANGES, POINTS ON GLOBE:

The Pacific Ocean

The Amazon River

The San Fernando Valley

The Sahara Desert

The Swiss Alps, the Rocky Mountains

The North/South Pole, the Equator

• DO NOT USE THE WITH THE FOLLOWING PLACES:

I’m going home.

She’s at work.

He’s in jail.

We attend church.

My kids went to bed.

My brother’s in high school.

My sister’s in college.

• USE THE WITH THE FOLLOWING PLACES:

I went to the bank.

Let’s go to the movies.

He gets home from the office around 7.

My grandfather’s in the hospital.

I’ll stop by the post office after lunch.

I caught a taxi to the airport.

I’ll pick you up at the train station.

We’re waiting at the bus stop.

We took my son to the doctor.

I’m going to the dentist this afternoon. (in this case, “the doctor” and “the dentist” are short for “the doctor’s office” and “the dentist’s office”)

Key Takeaways

1. Articles can be defined as words that precede a noun and define the specificity of that noun.
2. The definite article is the word ‘the’ and is only used when a particular place, thing or activity is being referred to. It limits the meaning to one particular thing or activity.
3. The definite article can be used to make general things specific.
4. The Indefinite Article is of two types, namely, ‘a’ and ‘an’.
5. The word ‘a’ is used when it precedes a word that starts with a consonant and the word ‘an’ is used when it precedes a word that starts with a vowel.
6. When the first letter of a word is a vowel but is pronounced with a consonant sound, the article 'a' must be used.

2.2.  Use of Prepositions

A preposition is a word that connects the noun/pronoun in a sentence to the other parts of the sentence such as the verbs and adjectives. It determines the relationship between the nouns, pronouns and the other words in a sentence.

They help one understand the relationships of logic, space and sequence between the different parts of a sentence.

Below are few examples of prepositions commonly used in the English language:

1. I just came back from the U.S.
2. The book is inside the drawer.
3. The kid threw a stone into the lake.

A preposition cannot be plural or possessive. Sometimes prepositions can also act as nouns, verbs and adverbs.

Types of Prepositions

1. Prepositions of Time:

These prepositions indicate when something happens, will happen or has happened in any point in time.

Prepositions of time include at, on, in, before, during, after.

Examples:

1. John was born on the 7th of August.
2. David left his job in 2012.
3. Amy ate lots of fruits during her pregnancy.

2.     Prepositions of Place:

These prepositions usually indicate the position of a particular thing or person. The three most common prepositions of time are on, at and in.

These prepositions may also indicate the time along with place but depending on their use it can be easily ascertained what they are referring to.

Examples:

1. The ball is in the court.
2. The clothes are on the top shelf.
3. I was at the supermarket just yesterday.

3.     Prepositions of Direction or Movement:

Prepositions of movement indicate the direction in which a person or an object is moving.

‘To’ is the most commonly used preposition of movement.

Examples:

1. I went to shop for groceries but all the shops were closed.
2. He took his dog to the park.

The other prepositions of direction or movement are across, though, over, down, up, past, around.

4.     Prepositions of Manner:

Prepositions of manner describe the way in which things take place or means by which things happen.

Prepositions of manner include by, in, like, with, on.

Examples:

1. I like travelling by car.
2. She went to the school in a taxi.
3. Jacob sings like a professional.
4. He reacted with pity when he saw the poor cat.

5.     Preposition of Agents or Instruments:

Preposition of Agents or Instruments describe the action conducted by a person or object on another person or object.

Most common prepositions of these types are by and with.

Examples:

1. The song was recorded by James.
2. He cuts his hair with a clipper.

6.     Prepositions of Possession:

Prepositions of Possession indicate the owing or owning of an object. It also can be used when something is own to someone. Prepositions of possession include of, with and to.

Examples:

1. This is the car of my niece.
2. He said he saw a man with a green umbrella.
3. This jacket belongs to my grandfather.

Use of Prepositions and Common Errors

The use of prepositions in sentences can be a difficult task. Propositions are sometimes short and very common (e.g., at, in and on), and may have several uses depending on the context, which can make it difficult to know which preposition to use.

Below are some common errors to avoid with prepositions:

1. Temporal Errors: The use of 'in' and 'at' depends on the time of the day. For example, in sentences we always use the preposition “in” with “morning,” “afternoon,” and “evening.” But the preposition 'at' is used when talking about the night:

• Helen goes running in the morning.
• Tim goes running in the afternoon.
• Shirley goes running in the evening.
• Bob goes running at night.

2.     Spatial Errors (In and at vs. To): The preposition 'to' can be used to discuss journeys (e.g., “I’m going to Tasmania”). But if the word “arrive,” is present in a sentence we use “in” or “at” to describe reaching a destination. For instance:

• She arrived in Tasmania just after lunch.
• He arrived at the restaurant five minutes late.

The use of “in” or “at” typically depends on the destination:

The preposition “in” for cities, countries or other large areas. While the preposition “at” is used for specific places (e.g., a library, a bar, or someone’s house).

3.     Time, Days, Months, and Years (At, On, and In): Different prepositions are used in different contexts while referring to time in days, months and years.

If a time of the day is being referred, the correct term is “at”:

• The party starts at 9pm.

If a specific day or date is being referred, we use “on”:

• The party is on Saturday.

While referring to a month or year, the correct preposition is “in”:

• We’re having a party in April.

4.     Helping verbs: With auxiliary verbs such as “should” or “must.”, the preposition "of" is used.

• Exception: I should of gone to bed earlier. ✗

However, this is an error. The correct word here isn’t even a preposition.

Rather, the verb “have,” must be used which sounds a bit like “of” when spoken (hence the confusion). Thus, it should say:

• I should have gone to bed earlier. ✓

5.     Present Continuous Tense: If something has been happening from a long time, we use “for” when referring to a length of time (e.g., a period of hours, days, or months):

• I’ve been writing for six hours.

But if a specific time is used as a point of reference, we use “since”:

• I’ve been writing since breakfast.

The difference here is that the first refers to a measure of time, while the second refers to a fixed point in the past when the activity began.

6.     Talking About and Discussing: “Talking” and “discussing” are similar activities, so people often treat these words as interchangeable. However, only the preposition “about” must be used after “talking.” For example:

• We’re talking about extreme sports. ✓
• We’re discussing extreme sports. ✓
• We’re discussing about extreme sports. ✗

Key Takeaways

1. A preposition is a word that connects the noun/pronoun in a sentence to the other parts of the sentence such as the verbs and adjectives.
2. A preposition determines the relationship between the nouns, pronouns and the other words in a sentence.
3. A preposition cannot be plural or possessive. Sometimes prepositions can also act as nouns, verbs and adverbs.
4. Prepositions of time indicate when something happens, will happen or has happened in any point in time.
5. Prepositions of place indicate the position of a particular thing or person.
6. Prepositions of movement indicate the direction in which a person or an object is moving.
7. Prepositions of manner describe the way in which things take place or means by which things happen.
8. Preposition of Agents or Instruments describe the action conducted by a person or object on another person or object.
9. Prepositions of Possession indicate the owing or owning of an object. It also can be used when something is own to someone.
10. The preposition 'to' can be used to discuss journeys (e.g., “I’m going to Tasmania”). But if the word “arrive,” is present in a sentence we use “in” or “at” to describe reaching a destination.

2.3. Transformation of Sentences

In order to transform sentences, it is necessary to understand the different kinds of sentences in the English language:

The Statement or Declarative sentence

Many sentences are labelled as declarative sentences because are used in making a declaration or statement about something. Here are some examples to illustrate declarative sentences.

• That car is really old.
• I love honey on toast.
• The girl likes pancakes, but she doesn’t know how to make them.

These statements are simple to construct and have no frills about them. Then these statements do not depend on being facts. They can be stating an opinion as well. The opinion does not necessarily have to be true but just what the subject thinks.

Also, the declarative sentence uses all tenses. Declarative sentences can employ all types of past, present and future tenses easily.

• I went to the store yesterday.
• I am going to the shop now.
• I will go to the ball game tomorrow.

Affirmative and negative sentences

Declarative sentences can either be positive or negative. When they have a positive meaning, they are known as affirmative or positive sentences. When they contain a negative meaning, they known as negative sentences.

A positive sentence or affirmative sentence will contain a positive assertion or remark. A sentence will always negate an assertion or remark. A positive sentence may or may not contain negative words but its final verdict will always be positive. A positive sentence can be converted into a negative one using negative words such as not, none, nobody, and isn’t.

The Question or Interrogative sentence

The purpose of an interrogative sentence is to ask a question in order to obtain an answer. Sometimes an interrogative sentence might be rhetorical in nature, meaning it will ask a question but won’t necessarily require an answer. Interrogative sentences in the spoken form may also be sarcastic. Below are some examples of simple interrogative sentences:

• Where are you going?
• What is happening?
• What do you want me to do?
• Do you want me to write something for you?
• Are you going to school today?

There are four types of question sentences. They are:

1. Yes/No Interrogatives
2. Alternative Interrogatives
3. Wh- Interrogatives
4. Tag Questions

Yes/No Interrogatives

1. Questions which require a “yes” or “no” answer, are called Yes/No Interrogatives.

Examples:

• Are you going home?
• Will you come with me?
• The answer to each of the above question will be either a “yes” or “no”

How to form Yes/No Interrogatives:

Yes/No Interrogatives are formed with the help of auxiliary verbs. The typical form of such question is:

Auxiliary verb (be, do or have) + subject + main verb or modal verb + subject + main verb

The auxiliary verbs are inverted with the subject (subject – verb inversion) For example:

• Are you going to school?
• Will Jack come tomorrow?
• Have you finished your homework?
• Do you like folk dance?

If a sentence contains more than one auxiliary verb or modal verb, only one auxiliary verb or model should be put before the subject. For example:

• Have you been working for the whole day? (Only “have” has been put before the subject “you”)

Alternative Interrogatives

Alternative Interrogatives are questions that give a choice among two or more answers. Therefore, these questions are also called choice questions. For example:

• Do you prefer coffee or tea?
• Will you come with me now, or will you go with James afterwards?
• Do you prefer to live in the village or the city?
• Will they buy an apartment or villa?

Alternative Interrogatives are also formed with the help of auxiliary verbs. The form of such a question is: auxiliary verb (be, do or have) + subject + main verb or modal verb + subject + main verb. The auxiliary verbs are inverted with the subject (subject-verb inversion)

In the alternative question to be formed, if the main verb is “be”, additional auxiliary verb need not be used. For example:

• Are those flowers roses or Begonias? (Here the main verb, “are” is used to ask the question)

Wh- Interrogatives

Wh- Interrogatives are questions asked using one of the question words, who, what, where, when, why, and how. Auxiliary verbs also have to be used in these types of questions. For example:

• Where are you going?
• How are you doing?
• Why did you do that?

When you use the ‘wh’ and how question words, the questions demand full sentence answers. For example:

#1. Where are you going?

Ans. I am going to the mall.

#2. How are you doing?

Ans. ‘I am doing great.’

#3. Why did you do that?

Ans: ‘Because I wanted to.’

Although in the above examples, the answers are given in single sentences, depending upon the situation, the answer may require long explanation.

Tag questions

Tag questions or question tags are questions formed by attaching question tags onto the end of a declarative sentence. These tags are commonly created using an auxiliary verb inverted with subject. These question tags change the declarative sentences to interrogative sentences.

Examples:

• You are from USA, aren’t you?
• She is watching a film in the T.V.at home, isn’t she?
• You will go to your home town tomorrow, won’t you?
• She was a kind woman, wasn’t she?
• He is not attending the meeting, is he?

Sometimes a declarative sentence can be used as interrogative sentence by putting a question mark at the end of the sentence. When you ask questions like this orally, the last syllable of the sentence should be given proper intonation so as to make the listener understand that a question is being asked to him.

Indirect questions

Indirect questions are question embedded in a statement. For example:

• I asked him where he was staying.

A question, “Where are you staying?” is embedded in this statement. But it should be clearly understood that an interrogative sentence always ask direct questions and indirect question or embedded questions do not come under the category of” Interrogative sentences.”

Exclamatory sentence

As a child you may have heard these a lot. When a child steps out of line or makes the wrong decision, parents tend to emphasis what they are saying by using exclamatory sentences.

That is the purpose of exclamation sentences. They express very strong emotion. In listening, it is not hard to identify an exclamation sentence. The tone of the person’s voice will convey that information.

In writing, to make an exclamatory sentence you do need to use the exclamation mark. Writing does not have any sound helping it out, so it needs help from its punctuation friends. Here are a few examples of exclamation sentences:

• I said I wanted pizza!
• I want to go now!
• We are the champions!
• What a cute baby!

Depending upon the situation, there are different methods of expressing or writing exclamatory sentences. Some examples of the common categories are given hereunder.

1. Expressing strong emotion

• Many, many sweet returns of the day!
• Happy New Year!
• Happy Christmas!

2. Those begin with “What”:

• What beautiful scenery!
• What a cute baby!
• What a nice behaviour!

3. Those begin with “How”:

• How beautifully she sings!
• How brightly it shines!
• How neatly she has kept her house!

4. Exclamatory sentences containing “such”:

• She is such a kind lady!
• He is such a bright student!
• She is such a wonderful writer!

5. Exclamatory sentences containing “so”:

• She is so glamorous!
• He is so handsome!
• That gentleman is so generous!

It is to be remembered that exclamatory sentences express strong emotion and should be used carefully. They are not to be used to write reports or academic purposes.

The Command or Imperative sentence

These are made usually by people who are in authority or are quite bossy. There is no fact and no search for information in these sentences. They also can be used without strong emotion. Imperative sentences are used to command or order people to do something.

Police officers, firemen during a fire, teachers, employers, and parents all use the command sentence quite well. They have the authority to tell people what to do and where to go.

Bossy older brothers and sisters do not have the authority but their place in the family line makes them think they can tell you what to do. Here are a few examples of imperative sentences:

• Get your hands up!
• Do your homework.
• Close the window.
• Go to the bank and make that deposit.
• Go to bed!

In using and hearing the command sentence, again it is the tone of voice by the user that tells you what is meant. In writing, it is the sentence structure as an imperative sentence can use both a period and an exclamation mark.

These sentences normally do not contain a subject. The subject is the person to whom the command is directed towards. To be specific the subject is “you”. It is understood here. That makes imperative sentences second person sentences.

a) Remove too… to/use so… that (vice versa)

A phrase can be expanded into a clause. In the same way, a clause may also be contracted into a phrase. Therefore, the structure of sentences can be changed without changing their meaning. A simple sentence containing the adverb 'too' can be transformed into a complex sentence containing 'so…that' and vice versa without changing its meaning.

Rule 1:

If the structure of a sentence is

Subject + verb + too + Adjective/Adverb + infinitive (to+v1)

Conversion:

• Step 1: subject + verb.
• Step 2: remove “too” and write “so” at that place.
• Step 3: use Adjective/Adverb.
• Step 4: use “that”
• Step 5: use pronoun according to the subject.
• Step 6: use can/can’t/cannot/could not which is consistent with the tense.
• Step 7: remove “to” then remainder of a part of the sentence.

Pattern will now change into subject + verb + so + Adjective/Adverb + that + pronoun (according to the subject) + can/can’t/couldn’t/could not + remainder of the sentences.

E.g.:

• He is too good to beat someone.

Solution: He is so good that he would not beat anyone.

• It is too cold to go out of the house in winter.

Solution: It is so cold that we cannot go out of the house in winter.

Rule 2:

If the structure of a sentence is

Subject + verb + too + Adjective + for + Noun

Conversion:

• Step 1: subject + verb.
• Step 2: remove “too” and write “so” at that place.
• Step 3: use Adjective.
• Step 4: use “that”.
• Step 5: use pronoun according to the subject.
• Step 6: use can/can’t/cannot/could not which is consistent with the tense.
• Step 7: use “be” and remove “for”.
• Step 8: remove “to” and then remainder of the part of the sentence.

Pattern will now change into subject + verb + so + Adjective + that + pronoun (according to the subject) + can/can’t/couldn’t/could not + be + remainder of the sentences.

• He is too dull for any kind of work.

Solution: He is so dull that he cannot work.

b) Remove if /use unless (vice versa)

Meaning of ‘if’ and ‘unless’

If: If describes condition including: condition that, provided (that), providing (that), presuming (that), supposing (that), assuming (that), as long as...

Example: If I'm free tonight, I will watch the match.

Unless: Unless means except if.

Example: You'll feel cold unless you wear a warm jacket.

Rules for converting if/unless sentences:

• Put Unless in place of 'if'
• Remove 'do not, does not, not'.
• Add s/es to the verb if you remove "does not".
• Write remaining sentence.
• Using 'unless' instead of 'If (in case 'not' is missing) one needs to convert the negative if it is affirmative and vice versa.

Examples:

Both if and unless are employed to introduce conditional sentences:

Conditional Sentence Type 1:

• If we do not hurry, we'll be late for the show.
• Unless we hurry, we'll be late for the show.

Conditional Sentence Type 2

• Unless she got permission from her university, he wouldn't travel alone.
• If she got permission from her university, she would travel alone.

Conditional Sentence Type 3

• You'll throw up if you don't stop eating.
• You'll throw up unless you stop eating.

Conditional Sentence Type 4

• They would have shot her if she hadn't given them the cash.
• They would have shot her unless she'd given them the cash.

c) Remove As soon/use No sooner…than (vice versa)

Sentence structures of "as soon as" and "no sooner than" are both employed to indicate two consecutive events happening immediately one after the other. When 'no sooner than' is utilized at the start of the sentences then auxiliary verb gets transferred before the subject. The sentences containing 'no sooner' always introduces the event that occurred first followed by 'than' and the second event.  The structure goes as follows:

As Soon as

• As soon as + first event + comma (,) + second event

E.g. As soon as I get up, I listen to music

As soon as she opened the window, the cold breeze blew in.

• A noun or adjective almost always immediately follows as soon as:

As soon as you finish you lunch, join us for dessert.

Come visit as soon as possible.

Call as soon as you can.

No sooner than

• No sooner + first event + than + second event

E.g. No sooner had I received her call, than I left for her place.

No sooner had I stepped out, than it started raining.

• A verb almost always immediately follows No sooner:

No sooner had she finished her report than the chairman walked in.

I had no sooner begun to close the door when the telephone rang.

No sooner do I take a bath than I get ready for lunch.

d) Change the assertive sentence into exclamatory sentence without changing the meaning (vice versa)

Assertive sentence: An assertive/declarative sentence is employed to declare something. The information you give may be facts or just opinions. It ends with a period/full stop. Examples:

• I love teaching English.
• You guys are the best.
• We watched a movie yesterday.
• Jon is my school friend.

Exclamatory sentence: An exclamatory sentence is employed to describe strong feelings/emotions like love, hate, excitement, joy, sadness, frustration, etc. All exclamatory sentences are concluded with an exclamation point. Examples:

• This car is amazing! (expressing happiness)
• My dog has passed away! (expressing sorrow)
• How can you lose that paper! (expressing frustration)
• What a movie that was! (expressing admiration)

It is important to understand how to change/transform assertive sentences into exclamatory sentences and vice versa.

Structure 1:

Assertive sentence: Subject + verb + noun phrase (subject complement) + modifiers (optional).

When an assertive sentence has the above structure, use the subsequent structure to convert it into an exclamatory sentence;

Exclamatory sentence: What + noun phrase + subject + linking verb + !

Assertive sentences examples

It is a beautiful day.

It = the subject

Is = the linking verb

A beautiful day = the noun phrase (subject complement)

That was a nerve-racking match.

Max has an amazing car.

Exclamatory sentences examples

What a beautiful day it was.

What = A word that strengthens the emotion in the sentence

A beautiful day = the phrase (subject complement)

It = the subject

Is = the linking verb

What a nerve-racking match that was!

What an amazing car you have!

Structure 2:

Assertive sentence: Subject + verb + adjective (subject complement) + modifiers (optional)

When an assertive sentence has the above structure, use the subsequent structure to convert it into an exclamatory sentence:

Exclamatory sentence: How + the adjective + subject + linking verb + !

Assertive: The weather is romantic.

Exclamatory: How romantic the weather is!

Assertive: The place was expensive.

Exclamatory: How expensive the place was!

Assertive: they're excited to come back to my place.

Exclamatory: How excited they are to come to my place!

e) Change the degrees

Degrees of comparison of adjectives can be of three types:

• Positive Adjectives
• Comparative Adjectives
• Superlative Adjectives

1. Positive adjectives: Positive adjectives are descriptive adjectives which describe a noun without comparing it to anything else. They describe them because of their own qualities, and not because of their connection to anything else. For example:

• He was tall.
• The gathering was large.
• The room was messy.

2.     Comparative adjectives: Comparative adjectives are adjectives which compare two or more things. For example:

• The taller brother wasn’t there.
• The gathering was larger than last years.
• The room was messier than I’d expected.

3.     Superlative adjectives: Finally, superlative adjectives are like super-comparative adjectives: they describe nouns as being the most kind of something or having the greatest amount of a particular quality. For example:

• He was the tallest of all the brothers.
• The largest gathering was three years ago.
• It was the messiest room I’d ever seen.

The table given below contains a list of some commonly used positive adjectives and their comparative and superlative counterparts:

Key Takeaways

1. An assertive/declarative sentence is employed to declare something. The information you give may be facts or just opinions.
2. Declarative sentences can either be positive or negative. When they have a positive meaning, they are known as affirmative or positive sentences. When they contain a negative meaning, they known as negative sentences.
3. The purpose of an interrogative sentence is to ask a question in order to obtain an answer. Sometimes an interrogative sentence might be rhetorical in nature, meaning it will ask a question but won’t necessarily require an answer.
4. There are four types of question sentences. They are: Yes/No Interrogatives, Alternative Interrogatives, Wh- Interrogatives, Tag Questions.
5. An exclamatory sentence is employed to describe strong feelings/emotions like love, hate, excitement, joy, sadness, frustration, etc.
6. Imperative sentences are statements that are used to command or order people to do something.
7. Sentence structures of "as soon as" and "no sooner than" are both employed to indicate two consecutive events happening immediately one after the other.
8. Degrees of comparison of adjectives can be of three types: Positive Adjectives, Comparative Adjectives, Superlative Adjectives.
9. Positive adjectives are descriptive adjectives which describe a noun without comparing it to anything else, whereas comparative adjectives are adjectives which compare two or more things.
10. Superlative adjectives describe nouns as being the most kind of something or having the greatest amount of a particular quality.

2.4. Communicative Skills

a) Introducing: Self Introduction and Introducing the chief-guest/ principal/ president/ family member/ friend.

Introducing Oneself

Throughout your career, you'll likely meet several people that can help you develop needed skills and make progress. You can form a powerful connection with an interviewer, network contact or mentor and even a new friend once you have a refined self-introduction.

Learning how to introduce yourself professionally and informally has many advantages. Others may perceive you as self-assured and capable if you begin with a powerful introduction. An effective opening can make your conversation more engaging, whether your goal is to achieve employment, make a sale, acquire a mentor or simply make a brand-new professional connection. Establishing yourself as an open, friendly and professional individual can create opportunities in personal as well as professional life.

Steps for Introduction

Below are the steps you can follow for a good introduction:

1. State Your Purpose

Many people introduce themselves by stating their name and current job title, but you must also attempt to add information your new contact can't find on your business or identity card. If you are at a business event or conference, consider starting with your name, then stating what your passion is. You could also mention what your goal is for the encounter, like finding someone to collaborate with on a new idea that you have formulated.

If you're interviewing for a job, it may be beneficial to summarize who you are and why you are there. The position you are applying for is already known to the interviewers, therefore, in your introduction explain your purpose in a few sentences. You must include your name and the reasons why you are a good candidate for the position.

Start your introduction in a way that is appropriate for the context. For instance, if you're at a conferencing event, you may simply start your introduction by shaking a new connection's hand and providing them your first and last name. Then, a conversation may be started by asking and answering questions on their background and your own.

Interview introduction example: “My name is Jacob, I moved to Los Angeles because advertising is my passion, and this is the environment to seek out an inspirational, innovative ad community. I have a background in analyzing audiences for messaging optimization and would like to tell you about the innovative ideas I can bring to this role.”

2. Control Your Body Language

Both your words and your non-verbal communication make an impact on first impressions. Having command over body language is essential to staying poised and professional in a new introduction. For example, when you approach a new coworker in your department, start with a strong handshake, and maintain eye contact during the conversation. Doing this shows the receiving party you're engaged in your interaction.

When you introduce yourself to someone, you'll be able to demonstrate confidence by speaking in an exceedingly clear and audible voice. While communicating, try to maintain eye contact, natural body language with relaxed shoulders and open arms by your side. If you are seated, stand to greet someone who walks in the room while introducing yourself accompanied by a handshake if required, such as during an interview.

3. Explain Your Value

Employers might schedule multiple interviews throughout the day or week for employment opening. In a professional setting. An introduction should convey one's unique experience and qualifications so they stand out from other candidates. Hearing an introduction that sounds different from previous ones directs a new contact's attention toward the speaker and makes it unforgettable. During an interview introduction, for instance, you must let your interviewer know how you would make a valuable contribution to the company or the team.

Example: “My name is Charlotte, and I have more 10 years of experience working in the field of public relations. I have worked with over 20 destination marketing firms to extend tourism at their destinations, leading to 40% more business at certain locations.”

4. Understand the Culture

Consider researching the corporate before an interview or meeting to know their culture. Before an introduction with a computer programming company, for example, review the web site or social media pages to ascertain what the culture is like. If the corporate seems more casual, it should be appropriate to incorporate humour in your introduction. For a more formal interview or a meeting with a potential client, keeping a more professional demeanour may increase your chances to get hired or to gain the client's business.

Introducing the chief-guest/ principal/ president/ family member/ friend

It is important to follow certain protocols for introducing, chief-guests, principals or any other honoured member of the society on formal occasion. The introduction must always be respectful and should always make the individual being introduced feel welcome and honoured. Below are some tips to keep in mind while introducing a respectable personality like a chief-guest at an event, a principal of a school/university or the president etc:

If you are chosen to introduce the chief-guest, principal or the president, you should:

• Initially, greet them personally when they arrive. It is better if you do not wait for them to find you. Instead, wait for them at the door as they arrive. Then, welcome them with an energetic and charming handshake and a wide smile to make them feel home and welcomed.
• In accordance with the formality of your relationship with the individual, you may want to address them with a formal title. For instance, you can use:” Dr. John Smith”.
• If you do not know them personally, be sure to introduce yourself to him/her before the event.
• Escort them around the room to let him meet other people, make connections, build conversations, and most crucial of all feel comfortable at your place.
• At the end of the function, be sure to thank them with a handshake for their presence and time.

Given below are a few expressions that may be useful for inviting and introducing a guest of honour, principal etc. at an event:

1. Good morning/evening/afternoon to all dignitaries, guests, and delegates with great joy and immense pride. I feel privileged to extend my warm welcome to each and every one present here. I invite (insert name of the guest) the principal of the _________to please come on to the stage. We need not say about chairperson. The whole campus is vibrating and echoing their prominence. He/she taught her a humble career as a humble teacher and then rose to the position of a professor and still without minding their health he/she shows a keen interest in the educative process. Please give warm welcome to__________. I request________ to offer her/him the bouquet.

2.     I am immensely elated to have received this opportunity to introduce our chief guest of the day_________, the director of the present. (Add his/ her biography here). I thank them for providing his gracious presence to join us today to enhance our joy on behalf of everyone present here.

3.     We feel honoured to have the president of India with us today. His Excellency Mr.________, – Sir you hardly need any introduction, you have made everyone present here proud of your distinguished work in numerous capacities. You are one of the most celebrated dignitaries. The president and distinguished Guests of Honour: Mr.________, the man of distinct vision and a fountainhead of illuminating ideas, an idol of knowledge and experience and inspiration to all of us.

4.     I welcome________ honourable chief guest Mr./Ms_________. Director_______. Dearn academics_______. Vice Principal_________. Faculty members and participants. I would like to request director__________ sir to present flowers to Respected chief guest________ sir. Thank you very much, sir.

5.     I humbly invite_________ (also add the position here). Now I request_______ to offer bouquet to_______. In addition, I cordially invite Mr./Ms.________ the principal of the university to occupy his honourable chair on the stage. Now I request______ to offer bouquet to_______.

Introducing friends or family to another group of friends or other people is quite informal comparing to the introduction of a chief guest or principal. Below are some ways that may be helpful for introducing friends or family:

1. Introduce Your Friends/Family Right Away

Introduce them promptly after saying hi so you don’t keep either of them waiting. Don’t let there be any opportunity for either of your friends to feel awkward or ignored.

*Bump into another group of friends*

• “Hey Henry, what a co-incidence!”
• “By the way have you met John?”

2. Introduce by Their First Names

*continuation from above*

• “John, this is Henry”
• “Henry, this is John”

3. Highlight their Best Qualities

• “John is my high school friend who’s now a pilot, he’s a very cool guy who loves sports”

• “Henry is my colleague, he’s an expert at cooking!”

4. Point out Similarities in Interests/Background/Lifestyle

• “Oh, by the way Henry/John may be a Man Utd fan/loves musicals/loves basketball too!
• Maybe you both can (do the activity) together!”

5. Involve Everyone in the Conversation

Sometimes, we may get over excited talking to a friend or family member about something or somebody that our other friend has absolutely no idea about. This would cause our other friend or family member to feel awkward and dispensable, the “what am I doing here” feeling. So, as friends, we must always fill our friends in to make sure they feel comfortable.

*when you are talking about someone your other friend doesn’t know*

• To the person you are introducing them to: “Just in case you’re wondering, Jane is our classmate from high school who recently…." or " Jane is my cousin from Chicago."
• “John bought a car recently, that’s why he’s asking/thinking about….”

6. Give them Time to Talk to Each Other

Once you’ve planted these conversation starters and properly introduced them, give them a while to find out more about one another. You never know what could happen as a result of this straightforward introduction you’ve made!

Key Takeaways

1. An effective self-introduction can make your conversation more engaging, whether your goal is to achieve employment, make a sale, acquire a mentor or simply make a brand-new professional connection.
2. Many people introduce themselves by stating their name and current job title, but you must also attempt to add information your new contact can't find on your business or identity card.
3. Having command over body language is essential to staying poised and professional in a new introduction. For example, when you approach a new coworker in your department, start with a strong handshake, and maintain eye contact during the conversation.
4. In a professional setting. An introduction should convey one's unique experience and qualifications so they stand out from other candidates.
5. The introduction of a principal or chief guest must always be respectful and should always make the individual being introduced feel welcome and honoured.
6. Introducing friends or family to another group of friends or other people is quite informal comparing to the introduction of a chief guest or principal.

b) Welcome address and Vote of Thanks

Welcome Address

At an academic or corporate event, the welcome address/speech plays a vital role of providing a short introduction of the event and the guests. The welcome address is what allures the attendees to either listen and take interest… or not want to participate in the least. Given that, welcome addresses are really important and must be long enough to address everyone properly but short enough to not bore everyone in the room.

Below is a way of effectively conducting a welcome address:

INTRODUCTION

Good Morning/Afternoon/Evening,

Thank you to each and every one among you for being here with us today. We are very happy to be able to welcome those of you that are with us for a long time now as well as those who are new to the (group/community/association etc.)

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

Before we begin, I’d like to express my sincere appreciation to all of you who generously helped us make this event close to become a hit. (Include the names of the individuals you wish to thank here) We couldn’t have done it without you!

PURPOSE OF THE EVENT

In today’s gathering, I might wish to specialise in all our new volunteers who have joined us since (January 2013, for example).

You have all been chosen to be a part of our association because of a mutual passion for (company’s vision/mission). Your passions help us all to unite and the energy we create is what allows us to realize our individual as well as group goals. We need you the maximum amount as you would like us which why we are grateful to possess you join us here at (insert the name of the company).

During the coming few months, you'll be learning about the various initiatives through our planned activities, seminar, and special events where you'll be able to take part in and get hands on experiences. I hope these will support you and help you grow to be more productive and smarter.

WRAP UP

Well, I don’t want to take too much of your time, I need to leave some time for (insert the name of the next person) to introduce himself to all of you and fill you in on a number of our upcoming activities/projects. Today will be fun and full of learning.

So, a very warm welcome to each and every one of you, if you've got any questions, suggestions, clarifications, or simply want to say “hi”, you can find me in the lobby.

WHAT’S NEXT

Thank you very much for listening and let us welcome, (insert the name of the speaker or guest). Thank you!

Vote of Thanks

A vote of thanks speech is a formal event/occasion concluding address where the speaker offers a vote of thanks to the organizer, host, and other participants. No event is successful without individuals that dedicate their resources and time to make sure everything is impeccable. Like any other crucial meetings organized in schools and colleges, a vote of thanks speech is additionally vital for corporate meetings and conferences. It’s beneficial to publicly let everyone know the roles and responsibilities and express your gratitude at the end of any formal event.

Keep the subsequent points in mind while giving a vote of thanks speech:

• Your first sentence should let the participants know that the event is coming to an end and you are thanking them.
• In a couple of sentences, tell the audience why you have been asked to offer a vote of thanks address.
• Start your speech by showing gratitude to your honourable guest, host, and audience.
• Try to keep each thank-you brief, but honest and warm.
• By sure to remark all kinds of works that benefitted your college/organization and then add in it your thank speech.
• Show the speakers that you were actively paying attention to their words. Add some reference what they said, and what resonated with you.
• Thank the event organizer for the chance of giving thanks speech on behalf of their college/university/organization.

Given below is a format that may be useful for offering a vote of thanks:

Honourable [name], Respected [name], Mr. Chairman, our most valued guests, ladies and gentlemen! It’s my privilege to have been asked to offer a vote of thanks on this magnanimous occasion.

I, on behalf of [name of the organization of the event], and the entire [supporters, sponsors of the organization, team, crew, and may also include special guests], and on my own behalf extend a very hearty vote of thanks to all speakers for gracing your important work and sharing with us your findings and new perspectives today!

"I would also like to extend my gratitude to [name speaker], for her / his efforts towards [speech topic]." Refer and respond to just one central idea of the speaker that you found particularly interesting.

Finally, I would like to take this opportunity to thank [name], [function] from the bottom of my heart for the perfect logistic support and guidance she/he has extended to all of us at [occasion]. I also extend my thanks to [name], [function] and also to [name], [function] for their invaluable cooperation in the organization of this event.

Thank you and have a great day/evening/night.

Key Takeaways

1. At an academic or corporate event, the welcome address/speech plays a vital role of providing a short introduction of the event and the guests.
2. Welcome addresses are really important and must be long enough to address everyone properly but short enough to not bore everyone in the room.
3. A vote of thanks speech is a formal event/occasion concluding address where the speaker offers a vote of thanks to the organizer, host, and other participants.
4. It’s beneficial to publicly let everyone know the roles and responsibilities and express your gratitude at the end of any formal event.

c) Expansion of Proverbs/Sayings

Proverbs: a proverb could be a famous saying that conveys a general truth or that provides advice on life and behaviour, for example: ‘Honesty is the best policy’, ‘All that glitters is not gold’. Proverbs are simple in form, yet full of meaning. Though they include short sentences, they contain plenty of wisdom. Sometimes proverbs make use of metaphors to convey the meaning.

Expansion of Proverbs: Expansion of proverbs could be a meaningful writing task. It involves understanding the meaning of a saying, what it implies and the way it relates to the present time. To expand a proverb, one has to explain its meaning and elaborate on its significance by using reasoning and giving examples from real life to convey its truth and wisdom clearly to the reader. A good para written for expansion must have 1) unity of thought; (2) order; (3) coherence; (4) variety and (5) Expansion.

Some guidelines for expansion of proverbs:

• In the first instance, read the given proverb. Think about the proverb and understand its meaning, significance and implications.
• Think of one or two examples from real world, from books you may have read and films you have watched or from other sources.
• Arrange your thoughts in a logical sequence and write the piece, using simple language and keeping to the usually allowed one-page limit.
• Make the opening and conclusion interesting and impressive.

Examples of Expansion of Proverbs

Haste makes waste (or) Slow and steady wins the race.

When we do any work, we must always be very careful. We should not be in a haste/ hurry. We should work slowly and steadily to get better result. For example, while climbing a tall tree or a hill, we must always be very careful. Any small negligence or haste will make us slip and fall. In the story of the hare and the tortoise, the tortoise walks slowly and steadily. It wins the race with confidence. Whereas the hasty but lazy hare finally loses the race with its over-confidence. Similarly, the student who reads regularly from the start can easily pass the examination and obtain good marks. But the student who reads hastily just before the examinations, may fail. Hence, in every walk of life, to succeed in our goals, we must always make our efforts continuously and thoroughly.

Strike while the iron is hot. (Or) Make hay while the sun shines

(Means = Seize the opportunity when it comes on your way) (Hay = dried grass)

The proverb tells us that when an opportunity comes in our way, we must always make use of it without delay. Hay means dried grass like straw. It has to be stored for the cattle. We have to dry the grass and make the hay while the Sun is shining to store it for the long run. Once we lose the chance, we cannot dry the grass in the winter or rainy season. In the same way, when the iron is hot only, we are able to bend it into any shape by striking on it. If it is cooled, we cannot bend it. These examples tell us that we must make use of a good opportunity when it knocks our door. If we miss it, we cannot get a similar opportunity back. So, we must make use of the available time and opportunities well and do the correct thing at the proper time.

Honesty is the best policy:

Honesty means being truthful and fair in thought, speech and action. The lives of great men across the globe like Mahatma Gandhi, Jesus, Abraham Lincoln, etc., prove that their greatness was because of their honest nature. History tells us that honest people are always respected. In the modern age also people like Dr. APJ Abdul Kalam, Anna Hazare, etc., are honoured for their honesty and not for his or her wealth and power. Honesty gives courage to face any difficulties. Hence, honest people are able to do any great things in their lives in straight and fair manner. On the other way, dishonest people are cowards. They always want to attain something with unfair means or corrupt methods. Ultimately, they fail in life. An honest person is remembered even after his death. A dishonest person is hated even during his life-time. Hence, honesty is the most significant policy one needs to follow through his entire life.

All that glitters is not gold (or) Appearances deceive:

Generally, people give value to the external appearances. But the external appearance cannot be always reliable. For example, Gold is a precious metal and it shines brightly. But, just because some other metals also shine, they cannot be as valuable as gold. That is, all that glitters is not gold. People get deceived by the outward appearances. A person who appears very innocent may prove cruel. Hence, we must attempt to know the inner quality of an individual or a thing to assess his/ its value. We must not fall within the trap of external attraction.

A Stitch in time saves nine:

This proverb tells us the importance of being careful at the correct time. When we observe any defect or mistake in anything, we must attempt to correct/ repair it in the initial stage itself. Otherwise, the problem becomes bigger and unsolvable. By being careful in small things, we are able to avoid major dangers. For example, if a cloth is torn little, we must immediately attend to it and stitch it. Otherwise, the tear of the fabric becomes bigger and can't be repaired. Any symptoms associated with ill-health or disease should be attended carefully. Otherwise, the diseases may aggravate and take life itself.

Necessity is the mother of invention:

The proverb tells us that the requirement of a thing forces us to think actively. Solutions for problems are often acknowledged if only we use our brains. But we use then only if there's need. This leads to the invention of a brand-new thing. Most of the scientific inventions in human history are answers to some pressing need. Primitive man’s need for food forced him to shape weapons for hunting. His need and requirement to travel extensively across the globe resulted in invention of steam boat and later electric motor. Most medicines are the results of the requirement for the cure to fatal diseases. Thus, necessity is the mother of invention.

Key Takeaways

1. A proverb is a famous saying that conveys a general truth or that provides advice on life and behaviour. They are simple in form, yet full of meaning and contain plenty of wisdom.
2. Expansion of proverbs involves understanding the meaning of a saying, what it implies and the way it relates to the present time.
3. To expand a proverb, one has to explain its meaning and elaborate on its significance by using reasoning and giving examples from real life to convey its truth and wisdom clearly to the reader.
4. A good para written for expansion must have 1) unity of thought; (2) order; (3) coherence; (4) variety and (5) Expansion.

d) Dialogue Writing

Dialogue is usually a conversation between two or more people in a narrative work. As a literary technique, dialogue serves several purposes. It can advance the plot, reveal a character's thoughts or feelings, or show how characters react in the moment. Dialogue is written using quotation marks encapsulating the speaker's exact words. These quotation marks are meant to keep the dialogue aside from the narration, which is written as standard text.

In writing, dialogue shows a character speaking. It works to inform you more about the character and the way they converse with others or react. When it involves dialogue, you may see two types: outer and inner dialogue.

• Outer dialogue is when a character talks to a different character within the story or play. This is the classic dialogue you see most of the time, indicated by quotation marks.
• Inner (internal) dialogue is when a character talks or thinks something to themselves like an inner monologue. In written works, this can be indicated by quotation marks or italics.

A Dialogue is a collaborative, two-way conversation. The role of the participants is to exchange information and build relationships with others.

For some, dialogue is a focused and intentional conversation, a space of civility and equality in which those who differ may listen and speak together. For others it is a way of being—mindful and creative relating. In dialogue, we seek to set aside fears, preconceptions, the need to win; we take time to hear other voices and possibilities. Dialogue can encompass tensions and paradoxes, and in so doing, new ideas—collective wisdom—may arise.

All dialogue should pass the following criteria:

• It must move the story forward. The reader should be one step closer to either the climax or the conclusion of the story they are reading, after every conversation or information exchange.
• It should reveal relevant information about the character. The right dialogue must provide the reader with insights into how the character feels, and what motivates him or her to act.
• It must assist the reader to understand the connection between the characters.

1. Brevity: Dialogue shouldn’t go over for pages and pages. The best dialogue is brief. You don’t have to get into lengthy exchanges to reveal a crucial truth about the characters, their motivations, and the way they view the world. Additionally, lengthy dialogue can be exhausting for the reader. Pair the dialogue all the way down to the minimum that you need for the characters to communicate with each other.
2. Avoiding Small Talk: Dialogues should be concise and to the point. In the real world, small talk fills the awkward silence, but within the world of writing, the only dialogue to incorporate is the kind that reveals something necessary about the character and/or plot. For instance, "How’s the weather?" doesn’t move the plot. If you’d prefer to show that your character doesn’t like awkward pauses, work on characterization and scene description. Rather than using unnecessary long exchanges, show the character’s discomfort by describing how she taps her fingers against the window pane, or takes a series of sharp sighs. Small talk can decrease the effectiveness of the dialogue. Instead, pick exchanges that capture the essence of the instant, and bypass chitchat altogether.
3. Avoiding Excessive Information: While you'll certainly use dialogue to find out more about your characters, you shouldn’t use it to dump a whole lot of data on the reader. If the character already knows, then there is no need for another character to repeat the same information. So, what’s the difference between info dumping and revealing relevant information? Info dump is a large amount of exposition given all at once, and left for the reader to sort out. Relevant information is subtler, and it’s dispensed a little at a time.
4. Unique Speaking Styles: Every character, similar to every person you know, will have a distinct way of speaking and delivering their thoughts. Some people are more forceful and deliberate. Others are more passive and meandering. You can honor these (and other) different styles without rambling. For example, to point out that somebody is very gruff or abrupt, go towards single syllable or somewhat quick words, like “yeah.” Characterization can be made unique with the help of different patterns of speech. Does the character speak in an exceedingly sharp staccato, or a deliberate, flowy manner? By knowing how the character (especially the protagonist) speaks, you may create consistency whenever the character dialogues with others.
5. Consistency: Remember to be consistent with your characters. Someone who speaks in a self-depreciating and shy demeanor won’t automatically become bold and acerbic. When your characters speak, they must stay faithful to who they are. Even without character tags, the reader should be able to discern who’s talking.
6. Create Suspense: Use dialogue to increase the suspense between characters. For people to withhold what they’re truly thinking or feeling is a part of human nature. People leave a lot unsaid, and this is also true for the characters in writing. To create a practical interaction between your characters, you need to honor the very fact that the majority people leave plenty of things unsaid. As a writer, you may build the scene, show the characters’ motivations and desires before the scene, and let it play out, with the reader wanting a resolution that doesn’t quite happen.
7. Relationships: Characters tend to talk differently depending on who they’re talking to. A character will speak to his mother differently than he does to his friend. That’s not a shift in consistency. It actually gives more depth and realness to the character. You can still stay faithful to the personality you’ve created by using the same speech pattern.
8. Show, Don't Tell: “Show, don’t tell” is the writer’s mantra. When writing dialogue, it’s easy to begin “telling” what the characters are feeling rather than showing it. Instead of your character saying, “I’m angry, Jan!” describe how the character’s body is closed-- tight lips, narrow eyes, deep breaths. Your dialogue shouldn’t be completely on the nose, and explain exactly what the character is feeling. Body language is a crucial aspect of dialogue, and must be written into every scene. It gives the reader important clues that they’ll use to recreate the scene in their mind.
9. Avoid Speeches and Soliloquies: Most people, in conversation form, don't have the privilege of extended speech. Long speeches will distract the readers from the content of what the writer intends and hence must be avoided.
10. Read it Aloud: During the editing process, you must always read your manuscript aloud, but do pay special attention to your dialogue. If the dialogue doesn’t seem to flow, or you’re tripping over your words, it’s not about to sound correct to the reader. Even though you’re not capturing every aspect of a conversation in your dialogue, everything that’s written should sound like an actual person said it. If not, it’s time to erase and take a look at again.

Key Takeaways

1. Dialogue is usually a conversation between two or more people in a narrative work.
2. As a literary technique, dialogue serves several purposes. It can advance the plot, reveal a character's thoughts or feelings, or show how characters react in the moment.
3. Dialogue is written using quotation marks encapsulating the speaker's exact words. These quotation marks are meant to keep the dialogue aside from the narration, which is written as standard text.
4. Outer dialogue is when a character talks to a different character within the story or play.
5. Inner (internal) dialogue is when a character talks or thinks something to themselves like an inner monologue.
6. The best dialogue is brief. You don’t have to get into lengthy exchanges to reveal a crucial truth about the characters, their motivations, and the way they view the world.
7. Dialogues should be concise and to the point. If the character already knows, then there is no need for another character to repeat the same information.
8. During the editing process, you must always read your manuscript aloud, but do pay special attention to your dialogue.

References

1. Practical English Usage. Michael Swan. OUP. 1995.
2. Remedial English Grammar. F.T. Wood. Macmillan.2007
3. On Writing Well. William Zinsser. Harper Resource Book. 2001
4. Study Writing. Liz Hamp-Lyons and Ben Heasly. Cambridge University Press. 2006.
5. Communication Skills. Sanjay Kumar and Pushp Lata. Oxford University Press.
   2011.
6. Exercises in Spoken English. Parts. I-III. CIEFL, Hyderabad. Oxford University
   Press