Unit 2

ARTICLES

2.1.          Articles

Articles are words that precede a noun and define the specificity of that noun. In other words, they imply how specific a particular noun is.

There are two types of Articles in the English language, Definite and Indefinite Articles.

1. Definite Article

The definite article is the word ‘the’. This article is only used when a particular place, thing or activity is being referred to. It limits the meaning to one particular thing or activity.

For example, in the sentence “I won’t be attending the party this weekend.” ‘The’ is used before the noun party therefore it refers to a specific party which the subject is talking about. The definite article can be used with both singular and plural words.

Uses of “The”:

1. The definite article can be used to make general things specific, for example, “Please pass me a pen.” when changed to “Please pass me the pen.” Changes the meaning of the sentence entirely. In the former the subject requests for a pen in general whereas in the latter he refers to a specific pen.
2. ‘The’ is used by geographical areas such as rivers, mountains, seas, oceans etc.

“The Middle East”, “The Atlantic Ocean”, “The Himalayas”

c.      Unique things always requite the article ‘the’

“The Sun”, “The Moon”

d.     Musical instruments use ‘the’

“He plays the cello.”

e.     Countries generally don’t use articles in front but if their names are plural they use the article ‘the’

“The Netherlands”, “The United States of America”

f.        Abbreviations and classes of people always use the article ‘the’

“The U.N” “The Poor” “The British” “The IMF”

2.     Indefinite Article

The Indefinite Article is of two types, namely, ‘a’ and ‘an’. The word ‘a’ is used when it precedes a word that starts with a consonant and the word ‘an’ is used when it precedes a word that starts with a vowel. Unlike the Definite Article, the Indefinite Articles refer to a general idea and not a particular one. The Indefinite Article only appears with singular nouns. For example, in the sentences “I would like a good book to read.” Or “I am craving for an apple pie.” The subject talks about books or apple pies in general rather than a specific book or apple pie.

Uses of ‘a’ and ‘an’:

1. Uncountable nouns cannot use either ‘a’ or ‘an’. For example advice is an uncountable noun, therefore a sentence such as “Can you give me an advice.” Does not make sense. Rather “Can you give me some advice.” Is more appropriate.
2. Jobs use Indefinite Articles

“I want to become a teacher” “My dream is to become an actor”

c.      There are a couple of exceptions to the overall rule of employing ‘a’ before words that start with consonants and ‘an’ before words that begin with vowels. The first letter of the word honour, for instance, may be a consonant, but it’s unpronounced. In spite of the way it is spelled, the word honour begins with a vowel. Therefore, we use an. For example, consider the following sentences:
My mother is a honest woman.
My mother is an honest woman.

d.     When the first letter of a word is a vowel but is pronounced with a consonant sound, the article 'a' must be used. For example:

She is an United States senator.

She is a United States senator.

Use of Articles

     The use of A/An with plural Or uncountable noun:

a fact = OK (singular)

a facts = INCORRECT (plural)

An information = INCORRECT (uncountable)

An advice = INCORRECT (uncountable)

a piece of advice = OK (“piece” is countable)

a pants / a glasses / a scissors = INCORRECT (plural)

a pair of pants/glasses/scissors = OK (“pair” is countable)

a rice = INCORRECT (uncountable)

a grain of rice = OK (“grain” is countable)

a work = INCORRECT (uncountable)

a job / a task / a project = OK (countable)

     The articles ‘A’ and ‘An’ always follow the sound, not the letter

a university (pronounced like you – ni – ver – si – ty)

An umbrella (pronounced like um – brel – la)

a hat (h is not silent)

An hour (h is silent)

An X-ray (pronounced like ex – ray)

An NGO (pronounced like en – gee – oh)

a non-governmental organization (when we say the full words, they start with the N sound)

     The use of A and An without a noun following it.

I am a Japanese. = INCORRECT (“Japanese” is an adjective, not a noun)

I am Japanese. = OK

He is an intelligent. = INCORRECT (“intelligent” is an adjective, not a noun)

He is intelligent. = OK

He is an intelligent man. = OK (now it’s OK because we have the noun “man” after “an intelligent”)

     The use of "The" for Singular or Plural and for Countable or Uncountable nouns, when something specific is being talked about (Not General)

I love pasta. (general)

I love the pasta at that restaurant. (specific)

That store sells furniture. (general)

The furniture in my living room is all new. (specific)

Vegetables are good for you. (general)

The vegetables at the market are always fresh. (specific)

I need advice. (general)

The advice you gave me was very helpful. (specific)

     Use of the article "The" for proper nouns:

• NAMES OF CONTINENTS/COUNTRIES*/STATES/CITIES/STREETS:

We’re traveling around Asia for three months.

I’d like to visit Russia.

Paris is my favourite city in Europe.

Have you ever been to California?

They live on Rosewood Avenue.

*Exceptions: the United States (the U.S.), the United Kingdom (the U.K.), the Philippines, the Czech Republic, the Central African Republic, the Marshall Islands

• COMPANIES & UNIVERSITIES*

My uncle works at Samsung.

Microsoft reported high profits this quarter.

She graduated from Harvard.

New York University is very large.

*Exceptions: If the university’s name BEGINS with “university,” then use “the”:

The University of Pennsylvania, the University of Miami

• LANGUAGES & HOLIDAYS

I’m studying Spanish.

He speaks Italian.

My whole family gets together at Christmas.

The office will be closed on New Year’s Day.

     "The" can be used while referring for certain places:

• DO NOT USE THE WITH INDIVIDUAL LAKES OR MOUNTAINS:

Mount Everest is the highest mountain the world.

We went sailing on Lake Ontario.

• USE THE WITH OCEANS, RIVERS, VALLEYS, DESERTS, MOUNTAIN RANGES, POINTS ON GLOBE:

The Pacific Ocean

The Amazon River

The San Fernando Valley

The Sahara Desert

The Swiss Alps, the Rocky Mountains

The North/South Pole, the Equator

• DO NOT USE THE WITH THE FOLLOWING PLACES:

I’m going home.

She’s at work.

He’s in jail.

We attend church.

My kids went to bed.

My brother’s in high school.

My sister’s in college.

• USE THE WITH THE FOLLOWING PLACES:

I went to the bank.

Let’s go to the movies.

He gets home from the office around 7.

My grandfather’s in the hospital.

I’ll stop by the post office after lunch.

I caught a taxi to the airport.

I’ll pick you up at the train station.

We’re waiting at the bus stop.

We took my son to the doctor.

2.2.          Prepositions

A preposition is a word that connects the noun/pronoun in a sentence to the other parts of the sentence such as the verbs and adjectives. It determines the relationship between the nouns, pronouns and the other words in a sentence.

They help one understand the relationships of logic, space and sequence between the different parts of a sentence.

Below are few examples of prepositions commonly used in the English language:

1. I just came back from the U.S.
2. The book is inside the drawer.
3. The kid threw a stone into the lake.

A preposition cannot be plural or possessive. Sometimes prepositions can also act as nouns, verbs and adverbs.

Types of Prepositions

1. Prepositions of Time:

These prepositions indicate when something happens, will happen or has happened in any point in time.

Prepositions of time include at, on, in, before, during, after.

Examples:

1. John was born on the 7th of August.
2. David left his job in 2012.
3. Amy ate lots of fruits during her pregnancy.

2.     Prepositions of Place:

These prepositions usually indicate the position of a particular thing or person. The three most common prepositions of time are on, at and in.

These prepositions may also indicate the time along with place but depending on their use it can be easily ascertained what they are referring to.

Examples:

1. The ball is in the court.
2. The clothes are on the top shelf.
3. I was at the supermarket just yesterday.

3.     Prepositions of Direction or Movement:

Prepositions of movement indicate the direction in which a person or an object is moving.

‘To’ is the most commonly used preposition of movement.

Examples:

1. I went to shop for groceries but all the shops were closed.
2. He took his dog to the park.

The other prepositions of direction or movement are across, though, over, down, up, past, around.

4.     Prepositions of Manner:

Prepositions of manner describe the way in which things take place or means by which things happen.

Prepositions of manner include by, in, like, with, on.

Examples:

1. I like travelling by car.
2. She went to the school in a taxi.
3. Jacob sings like a professional.
4. He reacted with pity when he saw the poor cat.

5.     Preposition of Agents or Instruments:

Preposition of Agents or Instruments describe the action conducted by a person or object on another person or object.

Most common prepositions of these types are by and with.

Examples:

1. The song was recorded by James.
2. He cuts his hair with a clipper.

6.     Prepositions of Possession:

Prepositions of Possession indicate the owing or owning of an object. It also can be used when something is own to someone. Prepositions of possession include of, with and to.

Examples:

1. This is the car of my niece.
2. He said he saw a man with a green umbrella.
3. This jacket belongs to my grandfather.

Use of Prepositions and Common Errors

The use of prepositions in sentences can be a difficult task. Propositions are sometimes short and very common (e.g., at, in and on), and may have several uses depending on the context, which can make it difficult to know which preposition to use.

Below are some common errors to avoid with prepositions:

1. Temporal Errors

The use of 'in' and 'at' depends on the time of the day. For example, in sentences we always use the preposition “in” with “morning,” “afternoon,” and “evening.” But the preposition 'at' is used when talking about the night:

• Helen goes running in the morning.
• Tim goes running in the afternoon.
• Shirley goes running in the evening.
• Bob goes running at night.

b.     Spatial Errors (In and at vs. To)

The preposition 'to' can be used to discuss journeys (e.g., “I’m going to Tasmania”). But if the word “arrive,” is present in a sentence we use “in” or “at” to describe reaching a destination. For instance:

• She arrived in Tasmania just after lunch.
• He arrived at the restaurant five minutes late.

The use of “in” or “at” typically depends on the destination:

The preposition “in” for cities, countries or other large areas. While the preposition “at” is used for specific places (e.g., a library, a bar, or someone’s house).

c.      Time, Days, Months, and Years (At, On, and In)

Different prepositions are used in different contexts while referring to time in days, months and years.

If a time of the day is being referred, the correct term is “at”:

• The party starts at 9pm.

If a specific day or date is being referred, we use “on”:

• The party is on Saturday.

While referring to a month or year, the correct preposition is “in”:

• We’re having a party in April.

d.     Helping verbs

With auxiliary verbs such as “should” or “must.”, the preposition "of" is used.

• Exception: I should of gone to bed earlier. ✗

However, this is an error. The correct word here isn’t even a preposition.

Rather, the verb “have,” must be used which sounds a bit like “of” when spoken (hence the confusion). Thus, it should say:

I should have gone to bed earlier. ✓

e.     Present Continuous Tense

If something has been happening from a long time, we use “for” when referring to a length of time (e.g., a period of hours, days, or months):

• I’ve been writing for six hours.

But if a specific time is used as a point of reference, we use “since”:

• I’ve been writing since breakfast.

The difference here is that the first refers to a measure of time, while the second refers to a fixed point in the past when the activity began.

f.        Talking About and Discussing

“Talking” and “discussing” are similar activities, so people often treat these words as interchangeable. However, only the preposition “about” must be used after “talking.” For example:

• We’re talking about extreme sports. ✓
• We’re discussing extreme sports. ✓
• We’re discussing about extreme sports. ✗

2.3.          Tenses

Tenses determine whether something has happened, is happening, or will happen. The tense of a verb describes its position in time.

Tenses can be divided into 3 main types and further sub dived into 4 types:

PRESENT TENSES

1. SIMPLE PRESENT TENSE: In this type of tense the action is still taking place, there is no mention of its completeness.

Example: I sleep.
She studies vocabulary every day.

2. PRESENT CONTINUOUS TENSE: In this type of tense the action is still in progress, therefore the use of the word ‘continuous’.
 

Example: I am sleeping.
I am eating lunch, I will call you later.

3. PRESENT PERFECT TENSE: In this type of tense the action has already been completed, hence the use of the word ‘perfect’.

Example: I have slept.
I have eaten Chinese food a few times already.

4. PRESENT PERFECT CONTINUOUS TENSE: In this type of tense, the action has started taking place beforehand and is still ongoing.

Example: I have been sleeping.
I have been eating a lot of vegetables lately.

PAST TENSES

1. SIMPLE PAST TENSE: In this type of tense the action which is mentioned has already taken place in the past, there is no continuity.

Example: I got some sleep yesterday.

2. PAST CONTINUOUS TENSE: This type of tense describes an on-going action that took place in the past.

Example: I was having lunch when u called yesterday.

3. PAST PERFECT TENSE: This type of tense describes a completed action which took place in the past.

Examples: I had slept.
I had already eaten when my doorbell rang.

4. PAST PERFECT CONTINUOUS TENSE: This type of tense describes an action which started in the past and continued until another point in time, still in the past.

Example: I had been sleeping for two hours before my friend arrived.

FUTURE TENSES

1. SIMPLE FUTURE TENSE: This type of tense describes an action taking place in the future; there is no mention of its continuity.
Example: I will sleep.
I shall finish my project by tomorrow morning.

2. FUTURE CONTINUOUS TENSE: This type of tense describes an action that will take place in the future but will still be ongoing.

Example: I will be sleeping at 11 p.m.
I’ll be staying at my parents’ house for a few weeks.

3. FUTURE PERFECT TENSE: This type of tense describes an action that will occur in the future before another action in the future.

Example: I will have slept before you arrive.                  

4. FUTURE PERFECT CONTINUOUS TENSE: This type of tense describes an on-going action in the future before a completed action in a specific point in time.

Example: I will have been sleeping for seven hours by 9 a.m. Tomorrow morning.
I will have been studying for two hours by the time my parents arrive.

Below are some basic rules regarding the sequencing of tenses:

Rule 1

A past tense in the independent clause is always followed by a past tense in the subordinate clause.

Example: I found out that she was out of town.

However, there is an exception to this rule. When the independent clause in the past tense, the subordinate clause can be in the present tense if a universal truth is being stated by it. 

Example: The children were taught that honesty is the best policy.

Another exception to this rule is when the word ‘than’ is used in the sentence to introduce the subordinate clause. In this case, the subordinate clause can be used in any tense irrespective of the tense of the independent clause.

Rule 2

If the tense used with the independent clause is in the present or future tense, the tense of the subordinate clause can be in any tense based on what needs to be conveyed.

Example: She is saying that she is alright. She says she is fine.

Rule 3

If the independent clause is in the future tense, the subordinate clause is not used in the future tense instead a subordinating clause beginning with when, until, before, after etc. is used.

Example: I will call you when dinner is ready. I shall wait until you return.

Rule 4

When the subordinate clause is introduced with the conjunction ‘that’, the following rules must be followed,

• ‘May’ should be used in the subordinate clause when the independent clause is in the present tense.
• ‘Might’ should be used in the subordinate clause when the independent clause is in the past tense.

Example: We eat that we may live. She tried to live so that he might have a chance at life.

Rule 5

When some phrases such as If only, wish that, what if, it is time are used, the clauses that follow it are always in the past tense.

Example: I wish I could eat another ice cream.

2.4.          Reported Speech

Direct speech means what the people actually say. It consists of two parts, the introducing part and the reporting part.

Reporting part-is always placed with in either inverted commas or quotation marks. It is this reporting part we need to report.

In order to report any kind of a sentence or clause, a few points are to be kept in mind. They are as follows:

1. The reporting part, whether it belongs to statement, interrogative imperative or exclamatory sentences, takes the s+ v+ o form when reported.

2. It is the introducing part which comes outside the quotation marks that decides to what kind of a sentence we have to report Hence should be specified whether somebody said/told/asked/wanted ordered/requested/exclaimed etc.

3. There should not be any quotation marks or inverted commas in the reported sentences.

4. Statements in the indirect speech are generally introduced by the conjunction that.

Change of words in the reported speech.

When the reporting or principal verb is in the past tense, all present tenses of the direct are changed into the corresponding past tenses.

A) simple present becomes a simple past Direct Indirect

     He said, "I am unwell"

     He said that he was unwell.

b) A present continuous becomes past continuous

     He said, "My master is writing letters"

     He said that his master was writing letter

c) A present perfect becomes a past perfect

     He said, "I have passed the examination"

     He said that he had passed the examination

The ‘still’ of the Future tense is changed into ‘should’

The ‘will’ of the Future tense is changed into would or ‘should’

As a rule, the simple past in the desert becomes the past perfect in the reported or indirect speech

     He said, "The horse died in the night.”

     He said that the horse had died in the night.

In Direct speech, if the simple present is used as the report verb, to express universal truths, habitual actions and the things that do not change while reporting, the verb in reported speech does not change.

     “The sun rises in the east”, the teacher said.

     The teacher said that the sun rises in the east

In this case we can often choose whether to keep the original tenses or change them

     "I know her address", said Gopi.

     Gopi said he knows/knew her address.

     The teacher said, “The earth goes around the sun".

     The teacher said that the earth goes/went around the sun.

     "German is easy to learn", she said.

     She said German is/was easy to learn.

If the reporting verb is in the present tense, the tense of the direct speech do not change.

     He says "I have passed the examination"

     He says he has passed the examination

The pronouns of the Direct speech are changed, where necessary so that their relations with the reporter and his hearer rather than with the original speaker are indicated.

     He said to me, "I don't believe you".

     He said that he didn't believe me.

Usual Tense Changes in the Reported Speech.

Reporting verbs, generally use to record statements, are 'say' and tell.

‘Tell’ can be used in a statement when the speaker and the addresser are clearly mentioned. In the other cases if the addresser is not mentioned say' or 'said' can be used according to the situation Besides 'say and tell there are few other reporting verbs with which a statement may be reported as they are remark 6bserve, suggest, insist, add, reply, answer, declare, assure, warn, confess, protest, deny, point out, plead, remind, repeat, explain, etc

Questions (Interrogative sentences):

1. The introduced verb is changed to asked, enquired, demanded, etc.

2. If or whether is used after such introductory verb whenever the direct question admits of one of two answers yes or no.

3. The pattern of an interrogative sentence is verb + Subject + Object

4.  The note of interrogation (?) which is placed after question in the direct form is not placed after questions in the indirect form.

E.g.:

     He said to me, "Do you know the way?

     He inquired of me if I know the way.

5. When the question is introduced by an interrogative word the connecting word should be the same interrogative word.

     The teacher said to me, "What are you doing?"

     The teacher asked me what I was doing.

Auxiliary verb → connecting word →   if/whether

Interrogative word→ connecting word → Same Interrogative Word.

v+s+o  →   s+v +o

Some examples:

     He said, "Will you listen to such a man?"

     He asked him whether he would listen to such a man.

     Jack said, "May I have a cake?"

     Jack asked if he might have a cake.

Commands and Requests (Imperative Sentences):

The form of an imperative sentence is understood subject + Verb +ect.

E.g.: Bring your suitcase,

Here, bring is the plain infinitive. So, when it is reported we should change the plain infinitive verb into 'to' infinitive.

To' is the connecting word to report imperative sentences

The introductory verb is changed into request, beg, implore, entreat order, command, advise, threaten, shout, etc.

E.g. Rama said to Arjun "Go away"

Rama ordered Arjun to go away.

He said to me "Give me your pencil".

He requested / asked me to give him my pencil

Exclamations and Wishes (Exclamatory Sentences):

1 The form of an exclamatory sentence is exclamatory sense + subject + verb + (Object)

2 To report such exclamations and wishes the connecting word should be that. It should be reported by words like exclaimed, applauded wished, declared, prayed, cried out, blessed with such phrases as with regret, with delight or joy, with sorrow, where necessary.

3. The Interjections and Exclamations such as oh, well, 'hurrah', alas bravo', 'curse it', 'how what should be omitted in the reporting form, and their sense is expressed by means of phrases.

4. The exclamation mark should be omitted in the reporting form.

Eg: "What a terrible storm it is!" he said

He exclaimed that it was a terrible storm.

Alice said, "How beautiful the night is!"

Alice exclaimed that the night was very beautiful.

Reporting an exclamation is usually best achieved by a circumlocution reflecting the spirit of the original exclamation.

Exclamations are not often reported in the spoken English. Some exclamatory forms are really questioning or imperative.

Some examples:

     He said, "Alas! How foolish I have been".

     He confessed with regret that he had been very foolish.

     He said, "Good-bye friends"

     He bade goodbye to his friends.

     They said, "Hurrah! We have won the match!"

     He exclaimed with delight that they had won the match.

2.5.          Idioms and Phrases

Idioms

Idioms are phrases or expressions that convey a meaning which cannot be derived from the conjoined meanings of its elements. These do not convey the exact meaning of the words but have a figurative or literal meaning.

How are they different from proverbs? Proverbs are well-known sayings, stating a general truth or advice. For example, the proverb ‘a picture is worth thousand words’ is a general truth. The idiom ‘bite off more than you can chew’, however, is neither a general truth nor an advice.

Below are some commonly used idioms in the English language with their meaning:

     Penny for your thoughts - To ask what someone is thinking about

     Actions speak louder than words - Intentions are clearer by actions rather than words

     Add insult to injury - To mock someone's pitiable situation even more

     At the drop of a hat - To do something instantly

     Back to the drawing board - To restart something

     Ball is in your court - It’s up to you to take the next step

     Barking up the wrong tree - Looking in the wrong direction, accusing a wrong person

     Beat around the bush - Speaking indirectly about something

     Best of both worlds - All of the advantages without any drawbacks

     Best thing since sliced bread - A good idea or innovation

     Bite off more than you can chew - To accept a task which is bigger than one's capabilities

     Blessing in disguise - Something which was considered as bad first which turned out to be good

     Burn the midnight oil - To work all night

     Can't judge a book by its cover - Cannot judge something based on first impressions

     Costs an arm and a leg - Used when something is very expensive

     Cross that bridge when you come to it - To deal with the problem as it presents itself

     Cry over spilt milk - Complaining about the past

     Curiosity killed the cat - Being Inquisitive can lead to a difficult situation

     Cut corners - To cut expenses by performing in a subpar manner

     Devil's Advocate - Counter argument

     Don't put all your eggs in one basket - Not to put all resources in one direction

     Every cloud has a silver lining - To be optimistic in difficult situations

     Feel a bit under the weather - To feel slightly sick

     Give the benefit of the doubt - To believe someone without proof

     Hear it on the grapevine - To hear rumours

     Hit the nail on the head - To perform a task perfectly

Phrases

Phrases are combinations of two or more words that form the component of a clause. They are meaningful grammatical constructions that expresses a concept and can be used within a sentence.

There are 5 basic types of phrases in the English language:

1. Noun Phrase:

A noun phrase is a type of phrase which consists of one noun and/or a group of words surrounding that noun. These nouns can be proper nouns, common nouns, abstract nouns etc.

Examples: There is a red box on the table.

I saw two lost puppies on the street yesterday.

He bought a new sports car on his birthday.

2.     Verb Phrase:

A verb phrase is a type of phrase which consists of a root verb and its auxiliaries. It is also known as a ‘verb group’.

Examples: They have been working since last night.

I have been waiting for the rain to stop for nearly an hour.

Jack lost the keys to his apartment when he was jogging.

3.     Adjective Phrase:

Adjective phrases are phrases constructed around a single adjective. It may be a single adjective or a group of words surrounding that adjective.

Examples: The film was very boring, wasn’t it?

I ate a very big meal for lunch.

The blue umbrella stood out in a crowd of all red umbrellas.

4.     Adverb phrase:

Adverb phrases consist of a single adverb and a group of supporting words surrounding that adverb.

Examples: They finished the task as fast as possible.

Please do it now, otherwise you’ll regret later.

He spoke very softly in front of his parents.

5.     Prepositional phrase:

A prepositional phrase is a type of phrase which consists of a preposition which is followed by its object which is usually a noun phrase.

Examples: They kept quarrelling over money of all things.

The coin was stuck inside a large black futon.

You shouldn’t go swimming after having a large meal.

Word Pairs

Word pairs are phrases which, if used in proper context give a different meaning than when they are used separately. In other words, they are a coupling of words that go very well together.

Word pairs may also include collocations. Collocations are two or more words that are often used collectively. They sound natural to the native ear.

These word pairs are often non-reversible, meaning the sequence of the words in a word pair cannot be interchanged.

Below are some examples of the most commonly used word pairs in the English language:

Following examples describe how collocations are used in sentences:

1. Are you fully aware of the consequences you’re about to face?
2. He fell on the ground in excruciating pain.
3. The bomb went off when he started the car engine.
4. The prisoner was hanged for committing homicide.
5. After her eyes were filled with horror, suddenly she burst into tears.