Standard Language
A standard language could be a form of language that's employed by governments, in the media, in schools and for international communication. There are different standard varieties of English in the world, such as British English, North American English, Australian English and Indian English. Although the most important difference in these standard varieties is their pronunciation. There are also a few differences in grammar between them. Typically, varieties that become standardized are the local dialects spoken in the centers of commerce and government, where a requirement arises for a variety which will serve more than local needs. Standardization typically involves a set orthography, codification in authoritative grammars and dictionaries and public acceptance of those standards. A standard written language is typically termed by the German word Schriftsprache. Standard English isn't entirely uniform around the globe: for instance, American users of standard English say the first floor and i have just gotten a letter and write center and color, while British users say ground floor and I have just got a letter and write center and color. But these regional differences are few in comparison with the very high degree of agreement about which forms should count as standard. Nevertheless, standard English, like all living languages, changes over time.
In sociolinguistics, social dialect could be a form of speech related to a specific socio-economic class or vocation within a society. Also known as sociolect. Douglas Biber distinguishes two main sorts of dialects in linguistics: "geographic dialects are varieties associated with speakers living in a particular location, while social dialects are varieties associated with speakers belonging to a given demographic group (e.g., women versus men, or different social classes)" (Dimensions of Register Variation, 1995). A sociolect is distinct from a dialect because socio-economic class instead of geographical subdivision substantiates the unique linguistic features.
The standard variety of a given language, for instance, British English is considered to be the upper-class sociolect of a given central area or regiolect. Therefore, Standard British English was thought of as the English of the upper classes (also called the Queen's English or Public-School English) of the Southern, more particularly, London area." (René Dirven and Marjolyn Verspoor, Cognitive Exploration of Language and Linguistics.
Non-standard Language
A nonstandard language or dialect is a dialect that does not have the institutional support or sanction that a standard dialect has. Like any dialect, a nonstandard dialect has its own vocabulary and an internally consistent grammar and syntax; and that specific form of the language may be be spoken using one or a range of accents. Therefore, a dialect which is labelled as "nonstandard" is not necessarily intended to imply that the dialect is incorrect, incomplete, or inferior, just that it is not the socially perceived norm or mainstream for public speech. In fact, linguists consider all nonstandard dialects to be grammatically fullfledged forms of a language. Conversely, even some prestige dialects could also be considered nonstandard.
A written form for a nonstandard dialect is quite common in the English language, although it's then to be assumed that the orthography is unstable and/or unsanctioned, and that it is not orderly supported by governmental or educational institutions. When used in quotes and as a contrastive feature in literature, the term eye dialect may be used for nonstandard phonemic spelling.
Examples of non-standard British English
- The verb "to be" which is often considered the most complex in English, but some non-standard usages seem to be attempting to regularise it:
- we was is employed in place of "we were". Especially by footballers, as in "we was
- robbed."
- if i was you is employed in place of "If I were you".
- they was waiting for us is employed in place of "they were waiting for us".
- ain't is often used - although in a jocular vein - rather than (be) not (and also (have) not)
- innit = isn’t it? – It’s cold today, innit?
- I be is is employed in place of "I am" in some regional dialects.
- gotten isn't employed in British English but is extremely common in American English . It is
- noteworthy that Oxford A-Z of English Usage somewhat claims that it often considers the use as nonstandard, while the American MerriamWebster simply notes its existence.
- don’t for doesn’t - as in the Beatles song "Ticket to Ride": "she’s got a ticket to ride and she don’t care."
Differences Between Varieties of Human Language
In sociolinguistics, language variety could be a general term for any distinctive type of a language or linguistic expression. Linguists prefer to use "language variety" (or simply variety) as a substitute term for any of the overlapping subcategories of a language, including dialect, idiolect, register, and social dialect. In the Oxford Companion to English Language (1992), Tom McArthur identifies two broad forms of language variety: “(1) user related varieties, related to particular people and sometimes places. and (2) use-related varieties, related to function, like legal English (the language of courts, contracts, etc.) and literary English (the typical usage of literary texts, conversations, etc.)”.
Language scholars have used the term variety in recent decades to label a subdivision within a language. Varieties may relate to an area or community (as with Indian English and two of its sub-varieties, Anglo-Indian English and Gujarati English), to uses (as with legal English and advertising English), and to combinations of the two (as with British legal English and American advertising English). In recent years, variety has proved to be a reasonably safe term, allowing language scholars to avoid being too specific about styles of speech and usage on occasions when being specific isn't necessary and/or when there's a risk of being charged with discrimination against a group by calling its usage ‘a dialect’. The negative baggage that attaches to the present term in English is bigger than any occasional positive connotations it should have.
However, it is important to note that the term dialect fails when discussing English as a world language. Although it's done sterling service in detailing, for instance , regional variations in Old, Middle, and Modern English in Britain, and for regional forms of English in the United States (notably Northern, Midland, and Southern), it's entirely inadequate in other situations, as for instance two of the most vigorous US 'Englishes': African-American English (which has never neatly fitted the traditional dialect criterion of regionality) and therefore the entity just about covered by the term 'Spanglish': a hybrid of Spanish and English employed by Spanish-speaking immigrants from Latin America in many parts of the country.
Dialect and Idiolect
Dialect is basically a variety of a language that is a characteristic of a particular group of the language's speakers. The term is applied most frequently to regional speech patterns, but a dialect may additionally be defined by other factors, like socio-economic class or ethnicity. A dialect which is related to a specific socio-economic class may be termed a sociolect, a dialect which is related to a specific ethnic group is termed as ethnolect, and a regional dialect can be termed a regiolect.
The other usage of the term “dialect”, often deployed in colloquial settings, refers (often somewhat pejoratively) to a language which is socially subordinated to a regional or national standard language, often historically cognate or genetically associated with the standard language, but not actually derived from the standard language. However, it's not an actual form of the “standard language” or dominant language, but instead is a separate, independently evolved but often distantly related language. In this sense, unlike in the first usage, the standard language cannot itself be considered a “dialect”, because it is the dominant language in a particular state or region, whether in terms of linguistic prestige, social or political status, official status, predominance or prevalence, or all of the above.
Examples of Dialect from Literature
There are lots of dialect examples in literature that show the most effective usage of dialect as a literary device. One of them is Mark Twain’s Huckleberry Finn where he used exaggerated dialect to differentiate between the characters:
Example 1
- Jim: “We’s safe, Huck, we’s safe! Jump up and crack yo’ heels. Dat’s de good ole Cairo at las’, I jis knows it.”
Huck: “I’ll take the canoe and go see, Jim. It mightn’t be, you know.”
Example 2
The characters shown in literature who are are less educated and less sophisticated are commonly shown to use a much stronger dialect. At certain points you might even need translations. Such as:
- Walter: Reckon I have. Almost died first year I come to school and et them pecans — folks say he pizened ‘em and put ‘em over on the school side of the fence.
(To Kill a Mockingbird by Harper Lee)
Translation in Standard English: I suppose I have. The first year I came to school and ate those pecans, I almost died. Some people accuse him [Mr. Radley] of poisoning them and keeping them over on the school side of the fence.
Idiolect is a person's distinctive and unique use of language, including speech. This unique usage encompasses vocabulary, grammar, and pronunciation. Idiolect is the form of language unique to an individual. This differs from a dialect, which is a standard set of linguistic characteristics shared among some group of individuals. Idiolect is an individual’s distinctive and unique use of language, including speech.
Examples of Idiolect:
Example 1
“Ever since i was a child, folks have thought they had me pegged, because of the way i am, the way I talk. And they're always wrong”. (Philip Seymour Hoffman as Truman Capote in the film Capote, 2005)
Example 2
“Zerts are what I call desserts. Tray-trays are entrees. I call sandwiches sammies, sandoozles, or Adam Sandlers. Air conditioners are cool blasterz, with a z. I don't know where that came from. I call cakes big ol' cookies. I call noodles long-ass rice. Fried chicken is fri-fri chicky-chick. Chicken parm is chicky chicky parm parm. Chicken cacciatore? Chicky catch. I call eggs pre-birds or future birds. Root beer is super water. Tortillas are bean blankies. And I call forks . . . food rakes.”
(Aziz Ansari as Tom in Parks and Recreation, 2011)
Differences in British and American English
The British actually introduced the language to the Americas after they reached these lands by sea between the 16th and 17th centuries. At that point, spelling had not yet been standardised. It took the writing of the primary dictionaries to set in stone how these words appeared. The dictionary was compiled by London-based scholars in the UK. Meanwhile, within the United States, the lexicographer was an individual named Noah Webster. Allegedly, he changed how the words were spelled to make the American version different from the English as a way of showing cultural independence from its country of origin.
In terms of speech, the differences between American and British English actually materialized after the primary settlers arrived in America. These groups of individuals spoke using what was called rhotic speech, where the ‘r’ sounds of words are pronounced. Meanwhile, the upper classes in the UK wanted to differentiate the way they spoke from the common masses by softening their pronunciation of the ‘r’ sounds. Since the elite even in the past were considered the standard for being fashionable, people began to repeat their speech, until it eventually became the common way of speaking in the south of England.
Spelling differences
British and American English have some spelling differences. The following table consists some major spelling differences in British and American English.
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Vocabulary differences
The Americans and the British also have some words that differ from one another. The table below lists a number of the everyday objects that have different names, depending on what type of English you're using.
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Grammar differences
Aside from spelling and vocabulary, there are a number of grammatical differences between British and American English. For example, in American English, collective nouns are considered singular (e.g. The band is playing). In contrast, collective nouns may be either singular or plural in British English, although the plural form is most frequently used (e.g. The band are playing).
- The British are also more likely to use formal speech, like ‘shall’, whereas Americans favour the more informal ‘will’ or ‘should’.
- Americans, however, still use ‘gotten’ as the past participle of ‘get’, which British have long ago dropped in favour of ‘got’.
- ‘Needn’t’, which is often employed in British English, is rarely, if at all used in American English. In its place is ‘don’t need to’.
- In British English, ‘at’ is the preposition in regard to time and place. However, in American English, ‘on’ is employed rather than the former and ‘in’ for the latter.
Even though there are certain differences between British and American English, the key takeaway is that the two have more similarities. Accidentally using one instead of the other won't automatically result in miscommunication. Americans and Brits can usually communicate with one another without an excessive amount of difficulty.
Language can be formal or informal
Examples:
- Improvements cannot be introduced due to funding restrictions.
- The results are not believed to be accurate.
- The research project will not continue next year.
Examples:
- The enhancements can’t be introduced because of funding restrictions.
- I don’t believe that the results are accurate.
- The research project won’t continue next year
Differences Between Formal and Informal Language
Formal language is generally employed in situations that are serious or that involve people we don’t know well. Informal language is more commonly utilized in situations that are more relaxed and involve people we know well. Formal language is more common in the form of writing; informal language is more common in the form of speak. However, there are times where writing can be very informal, for instance, when writing postcards or letters to friends, emails or text messages. There are examples where spoken English could be very formal, for example, during a speech or a lecture. Most uses of English are neutral; i.e., they are neither formal nor informal. Formal language and informal language are related to particular choices of grammar and vocabulary. Relative clauses without a relative pronoun, ellipsis and contractions are more common in informal language.
Given below are few examples of differences between formal and informal language:
- Contractions
Informal: The improvements canʼt be introduced because of funding restrictions.
Formal: Improvements cannot be introduced because of funding restrictions.
Informal: I donʼt believe that the test was fair.
Formal: The test was not believed to be fair.
Informal: The project wonʼt continue three years from now.
Formal: The project will not continue three years from now.
- Phrasal verbs
Informal: He has a really stuck-up personality.
Formal: He has a really egotistical personality.
Informal: She immediately got over her illness.
Formal: She immediately recovered from her illness.
Informal: The results of the previous exams were mixed up.
Formal: The results the previous exams were jumbled.
- Slang/Colloquialisms
Informal: The mob was very rowdy during the protest against the newly elected chief minister.
Formal: The crowd was very violent during the protest against the newly elected chief minister.
Informal: Lecturers still count on students to use correct grammar in assignments.
Formal: Lecturers expect students to use correct grammar in assignments.
Informal: It was raining cats and dogs.
Formal: It was raining very heavily.
- First person pronouns
Informal: I considered various research methods for the study.
Formal: Various research methods were considered for the study.
Informal: We believe the formula is unsustainable.
Formal: The formula is believed to be unsustainable.
Informal: During the interview I asked students about their experiences.
Formal: During the interview students were asked about their experiences.
- Relative Pronoun
Informal: The famous football team whom we saw at the airport flew to Europe.
Formal: The famous football team we saw at the airport flew to Europe.
Informal: The secretary I talked to yesterday was very rude.
Formal: The secretary whom I talked to yesterday was very rude
Channels of Formal Communication
In a corporate structure, internal communication follows a hierarchical organization. Data can stream in four ways in an association: downward, upward, horizontally, and diagonally. The size, nature, and structure of the organization decides how and in which direction the information will flow. In more settled and conventional organizations, a great part of the correspondence streams in a vertical—downward and upward—heading. In informal firms, generally the information will flow horizontally and diagonally. This, obviously, is an element of the practically flat hierarchical progressive system.
Informal correspondences, for example, those conveyed in the organizational grapevine, show up in the both kinds of organizations.
Vertical Communication Flows
Vertical communication can be of two types: Downward communication and Upward communication.
- Downward Communication Flows
Downward correspondence is when organization's managers and administrators share information with lower-level employees. In most cases the information transferred in a downward direction does not require a response. An instance might be a declaration of another CEO or notice of a merger with a different firm. Different types of higher-level downward communication incorporate speeches, web journals, digital broadcasts, and recordings. The most widely recognized ways of downward communication are daily mandates of office managers or line administrators to employees. These can even be in the form of instruction manuals or organization handbooks.
Downward correspondence conveys information that assists with notifying the workforce about key authoritative changes, new objectives, or procedures; give performance feedback at the hierarchical level; organize activities; present an official policy; or improve employee morale of consumer relations.
2. Upward Communication Flows
Data moving from lower-level employees to elevated level representatives is upward communication. For instance, upward communication happens when employees report to an administrator or when team leaders report to an office manager. Things commonly conveyed upward incorporate progress reports, proposals for new projects, spending evaluations, complaints and grievances, proposals for upgrades, and scheduling concerns. In some cases, a downward communication prompts a response form a higher level in the hierarchical structure, for example, when an administrator requests a suggestion for a new part or to gauge when an unfinished project will be finished.
A significant objective of managers in organisations today is to energize unconstrained or wilful upward communication from employees without the need to ask first. A few organizations go as far as to organize competitions and give prizes to the most inventive and innovative solutions and recommendations. Before employees are able to provide innovative solutions however, they must be able to trust the management that it would now hijack or sabotage their contributions. A few associations have even introduced "informant" hotlines that will let representatives report perilous, unethical, or criminal operations namelessly to maintain a strategic distance from conceivable counter by higher-ups in the organization.
Horizontal Communication Flows
Horizontal correspondence includes the trading of data across divisions at a similar level in an association (i.e., peer to peer communication). The reason for most horizontal communication is to co-ordinate events and activities and request assistance. Individuals at a similar level in the association can cooperate to deal with issues or issues in a informal and casual basis. The manager of the production division can work with the purchase administrator to quicken or postpone the shipment of materials. The fund supervisor and stock administrators can be circled in with the goal that the association can achieve the maximum profit by the coordination. Communication between two workers who report to the same supervisor is additionally a case of horizontal communication. A few issues with horizontal communication can emerge on the off chance that one manager is reluctant or unmotivated to share data, or considers endeavours to be work commonly as compromising his position (regional conduct). For a situation like that, the administrator at the next level of the hierarchy should convey downward to fortify the organization's value of co-operation.
Diagonal Communication Flows
Diagonal communication is the exchange of data among the various departments of the organisation. For instance, if the VP of sales sends an email to the VP of manufacturing asking when an item will be accessible for delivery, this is a case of horizontal communication. But if a sales representative communicates with the director of manufacturing, that would be an example of diagonal communication. At whatever point correspondence moves between different departments division, the sender's manager ought to be made a part of the loop. An administrator might be placed in a humiliating position and seem awkward in the event that he doesn't know about everything occurring in his department. Trust might be lost and careers harmed if key communication protocols are not followed properly.
External Communication Flows
Communication doesn't always begin and stop inside the association. External communication is the communication conducted outside of the association. For Example, the public relation departments with the help of senior management often deals with the image of the company in public eye. First-level and centre level administration for the most part handle operational business interchanges, for example, buying, recruiting, and advertising. When communicating outside the association (paying little heed to the level), it is significant for representatives to carry on expertly and not to make commitments outside of their extent of power.
Grapevine Communication
Grapevine communication is found in all organizations without exceptions. It doesn't follow any prescribed or predetermined rule and spreads any information quickly. Through the grapevine, information flows in several directions linking almost all members of a company. It is governed by social and personal relationships instead of officially recognized rules and formalities. Both internal and external informal channels are covered by the grapevine. In grapevine communication, communicators pass opinions, suspicions, and rumours that generally do not move through formal channels. By nature, the grapevine is a channel of horizontal communication. However, in fact, it doesn't follow any set pattern. It effectively operates horizontally, vertically and even diagonally.
Informal Channels of Communication
Within a formal working environment, there always exists an informal communication network. The strict hierarchical web of communication cannot function efficiently on its own and hence there exists a communication channel outside of this web. While this type of communication channel may disrupt the chain of command, a good manager needs to find the fine balance between the formal and informal communication channel.
An example of an informal communication channel is lunchtime at the organization's cafeteria/canteen. Here, in a relaxed atmosphere, discussions among employees are encouraged. Also managers walking around, adopting a hands-on approach to handling employee queries is an example of an informal communication channel.
Quality circles, team work, different training programs are outside of the chain of command and so, fall under the category of informal communication channels.
There are four different types of informal communication:
- Single Strand: One person communicates with one person and then they go and communicate with another one person. Communication is traveling from one person to another one person.
- Gossip Chain: Group conversation where everyone is talking to each other informally.
- Probability Chain: Each individual randomly tells another individual the same message.
- Cluster Chain: One person shares information with a group of selected individuals and in turn each of those individuals shares that information with others.
All of these different types of informal communication are all about how information flows between employees outside of a professional and formal meeting scenario.
- Formal Communication is the exchange of official information that flows along the different levels of the organizational hierarchy and conforms to the prescribed professional rules, policy, standards, processes and regulations of the organization.
- Informal Communication is the casual and unofficial form of communication wherein the information is exchanged spontaneously between two or more persons without conforming the prescribed official rules, processes, system, formalities and chain of command.
- In a corporate structure, internal communication follows a hierarchical organization. Data can stream in four ways in an association: downward, upward, horizontally, and diagonally.
- Downward correspondence is when organization's managers and administrators share information with lower-level employees.
- Data moving from lower-level employees to elevated level representatives is upward communication (also known as vertical communication).
- Horizontal correspondence includes the trading of data across divisions at a similar level in an association (i.e., peer to peer communication).
- Diagonal communication is the exchange of data among the various departments of the organisation.
- External communication is the communication conducted outside of the association.
- Grapevine is a type of informal communication channel which operates both in internal and external informal channels and which may contribute to and benefit the organization or may spread false rumours.
