Unit - 1

Introduction

1.1 Introduction: Importance and necessity of water supply scheme

• Absolutely pure water is never found in nature and which contains only two parts of hydrogen and one part of oxygen by volume. But the water found in nature contains number of impurities in varying amounts. The rainwater which is originally pure, also absorbs various gases, dust and other impurities while filling.
• This water when moves on the ground further carries silt, organic and inorganic impurities. The removal of the turbidity, odour and smell is considered as good and removal of dissolved substances is considered as “chemically pure”. But removal of substances like calcium, magnesium Iron, Zinc etc completely is not good for health. These minerals are required for tissue growth and some act as propylatic in preventing diseases.
• Therefore wholesome water is defined as the water which containing the minerals in small quantities at requisite levels and free from harmful impurities Chemically pure water is also corrosive but not whole some water. The water that is fit for drinking safe and agreeable is called potable water.
• The objectives of the community water supply system are

1. To provide whole some water to the consumers for drinking purpose.
2. To supply adequate quantity to meet at least the minimum needs of the individuals and to make adequate provisions for emergencies like fire fighting, festivals, meeting etc.
3. To make provision for future demands due to increase in population, increase in standard of living, storage and conveyance
4. To prevent pollution of water at source, storage and conveyance
5. To maintain the treatment units and distribution system in good condition with adequate staff and materials
6. To design and maintain the system that is economical and reliable

Importance and necessity of water supply scheme

• Water is present in abundant quantities on the Earth’s surface, but not more than 1 percent of the total available water is in the form of liquid fresh water. Most of Earth’s water (1.4 billion cubic km) is in the oceans or frozen in polar ice caps and glaciers. However, ocean water contains about 35 gm/l of dissolved minerals or salts, making it unfit for drinking, industrial or agricultural uses.
• Fresh water, containing less than 3 gm/l of salts, is not uniformly distributed over the globe, resulting in water scarcity. In many locations, the availability of good-quality water is further reduced because of urban development, industrial growth, and environmental pollution.
• In order to ensure the availability of sufficient quantity of good quality water, it is imperative to plan and build suitable water supply schemes, which will provide portable water to the various sections of the society in accordance with their demands and requirements. Hence, each country has developed certain Water Supply Schemes to ensure that good quality potable water is available to its citizens.

Key takeaways:

• Fresh water, containing less than 3 gm/l of salts, is not uniformly distributed over the globe, resulting in water scarcity. In many locations, the availability of good-quality water is further reduced because of urban development, industrial growth, and environmental pollution.

1.2 Water Demand: All types of water demand, empirical formulae, factors affecting per capita demand, variation in demand, design period, population forecasting methods and examples

• Among all the important needs, water is one of the most important needs of the human beings. So, when any new township is planned along with other amenities, the required water supply for that community, is thought about.
• Water is required for various purposes, drinking water stands first among the all. So the team of town planners have to determine the water demand of that township or the urban settlement.
• Once the demand of water is calculated the next step is to find out the sources of water, which can meet the expected water demand.
• In case of large cities such as Ahmadabad, or Baroda or the industrial complex like Ankaleshwar, one source of lewater supply or one water-works is not enough.
• So in cases of such large populated cities, various water sources are thought about, and more than one water-works for treatment and supply of water, are designed.

1.2.1 All type of water demand

Classification of Water Demands:

We need water for various purposes. So on the basis of the purpose, we can classify the water demands as follows.

Classification of Water Demands are as follows:

1. Domestic Water Demand
2. Commercial and Industrial Water Demand
3. Water Demand for Fire Fighting
4. Demand of Water for Public Use
5. Demand of Water for Domestic Animals
6. Per Capita Water Demand

1. Domestic Water Demand:

• The domestic needs of water include, for drinking, cooking, washing, bathing etc. The domestic water needs generally depend upon the social status, habits, customs of the people.
• The needs also change as the climatic conditions change e.g. In the tropical hot and dry climates more water is consumed than in a settlement, located in the cool climates.
• Under the normal climatic conditions, in India, the per day, per person consumption of water is about 135 litres, while in case of developed, western countries this water consumption is more than 350 litres, per day, per person.
• This higher consumption rate of domestic water is the higher standard of living using air coolers, dishwashers, house laundries etc.
• Out the average total consumption of water, per day, per person, maximum of 55 litres is used for bathing and 20 litres for washing of clothes. Another 30 litres are being used for flushing of latrines. 5 litres each are used for drinking and cooling purposes.

2. Commercial and Industrial Water Demand:

• Among the long list of commercial users of water, maximum demand comes from the commercial constructions, Hospitals, Hotels, Cinema houses, Schools Hostels, Sport-Clubs etc.
• The need of the water by any industry depends upon, the process the raw material, seasonality of the industry etc. In case of industrial demand of water also, is measured in terms of per capita, per day demand, so the water needed by any industry also depends upon the number of workers also.
• Sugar mills, paper mills, cotton textile mills, breweries, chemical factories etc. have a very huge demand of water. Generally these industries have their own water supply arrangements.

3. Water Demand for Fire Fighting:

• The fire in the urban settlement is generally caused by short circuits, explosion, or by the domestic causes or the industrial processes. So, all the large populated cities have to have the fire-fighting arrangements.
• On an average, the need of water for fire-fighting and depends upon the total population of the urban area and on the types of buildings, and also on the basis of the density of population per sq. Unit of land. Generally, for the fire fighting the water requirement can be calculated as:

1. For a city having low buildings-2200 Lit/min.
2. For a city having high building-4500 Lit/min.
3. For market areas, public places 7,650-13,500 Lit/min.
4. For high density of population and for multi-storeyed buildings - 27000 Lit/min.

• The need of water for fire-fighting varies seasonally also i.e. the fire in summer needs more water.

4. Demand of Water for Public Use:

• The quantity of water needed for the public use such as washing the roads, watering the public parks, cleaning of the sewers etc. covers about 5% of the total consumption of the water by the urban settlement.
• On an average the water required by the public parks is about 16,850 Lits per hec per day.

5. Demand of Water for Domestic Animals:

• For milk, meat, skin, fur etc. the live stock farming is carried around the urban settlements. Each domestic animal has a different need of water for consumption and for cleaning. e.g. Cows need about 68.25 Lits, of water per day per animal.
• While in case of houses it is about 45.50 lits per day per animal. The need of water for chickens is minimum i.e. 0.09 lits. Per day, per bird.
• Per Capita Water Demand
• As we have already seen that in any community, water is used for various purposes by the common man. The demand is measured as litres, per person, per day.

Key takeaways:

• Once the demand of water is calculated the next step is to find out the sources of water, which can meet the expected water demand.

1.2.2 Empirical formula

The quantity of water required for municipal uses for which the water supply scheme has to be designed requires following data:

1. Water consumption rate (Per Capita Demand in litres per day per head)
2. Population to be served.

Quantity= Per capita demand x Population

Water Consumption Rate

It is very difficult to precisely assess the quantity of water demanded by the public, since there are many variable factors affecting water consumption. The various types of water demands, which a city may have, may be broken into following classes:

Water Consumption for Various Purposes:

Fire Fighting Demand:

The per capita fire demand is very less on an average basis but the rate at which the water is required is very large. The rate of fire demand is sometimes treated as a function of population and is worked out from following empirical formulae:

Factors affecting per capita demand:

1. Size of the city: Per capita demand for big cities is generally large as compared to that for smaller towns as big cities have sewered houses.
2. Presence of industries.
3. Climatic conditions.
4. Habits of people and their economic status.
5. Quality of water: If water is aesthetically $ medically safe, the consumption will increase as people will not resort to private wells, etc.
6. Pressure in the distribution system.
7. Efficiency of water works administration: Leaks in water mains and services; and unauthorised use of water can be kept to a minimum by surveys.
8. Cost of water.
9. Policy of metering and charging method: Water tax is charged in two different ways: on the basis of meter reading and on the basis of certain fixed monthly rate.

Fluctuations in Rate of Demand

Average Daily Per Capita Demand

= Quantity Required in 12 Months/ (365 x Population)

Key takeaways:

• Among the long list of commercial users of water, maximum demand comes from the commercial constructions, Hospitals, Hotels, Cinema houses, Schools Hostels, Sport-Clubs etc.

1.2.3 Factors affecting per capita demand

The following are the main factors affecting for capita demand of the city or town.

Climatic conditions:

The quantity of water required in hotter and dry places is more than cold countries because of the use of air coolers, air conditioners, sprinkling of water in lawns, gardens, courtyards, washing of rooms, more washing of clothes and bathing etc. But in very cold countries sometimes the quantity of water required may be more due to wastage, because at such places the people often keep their taps open and water continuously flows for fear of freezing of water in the taps and use of hot water for keeping the rooms warm.

Size of community:

Water demand is more with increase of size fo town because more water is required in street washing, running of sewers, maintenance of parks and gardens.

Living standard of the people:

The per capita demand of the town increases with the standard of living of the people because of the use of air conditioners, room coolers, maintenance of lawns, use of flush, latrines and automatic home appliances etc.

Industrial and commercial activities:

As the quantity of water required in certainindustries is much more than domestic demand, their presence in the town will enormously increase per capita demand of the town. As a matter of the fact the water required by the industries has no direct link with the population of the town.

Pressure in the distribution system:

The rate of water consumption increase in the pressure of the building and even with the required pressure at the farthest point, the consumption of water will automatically increase. This increase in the quantity is firstly due to use of water freely by the people as compared when they get it scarcely and more water loss due to leakage, wastage and thefts etc.

System of sanitation:

Per capita demand of the towns having water carriage system will be more than the town where this system is not being used.

Cost of water:

The cost of water directly affects its demand. If the cost of water is more, less quantity of water will be used by the people as compared when the cost is low.

Types of variation in water Demand

        Seasonal variations

        Monthly variations

        Daily variations

        Hourly variations

Key takeaways:

Water demand is more with increase of size fo town because more water is required in street washing, running of sewers, maintenance of parks and gardens.

1.2.4 Variation in demand

1. Seasonal variations: - The demand peaks during summer. Firebreak outs are generally more in summer, increasing demand. So, there is seasonal variation.
2. Daily variations: - More construction on Sunday and holiday and during storm and dust.
3. Hourly variations -During active household working hours i.e. from six to ten in the morning and four to eight in the evening, the bulk of the daily requirement is taken. During other hours the requirement is negligible. Moreover, if a fire breaks out, a huge quantity of water is required to be supplied during short duration, necessitating the need for a maximum rate of hourly supply.                

• This normal variation in demand should generally be assessed and known in order to design supply pipes, service reservoirs, distributaries pipes etc.

Assessment of Normal variations

1. Maximum daily consumption is generally taken as 180% of the average daily consumption.

Maximum Daily Demand = 1.8 X Average Daily Demand = 1.8q

2.     Maximum hourly consumption is generally taken as one 150% of its average hourly consumption.

Peak Demand = 1.5 X Average Hourly consumption of the maximum day

= 2.7 X Annual Average Hourly Demand

Goodrich formula for finding ratio of steel demand rates to their corresponding means:

P = 180 X t0.10

Where,                           

P = % of annual average draft for the time ‘t’ in days.

t = time in days from 1/24 to 365.

When,                           

t = 1 day for daily variations

P = 180 X (1)0.10 = 180

Maximum daily demand = 180%                

Key takeaways:

Maximum daily consumption is generally taken as 180% of the average daily consumption.

1.2.5 Design period

The future period or the number of years for which a provision is made in designing the capacities of the various components of the water supply scheme is known as design period 30 years.

Factor governing the design period

a)     Useful life of component structure and the chances of their becoming old and obsolete.

b)    Is and difficulty in expansion, if undertaken at future dates. Difficult extension then high design period.

c)     Amount and availability of additional investment likely to be incurred for additional provisions.

d)    Rate of interest on borrowings and the additional money invested. Less interest rate than high design period.

e)     Anticipated rate of population growth including possible shifts in communities, industries and commercial establishments.

Design period for different components of water supply scheme

Key takeaways:

• Useful life of component structure and the chances of their becoming old and obsolete.

1.2.6 Population forecasting methods and examples

When the design period is fixed the next step is to determine the population of a town or city population of a town depends upon the factors like births, deaths, migration and annexation. The future development of the town mostly depends upon trade expansion, development industries, and surrounding country, discoveries of mines, construction of railway stations etc may produce sharp rises, slow growth, stationary conditions or even decrease the population. For the prediction of population, it is better to study the development of other similar towns, which have developed under the same circumstances, because the development of the predicted town will be more or less on the same lines.

The following are the standard methods by which the forecasting population is done.

1. Arithmetical increase method
2. Geometrical increase method
3. Incremental increase method
4. Simple graph method
5. Decrease rate of growth method
6. Comparative graph method and The master plan method

VARIATIONS IN DEMAND

The per capita demand of town is the average consumption of water for a year. In practice it has been seen that this demand does not remain uniform throughout the year but it various from season to season, even hour to hour.

SEASONAL VARIATIONS

The water demand varies from season to season. In summer the water demand is maximum, because the people will use more water in bathing, cooling, lawn watering and street sprinkling. This demand will becomes minimum in winter because less water will be used in bathing and there will be no lawn watering. The variations may be upto 15% of the average demand of the year.

DAILY VARIATIONS 

This variation depends on the general habits of people, climatic conditions and character of city as industrial, commercial or residential. More water demand will be on Sundays and holidays due to more comfortable bathing, washing etc as compared to other working days. The maximum daily consumption is usually taken as 180% of the average consumption.

HOURLY VARIATIONS

On Sundays and other holidays the peak hours may be about 8 A.M. Due to late awakening where as it may be 6 A.M. To 10 A.M. And 4 P.M. To 8 P.M. And minimum flow may be between 12P.M. To 4P.M. When most of the people are sleeping. But in highly industrial city where both day and night shifts are working, the consumption in night may be more. The maximum consumption may be rise upto 200% that of average daily demand. The determination of this hourly variations is most necessary, because on its basis the rate of pumping will be adjusted to meet up the demand in all hours.

As per IS: 1172-1963, under normal conditions, the domestic consumption of water in India is about 135 litres/day/capita. But in developed countries this figure may be 350 litres/day/capita because of use of air coolers, air conditioners, maintenance of lawns, automatic household appliances.

The details of the domestic consumption are

a)      Drinking------ 5 litres

b)     Cooking------ 5 litres

c)      Bathing------ 55 litres

d)     Clothes washing------ 20 litres

e)      Utensils washing------ 10 litres

f)       House washing------ 10 litres per 135 litres/day/capital

Key takeaways:

The per capita demand of town is the average consumption of water for a year. In practice it has been seen that this demand doesnot remain uniform throughout the year but it various from season to season, even hour to hour.

1.3 Sources of water: Rain water, Ground water-springs, infiltration galleries, Dug wells, tube wells, Surface water-stream, lake, river, impounding reservoirs, ponds & sea

Ground Water

Ground water refers to any supply of water that lies below the soil layer. Ground water can exist withinside the soil itself or among rocks and different materials. Most groups attain their water from underground aquifers, or rock formations able to conserving big quantities of freshwater. Only three percentage of the water on the earth is taken into consideration freshwater, with a trifling 30 percentage of that small quantity being determined as groundwater. Pollution, seawater infection and overuse threaten this precious resource.

Surface Water

Sources of floor water can consist of any above-floor series of water including rivers, lakes, ponds and oceans. Some reassets of floor water also are fed via way of means of underground aquifers. Surface water money owed for eighty percentage of the water people use.

Ocean Water

Although ocean water makes up almost ninety seven percentage of all water on earth, it isn't always a feasible supply of potable water except salt and different impurities are eliminated. Desalination, the system through which salt is eliminated from water, is a unexpectedly developing practice. While salt and different microscopic debris may be eliminated from water in a number of ways, the maximum promising approach is through opposite osmosis. This system forces saltwater through filters with microscopic pores that get rid of salt and different microbes. Reverse osmosis calls for huge quantities of energy, making it a totally highly-priced system.

Ice Caps and Glacial Melting

Of the three percentage of earth's water taken into consideration freshwater, 70 percentage of that small quantity is presently locked in glaciers and ice caps. In theory, frozen glacial and ice cap water will be melted and used, however the quantity of strength had to soften and delivery considerable portions of ice make it economically impractical. Glaciers and ice caps additionally play vitally crucial roles withinside the law of earth's climates and international temperatures, making their protection very crucial.

1.3.1 Rain water

• Rainwater is a fantastically smooth water supply and with essential warning it could be even used for potable consumptions. Importantly, it's far a loose supply and may be accumulated in a huge amount from roof catchments and different pavement regions which may be used for numerous purposes (e.g., lawn watering, bathroom flushing, laundry, cooling and heating, hygienic use and drinking).
• Therefore, rainwater harvesting can play an vital position in water sustainability via way of means of decreasing the strain on mains water deliver. Many research said a very good quantity of water financial savings in a constructing via way of means of the use of rainwater harvesting gadget (Hajani and Rahman, 2014). For example, Muthukumaran et al. (2011) proven that approximately of 40% potable water may be stored via way of means of the use of rainwater in a residential constructing in local Victoria in Australia. Ward et al. (2012) observed that an office-primarily based totally rainwater harvesting gadget may want to keep round 87% water (amount of mains water stored) in a nondomestic constructing.
• A rainwater harvesting gadget collects runoff from a catchment place (e.g., roof place and paved place) and normally includes a garage tank, deliver and distribution networks, and an overflow unit. Among the additives of a rainwater harvesting gadget, the garage tank is generally the biggest aspect of the entire set up value.
• Therefore, a right financial evaluation and layout are essential earlier than enforcing the rainwater harvesting structures in constructing for you to enhance their overall performance and benefits, and to achieve quick payback length. In order to assess the monetary feasibility of rainwater harvesting gadget, lifestyles cycle value assessment (LCCA) want to be integrated in the course of the making plans of a constructing production. LCCA is a way of comparing the value of a product over its lifestyles span wherein all of the past, present, and destiny coins flows are transformed to offer values. Several research have said LCCA of a rainwater harvesting gadget and commented high-quality outcomes at the monetary feasibility of these structures, which can play an vital aspect in enhancing water sustainability in homes.
• Zhang et al. (2009) evaluated the monetary feasibility of rainwater harvesting gadget in high-upward thrust homes in 4 capital towns in Australia (e.g., Sydney, Perth, Darwin, and Melbourne) and proven that each one the towns had the capability to provide true monetary go back the use of rainwater harvesting gadget. They observed shortest payback length (approximately 10 years) of rainwater harvesting gadget (approximately 10 years) in Sydney. Domenech and Sauri (2010) observed the payback length in among 33 and forty three years withinside the metropolitan place of Barcelona in Spain for a single-own circle of relatives family relying at the rainwater tank size.
• Imteaz et al. (2011) said that production value of a industrial rainwater tanks linked to huge roofs in Melbourne may be recovered with 15–21-12 months time relying at the tank size, climatic conditions, and destiny water price.

Key takeaways:

Sources of floor water can consist of any above-floor series of water including rivers, lakes, ponds and oceans. Some reassets of floor water also are fed via way of means of underground aquifers. Surface water money owed for eighty percentage of the water people use.

1.3.2 Ground water spring

• Springs are fashioned whilst groundwater flows onto the floor. This commonly takes place whilst the groundwater desk reaches above the floor level. Springs can also be fashioned due to karst topography, aquifers, or volcanic activity. Springs additionally were discovered on the sea floor, spewing warm water at once into the sea.
• Springs fashioned due to karst topography create karst springs, wherein floor water travels via a community of cracks and fissures—openings starting from intergranular areas to big caves, later rising in a spring. A herbal spring on Mackinac Island in Michigan The forcing of the spring to the floor may be the end result of a constrained aquifer wherein the recharge region of the spring water desk rests at a better elevation than that of the opening. Spring water pressured to the floor via way of means of increased reassets are artesian wells.
• This is viable although the opening is withinside the shape of a 300-foot-deep (ninety one m) cave. In this example the cave is used like a hose via way of means of the better increased recharge region of groundwater to go out via the decrease elevation opening.
• Non-artesian springs may also truly float from a better elevation via the earth to a decrease elevation and go out withinside the shape of a spring, the usage of the floor like a drainage pipe. Still different springs are the end result of stress from an underground supply withinside the earth, withinside the shape of volcanic activity. The end result may be water at increased temperature which includes a warm spring. Sunrise at Middle Spring, Fish Springs National Wildlife Refuge, Utah The movement of the groundwater usually dissolves permeable bedrock which includes limestone and dolomite, growing massive cave systems

1.3.3 Infiltration galleries

• An infiltration gallery is a subsurface supply of water used for a water deliver gadget whose shape is sort of a horizontal drain this is located beneath the water desk in order that it collects the groundwater. It collects the subsurface reassets of water. The horizontal drain may be produced from an open jointed pipe or a perforated pipe. The water accrued may be taken to a sump, a garage tank or a group well.
• The infiltration galleries paintings first-class while it's far surrounded with the aid of using a soil this is surrounded with the aid of using a sufficiently permeable soil in order that the gallery can without difficulty gather the water. Gravel is one such permeable soil cloth that helps the waft of water to the infiltration gallery with ease.
• Gravel additionally facilitates entice the massive debris that may bring about blocking off the perforations. Infiltration galleries are built in aggregate with different method of water deliver gadget so that it will meet the growing water call for. The gallery by myself can't face the call for of a huge population.

1.3.4 Dug well

• Dug Well: high yield as excavated to larger depth

• The conventional and nonetheless maximum not unusualplace technique of acquiring groundwater in rural regions of the growing international is by using hand-dug wells (WATERAID 2008). With the previous information that groundwater is gift and alternatively near the surface, a hollow is dug till the groundwater degree is reached. Inflowing groundwater is accrued and extracted with the assist of pumps or buckets.
• Given appropriate geological conditions, dug wells offer a low-tech approach to the demanding situations of rural water deliver and may be applied with a excessive degree of network participation and domestically to be had cloth and tools.
• They can offer a feasible opportunity to unhygienic, unprotected water reassets even as averting the funding and preservation fees related to greater state-of-the-art water deliver systems. However, supervision and cautious operation and preservation are important. Protection of the encircling regions need to be ensured to save you contamination. Hence, potential constructing on a way to manipulate and use the gadget need to be applied.

1.3.5 Tube well

• A tube nicely is a form of water nicely wherein a long, 100–2 hundred millimetres (3.nine–7.nine in)-wide, chrome steel tube or pipe is bored into an underground aquifer. The decrease quit is geared up with a strainer, and a pump lifts water for irrigation. The required intensity of the nicely relies upon at the intensity of the water table.
• The tube nicely casing homes the inlet, cylinder, piston valves and growing predominant of a "down-the-hole" kind hand pump. Casing to assist the outside surfaces of the borehole in opposition to fall apart can be needed, both quickly or permanently, and is regularly fabricated from PVC pipe, that is each reasonably-priced and inert. Seepage down the tube nicely bore is avoided through the sanitary seal. Seepage from the floor above the aquifer is excluded through the lengths of simple casing.
• Water to be pumped is admitted through slots withinside the decrease lengths of casing. Water abstracted from aquifers in quite smooth floor normally consists of sand or silt debris, which can be vulnerable to reason fast put on to pump valves and cylinders (and dissatisfaction amongst consumers).
• Methods of stopping those debris from achieving the pump are of trendy types, screening and sand/gravel packing. Screening In the best devices, slots are surely reduce withinside the casing.
• More tricky compact monitors are to be had commercially; a few may be bolted directly to pump inlets. Materials used consist of woven cord and man-made fabric; the latter may be wrapped across the pump inlet assembly. Sand/gravel packing Graded sand and gravel can be positioned from[clarification needed] the pinnacle of the borehole.
• More compact, pre-bonded, packs of sand and/or gravel are to be had commercially; a number of those also can shape a part of the pump inlet assembly. Sand and/or gravel packing is supposed to dispose of debris from the water earlier than they attain the display which they could in any other case have handed through.

Key takeaways:

• The infiltration galleries paintings first-class while it's far surrounded with the aid of using a soil this is surrounded with the aid of using a sufficiently permeable soil in order that the gallery can without difficulty gather the water. Gravel is one such permeable soil cloth that helps the waft of water to the infiltration gallery with ease.

1.3.6 Surface water stream

• Surface water is water positioned on pinnacle of the Earth's floor, and can additionally be known as blue water. In not unusualplace usage, it is also used mainly for terrestrial (inland) waterbodies, the sizable majority of that's produced via way of means of precipitation and runoff from close by better areas. As the weather warms withinside the spring, snowmelt runs off closer to close by streams and rivers contributing closer to a huge part of human ingesting water.
• Levels of floor water reduce because of evaporation in addition to water stepping into the floor turning into floor-water. Alongside getting used for ingesting water, floor water is likewise used for irrigation, wastewater treatment, livestock, business uses, hydropower, and recreation.
• It is recorded via way of means of the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), that about sixty eight percentage of water furnished to groups comes from floor water. For USGS water-use reports, floor water is taken into consideration freshwater while it consists of much less than 1,000 milligrams in keeping with liter (mg/L) of dissolved solids.
• There are 3 foremost styles of floor water. Permanent (perennial) floor waters are gift 12 months round, and consists of lakes, rivers and wetlands (marshes and swamps). Semi-permanent (ephemeral) floor water refers to our bodies of water which are handiest gift at sure instances of the 12 months which include seasonally dry channels including creeks, lagoons and waterholes. Man-made floor water is water that may be endured via way of means of infrastructures that people have assembled.
• This could be dammed synthetic lakes, canals and synthetic ponds (e.g. Lawn ponds) or swamps. The floor water held via way of means of dams may be used for renewable electricity withinside the shape of hydropower. Hydropower is the forcing of floor water sourced from rivers and streams to supply electricity.

1.3.7 Lake

• A lake is a place packed with water, localized in a basin, surrounded with the aid of using land, and set aside from any river or different outlet that serves to feed or drain the lake. Lakes lie on land and aren't a part of the ocean, although, just like the an awful lot large oceans, they do shape a part of the Earth's water cycle. Lakes are awesome from lagoons, which might be typically coastal components of the ocean.
• Lakes are normally large and deeper than ponds, which additionally lie on land, aleven though there aren't anyt any respectable or clinical definitions. Lakes may be contrasted with rivers or streams, which typically float in a channel on land.
• Most lakes are fed and tired with the aid of using rivers and streams. Natural lakes are typically determined in mountainous regions, rift zones, and regions with ongoing glaciation. Other lakes are determined in endorheic basins or alongside the guides of mature rivers, in which a river channel has widened right into a basin. Some components of the sector have many lakes shaped with the aid of using the chaotic drainage styles left over from the closing Ice Age.
• All lakes are brief over lengthy durations of time, as they may slowly fill in with sediments or spill out of the basin containing them. Many lakes are synthetic and are built for commercial or agricultural use, for hydro-electric powered electricity era or home water supply, for cultured or leisure purposes, or for different activities.

1.3.8 River

• A river is a herbal flowing watercourse, commonly freshwater, flowing toward an ocean, sea, lake or any other river. In a few cases, a river flows into the floor and turns into dry on the cease of its path without accomplishing any other frame of water. Small rivers may be stated the usage of names together with circulate, creek, brook, rivulet, and rill.
• There aren't anyt any reliable definitions for the customary time period river as carried out to geographic functions, despite the fact that in a few international locations or groups a circulate is described through its size. Many names for small rivers are unique to geographic location; examples are "run" in a few components of the United States, "burn" in Scotland and northeast England, and "beck" in northern England. Sometimes a river is described as being large than a creek, however now no longer always: the language is vague. Melting toe of Athabasca Glacier, Jasper National Park, Alberta, Canada Rivers are a part of the hydrological cycle.
• Water commonly collects in a river from precipitation through a drainage basin from floor runoff and different reassets together with groundwater recharge, springs, and the discharge of saved water in herbal ice and snowpacks (e.g., from glaciers).
• Rivers and streams are regularly taken into consideration essential functions inside a landscape; however, they without a doubt handiest cowl round 0.1% of the land on Earth. They are made greater apparent and great to human beings for the reason that many human towns and civilizations are constructed across the freshwater provided through rivers and streams.
• Most of the essential towns of the sector are located at the banks of rivers, as they are, or were, used as a supply of water, for acquiring food, for transport, as borders, as a shielding measure, as a supply of hydropower to pressure machinery, for bathing, and as a way of eliminating waste.

Key takeaways:

• Levels of floor water reduce because of evaporation in addition to water stepping into the floor turning into floor-water. Alongside getting used for ingesting water, floor water is likewise used for irrigation, wastewater treatment, livestock, business uses, hydropower, and recreation.

1.3.9 Impounding reservoirs

• As the water of an impounding reservoir varies in best at extraordinary degrees it's far endorsed to take water from approximately 1 m beneath the bottom water surface.
• As the water degree in reservoirs is anticipated to fluctuate, gates at diverse heights need to be provided. In the case of lake intakes, it's far really useful to have the consumption commencing 2.five m or greater above the lake backside to save you access of silts. To decrease the access of floating count number it's far endorsed that the access velocities are constrained to 0.15–0.2 m/s.

1.3.10 Ponds

• The perfect farm pond must be dug into the floor in a certainly low-mendacity location. Some of the soil this is eliminated may be used to assemble an earthen berm across the pond, which must be planted with timber and grasses for stability.
• The color and wind safety furnished with the aid of using the raised mound and plants will lessen evaporative losses. Greater intensity of the pond and much less floor location may even lessen evaporative losses.
• However, digging deeper than five meters will growth the cost of the digging, and growth seepage loss because of accelerated water stress at the floor. A pond this is approximately 10 meters with the aid of using 10 meters and three meters deep is an excellent size.
• The pond must have an inlet and an outlet (as proven withinside the picture) coated with rock to save you erosion. These capabilities will want to be related into a bigger drainage plan which directs water into the pond, and gets any overflow water. A small settling pit on the inlet will assist eliminate silt, and may be greater without problems wiped clean than the entire pond. The aspects of the pond must be sloped for stability.

1.3.11 Sea

• The sea, linked as the sector ocean or surely the ocean, is the frame of salty water that covers about seventy one percentage of the Earth's floor. The phrase sea is likewise used to indicate second-order sections of the ocean, together with the Mediterranean Sea, in addition to sure big, totally landlocked, saltwater lakes, together with the Caspian Sea. The sea moderates Earth's weather and has vital roles withinside the water cycle, carbon cycle, and nitrogen cycle.
• Humans harnessing and reading the ocean were recorded in view that historical times, and evidenced properly into prehistory, at the same time as its cutting-edge clinical have a look at is known as oceanography. The maximum plentiful stable dissolved in seawater is sodium chloride. The water additionally includes salts of magnesium, calcium, potassium, and mercury, among many different elements, a few in minute concentrations. Salinity varies widely, being decrease close to the floor and the mouths of big rivers and better withinside the depths of the ocean; however, the relative proportions of dissolved salts range little throughout the oceans. Winds blowing over the floor of the ocean produce waves, which smash once they input the shallow water.
• Winds additionally create floor currents via friction, putting in place sluggish however strong circulations of water during the oceans. The instructions of the stream are ruled with the aid of using factors, consisting of the shapes of the continents and Earth's rotation (the Coriolis effect).
• Deep-sea currents, referred to as the worldwide conveyor belt, bring bloodless water from close to the poles to each ocean. Tides, the commonly twice-day by day upward thrust and fall of sea levels, are due to Earth's rotation and the gravitational consequences of the orbiting Moon and, to a lesser extent, of the Sun.
• Tides might also additionally have a completely excessive variety in bays or estuaries. Submarine earthquakes springing up from tectonic plate actions beneathneath the oceans can result in unfavorable tsunamis, as can volcanoes, massive landslides, or the effect of big meteorites. A huge type of organisms, consisting of bacteria, protists, algae, plants, fungi, and animals, stay withinside the sea, which gives a huge variety of marine habitats and ecosystems, ranging vertically from the sunlit floor and coastline to the top notch depths and pressures of the bloodless, darkish abyssal zone, and in range from the bloodless waters beneathneath polar ice caps to the colorful variety of coral reefs in tropical regions. Many of the principal agencies of organisms developed withinside the sea and existence might also additionally have began out there.
• The sea offers massive elements of meals for people, specifically fish, however additionally shellfish, mammals and seaweed, whether or not stuck with the aid of using fishermen or farmed underwater. Other human makes use of of the ocean encompass trade, travel, mineral extraction, electricity generation, warfare, and enjoyment sports together with swimming, sailing, and scuba diving. Many of those sports create marine pollution. The sea has consequently been for people an fundamental detail during records and culture.

1.4 Intake structures: Location, types river, lake, canal, reservoir etc.

• Intake systems are used for amassing water from the floor reassets along with river, lake, and reservoir and conveying it in addition to the water remedy plant. These systems are masonry or concrete systems and presents highly smooth water, unfastened from pollution, sand and objectionable floating material.
• The fundamental characteristic of the consumption shape is to assist in correctly chickening out water from the supply over predetermined pool stages after which to discharge this water into the withdrawal conduit (usually known as consumption conduit), via which it flows as much as water remedy plant.

Site Selection for Intake Structures

• The web page have to be so decided on that it can admit water even below worst situation of waft withinside the river. Generally, it's far favored that consumption have to be sufficiently beneathneath the shore line. Site have to be very near remedy plant as possible. It have to be so positioned that it's far loose from the pollution. It is higher to offer consumption at higher circulation of town in order that water isn't always contaminated. It have to now no longer intervene with river traffic, if any. It have to be positioned in which top basis situations are available. It have to be so positioned that it admits especially natural water loose from mud, sand and pollutants. Means it have to be blanketed from speedy currents.
• Design Considerations enough thing of protection in opposition to outside forces including heavy currents, floating materials, submerged bodies, ice pressure, etc. ought to have enough self weight in order that it does now no longer waft via way of means of upthrust of water.

1.4.1 Location

• The webweb page need to be so decided on that it is able to admit water even beneathneath worst situation of go with the drift withinside the river. Generally, it's far favored that consumption need to be sufficiently under the shore line. Site need to be very near remedy plant as possible. It need to be so placed that it's far unfastened from the pollution.
• It is higher to offer consumption at higher movement of town in order that water isn't always contaminated. It need to now no longer intervene with river traffic, if any. It need to be placed wherein right basis situations are available. It need to be so placed that it admits highly natural water unfastened from mud, sand and pollutants. Means it need to be included from fast currents.

1.4.2 Types river

• Rivers are geographical phenomena wherein freshwater flows via dry land from one area to some other. They additionally function herbal drainage systems. Rivers arise clearly in all continents across the world, together with Antarctica. Rivers play pretty an crucial position in every day existence and sports of man, in addition to the flora and resident organisms inside and around.
• Most historic civilizations have been observed to had been located alongside massive rivers, which served as an inexhaustible supply of sparkling ingesting water and additionally a method of transportation among destinations. Such civilizations include; Rome, India, China, and Egypt. Now, strength is generated in hydroelectric electricity plants (dams) constructed on rivers.
• They account for over 25% of the world’s strength deliver and approximately 30% of the world’s to be had freshwater. Every river has its distinguishing feature, in addition to similarities. For one, all of them glide downhill as regards to the regulation of gravity (they achieve this at both a excessive or low velocity relying on slope, wind and water current). Every river has its supply (river beginning which incorporates streams, springs, and others) and mouth (drains like; sea, ocean, lake, some other large river, or a dessert). The elevation of a river’s supply and its mouth are elements that decide its length and velocity.
• The Amazon River is one example, as it's far the most important river worldwide (recorded to discharge as much as fifty five million gallons of water each second) and one of the quickest flowing. Its supply is the excessive Andres Mountains of Peru and drains into the Atlantic Ocean.
• Many rivers have a tendency to have numerous reassets together with lakes, snow, smaller streams, brooks, and glaciers. Some massive rivers actually have their supply from more than one smaller rivers convergence. One of such is Ohio River, getting its supply from the confluence of Monongahela and Allegheny rivers. Rivers may be characterised with the aid of using their length, width, velocity, and location.

1. The Perennial River

Fig: The perennial river

A perennial river is likewise referred to as a everlasting river. This method that it by no means runs dry however maintains to glide in the course of the year. The top and glide-fee of a river are prompted via way of means of seasonal change ( heavy rains or lengthy drought). Perennial rivers most usually have solid reassets that make certain their non-stop glide.

2. Periodic River

Fig: Periodic river

Periodic rivers also are referred to as intermittent rivers. Rivers that don't glide at some point of the yr however at intervals. Generally speaking, they will most effective glide from one area to three-quarters of the yr, and frequently only for some days at a time.

3. Episodic River

Fig: Episodic river

• Episodic rivers most effective float after a specific event (or episode because the call implies). These activities can also additionally include; heavy rains, early snow melts and elevated river runoff channels.
• They may be both perennial and periodic rivers withinside the experience that they do now no longer have a strong source, groundwater, and are very a great deal depend upon weather situations for his or her water. Although Episodic rivers can float for brief durations in a year, they're usually recognized to stay dry for years and or maybe a long time at a time. One instance of such is the Nossob River withinside the Kalahari vicinity of Southern Africa over 450-mile long. It has now no longer been visible to have enormous float for the reason that past due 1980s.

4. Exotic River

Fig: Exotic river

Exotic rivers are rivers that float through dry environments in which very little freshwater exists. These rivers, supply from humid or mountainous regions and float through extraordinarily arid regions (desert). Exotic rivers can also additionally both be perennial or periodic rivers.

1.4.3 Lake

• A lake is a place full of water, localized in a basin, surrounded via way of means of land, and set other than any river or different outlet that serves to feed or drain the lake. Lakes lie on land and aren't a part of the ocean, although, just like the a whole lot large oceans, they do shape a part of the Earth's water cycle.
• Lakes are awesome from lagoons, that are normally coastal elements of the ocean. Lakes are usually large and deeper than ponds, which additionally lie on land, aleven though there aren't anyt any respectable or medical definitions.Lakes may be contrasted with rivers or streams, which typically waft in a channel on land.
• Most lakes are fed and tired via way of means of rivers and streams. Natural lakes are normally discovered in mountainous regions, rift zones, and regions with ongoing glaciation. Other lakes are discovered in endorheic basins or alongside the publications of mature rivers, wherein a river channel has widened right into a basin. Some elements of the sector have many lakes fashioned via way of means of the chaotic drainage styles left over from the ultimate Ice Age.
• All lakes are brief over lengthy durations of time, as they'll slowly fill in with sediments or spill out of the basin containing them. Many lakes are synthetic and are built for business or agricultural use, for hydro-electric powered energy era or home water supply, for classy or leisure purposes, or for different activities.

1.4.4 Canal

• Canals or synthetic waterways are waterways or engineered channels constructed for drainage management (e.g. Flood manipulate and irrigation) or for conveyancing water delivery vehicles (e.g. Water taxi).
• They deliver free, calm floor go with the drift below atmospheric pressure, and may be concept of as synthetic rivers. In maximum cases, a canal has a sequence of dams and locks that create reservoirs of low velocity modern go with the drift.
• These reservoirs are called slack water degrees, frequently simply referred to as degrees. A canal may be referred to as a navigation canal while it parallels a herbal river and stocks a part of the latter's discharges and drainage basin, and leverages its assets via way of means of constructing dams and locks to growth and prolong its stretches of slack water degrees even as staying in its valley. A canal can reduce throughout a drainage divide atop a ridge, usually requiring an outside water supply above the very best elevation.
• The best-recognized instance of one of these canal is the Panama Canal. Many canals were constructed at elevations, above valleys and different waterways. Canals with reassets of water at a better degree can supply water to a vacation spot consisting of a metropolis in which water is needed. The Roman Empire's aqueducts had been such water deliver canals.

1.4.5 Reservoir

• A reservoir (/ˈrɛzərvwɑːr/; from French réservoir [ʁezɛʁvwaʁ]) is maximum normally an enlarged herbal or synthetic lake created the use of a dam to shop clean water. Reservoirs may be created in some of ways, inclusive of controlling a watercourse that drains an present frame of water, interrupting a watercourse to shape an embayment inside it, via excavation, or constructing any quantity of keeping partitions or levees.
• Defined as a garage area for fluids, reservoirs may also maintain water or gasses, inclusive of hydrocarbons. Tank reservoirs shop those in ground-level, elevated, or buried tanks. Tank reservoirs for water also are known as cisterns. Most underground reservoirs are used to shop liquids, basically both water or petroleum, beneath ground.

Key takeaways:

Humans harnessing and reading the ocean were recorded in view that historical times, and evidenced properly into prehistory, at the same time as its cutting-edge clinical have a look at is known as oceanography. The maximum plentiful stable dissolved in seawater is sodium chloride.

References:

1. CPHEOO manual, New Delhi, Ministry of Urban Development G.O.I.

2. Water supply and sewage by M.J.Mcghee Mc. Graw Hill

3. Environmental Pollution Control Engg. By C.S.Rao Mc. Graw Hill