Language plays quite an important role in human lives. It is a social phenomenon. One of the most important goals of language is to converse with people and to understand them. When someone speaks, they intends a specific purpose. They wants to convey a message through the medium of their language. A person uses his language for a number of different purposes for instance, to express his feelings, to elicit help and to apologize.
In fact, we use language in various ways, some of these are, the informational, the expressive, the directive, the phatic, the aesthetic. We use language which language is a part of society. Geoffrey Leech (1974) has described five main functions of language. They are:
- Descriptive or Informational Function
- Expressive Function
- Directive Function
- Aesthetic Function
- Social or Phatic Function
Descriptive or Informational Function
The descriptive function can be considered most important, since it helps us deliver messages, describe things, and give our listener new information. Actually, message could be a word that describes this function best. The descriptive function is also related to such terms as a truth and a value. Informative language function is fundamentally the communication of data.
- The descriptive function works on propositions by affirming or denying them, as in science or the statement of a fact.
- This function is employed to describe the world or inform regarding the logical existence of things (e.g.., whether a state of affairs has occurred or not or what may have led to it).
- The sentences spoken or written with the intent of a descriptive function have a truth value; meaning, the sentences are either true or false (recognizing, of course, that we may not know what that truth value is). Hence, they are important for logic.
Expressive Function
Expressive language function reports the emotions or attitudes of the author (or speaker), or of the topic, or evokes feelings in the reader (or listener).
- Poetry and literature are among the most effective examples, but much of, perhaps most of, ordinary language discourse is the expression of emotions, feelings or attitudes.
- Two main aspects of this function are generally noted: (1) evoking certain feelings and (2) expressing feelings.
- Expressive discourse, qua expressive discourse, is best thought to be neither true or false. E.g., Shakespeare's King Lear's lament, "Ripeness is all!" or Dickens' "It was the best of times, and it was the worst of times; it was the age of wisdom; it was the age of foolishness…" nonetheless, the "logic" of "fictional statements" is a stimulating area of inquiry.
Directive Function
Directive language function refers to the language used for the objective of causing (or preventing) overt action.
- The directive function is most typically found in commands and requests.
- Directive language isn't normally considered true or false (although various logics of commands are developed).
- Example of this function: "Close the windows." The sentence "You're smoking in a non-smoking area," although declarative, may be employed to mean "Do not smoke in this area."
Aesthetic Function
According to Leech (1974), the aesthetic function doesn’t have any particular purpose. In the aesthetic function, the words and sentences are considered as linguistic artefacts. This function serves neither as a request nor as a message. The aesthetic function helps us use words as a tool of a poetic art, and as certain signs. Here the harmony of chosen words and phrases is more important than usefulness of this information. For the sake of such a function, we use different adjectives, like “gorgeous”, “elegant”, “stunning”, and so on. According to Jacobson (1933), who studied this function of language quite a lot, actually more than anyone else, the aesthetic function depends not only on structure, but on cultural norms also . He also gives an example of such influence, comparing poems of Karel Macha, and diaries, as samples of aesthetic functions applied by different generations.
Social or Phatic Function
The only purpose of such a function is to keep up social relationships, and to start, or continue the conversation. Phatic language can also be described as "Elevator talk" and street-corner conversations accomplishing a social task. A well-known example from British culture may be a gossip about the weather. Such forms of talk doesn’t provide us with any necessary information. It even doesn’t express our feelings, but it helps us to interact with people. Every time we meet somebody on the road, we typically mention the weather, or work, or children, it doesn’t matter. The real reason for such a conversation isn't our interest, but simply our desire to speak. Of course, such conversations can also contain some interesting information, but it’s not necessary. Note the subtle transition from vocal behaviour to body language from saying for instance, "Hi" or "How are you?" to a nod or a wave of the hand.
The Statement or Declarative sentence
Many sentences are labelled as declarative sentences because are used in making a declaration or statement about something. Here are some examples to illustrate declarative sentences.
- That car is really old.
- I love honey on toast.
- The girl likes pancakes, but she doesn’t know how to make them.
These statements are simple to construct and have no frills about them. Then these statements do not depend on being facts. They can be stating an opinion as well. The opinion does not necessarily have to be true but just what the subject thinks.
Also, the declarative sentence uses all tenses. Declarative sentences can employ all types of past, present and future tenses easily.
- I went to the store yesterday.
- I am going to the shop now.
- I will go to the ball game tomorrow.
Affirmative and negative sentences
A positive sentence or affirmative sentence will contain a positive assertion or remark. A sentence will always negate an assertion or remark. A positive sentence may or may not contain negative words but its final verdict will always be positive. A positive sentence can be converted into a negative one using negative words such as not, none, nobody, and isn’t.
The Question or Interrogative sentence
The purpose of an interrogative sentence is to ask a question in order to obtain an answer. Sometimes an interrogative sentence might be rhetorical in nature, meaning it will ask a question but won’t necessarily require an answer. Interrogative sentences in the spoken form may also be sarcastic. Below are some examples of simple interrogative sentences:
- Where are you going?
- What is happening?
- What do you want me to do?
- Do you want me to write something for you?
- Are you going to school today?
There are four types of question sentences. They are:
- Yes/No Interrogatives
- Alternative Interrogatives
- Wh- Interrogatives
- Tag Questions
Yes/No Interrogatives
1. Questions which require a “yes” or “no” answer, are called Yes/No Interrogatives.
Examples:
- Are you going home?
- Will you come with me?
- The answer to each of the above question will be either a “yes” or “no”
How to form Yes/No Interrogatives:
Yes/No Interrogatives are formed with the help of auxiliary verbs. The typical form of such question is:
Auxiliary verb (be, do or have) + subject + main verb or modal verb + subject + main verb
The auxiliary verbs are inverted with the subject (subject – verb inversion) For example:
- Are you going to school?
- Will Jack come tomorrow?
- Have you finished your homework?
- Do you like folk dance?
If a sentence contains more than one auxiliary verb or modal verb, only one auxiliary verb or model should be put before the subject. For example:
- Have you been working for the whole day? (Only “have” has been put before the subject “you”)
Alternative Interrogatives
Alternative Interrogatives are questions that give a choice among two or more answers. Therefore, these questions are also called choice questions. For example:
- Do you prefer coffee or tea?
- Will you come with me now, or will you go with James afterwards?
- Do you prefer to live in the village or the city?
- Will they buy an apartment or villa?
Alternative Interrogatives are also formed with the help of auxiliary verbs. The form of such a question is: auxiliary verb (be, do or have) + subject + main verb or modal verb + subject + main verb. The auxiliary verbs are inverted with the subject (subject-verb inversion)
In the alternative question to be formed, if the main verb is “be”, additional auxiliary verb need not be used. For example:
- Are those flowers roses or Begonias? (Here the main verb, “are” is used to ask the question)
Wh- Interrogatives
Wh- Interrogatives are questions asked using one of the question words, who, what, where, when, why, and how. Auxiliary verbs also have to be used in these types of questions. For example:
- Where are you going?
- How are you doing?
- Why did you do that?
When you use the ‘wh’ and how question words, the questions demand full sentence answers. For example:
#1. Where are you going?
Ans. I am going to the mall.
#2. How are you doing?
Ans. ‘I am doing great.’
#3. Why did you do that?
Ans: ‘Because I wanted to.’
Although in the above examples, the answers are given in single sentences, depending upon the situation, the answer may require long explanation.
Tag questions
Tag questions or question tags are questions formed by attaching question tags onto the end of a declarative sentence. These tags are commonly created using an auxiliary verb inverted with subject. These question tags change the declarative sentences to interrogative sentences.
Examples:
- You are from USA, aren’t you?
- She is watching a film in the T.V.at home, isn’t she?
- You will go to your home town tomorrow, won’t you?
- She was a kind woman, wasn’t she?
- He is not attending the meeting, is he?
Sometimes a declarative sentence can be used as interrogative sentence by putting a question mark at the end of the sentence. When you ask questions like this orally, the last syllable of the sentence should be given proper intonation so as to make the listener understand that a question is being asked to him.
Indirect questions
Indirect questions are question embedded in a statement. For example:
- I asked him where he was staying.
A question, “Where are you staying?” is embedded in this statement. But it should be clearly understood that an interrogative sentence always ask direct questions and indirect question or embedded questions do not come under the category of” Interrogative sentences.”
The Command or Imperative sentence
These are made usually by people who are in authority or are quite bossy. There is no fact and no search for information in these sentences. They also can be used without strong emotion. Imperative sentences are used to command or order people to do something.
Police officers, firemen during a fire, teachers, employers, and parents all use the command sentence quite well. They have the authority to tell people what to do and where to go.
Bossy older brothers and sisters do not have the authority but their place in the family line makes them think they can tell you what to do. Here are a few examples of imperative sentences:
- Get your hands up!
- Do your homework.
- Close the window.
- Go to the bank and make that deposit.
- Go to bed!
In using and hearing the command sentence, again it is the tone of voice by the user that tells you what is meant. In writing, it is the sentence structure as an imperative sentence can use both a period and an exclamation mark.
These sentences normally do not contain a subject. The subject is the person to whom the command is directed towards. To be specific the subject is “you”. It is understood here. That makes imperative sentences second person sentences.
Assertive sentence: An assertive/declarative sentence is employed to declare something. The information you give may be facts or just opinions. It ends with a period/full stop. Examples:
- I love teaching English.
- You guys are the best.
- We watched a movie yesterday.
- Jon is my school friend.
Exclamatory sentence: An exclamatory sentence is employed to describe strong feelings/emotions like love, hate, excitement, joy, sadness, frustration, etc. All exclamatory sentences are concluded with an exclamation point. Examples:
- This car is amazing! (expressing happiness)
- My dog has passed away! (expressing sorrow)
- How can you lose that paper! (expressing frustration)
- What a movie that was! (expressing admiration)
It is important to understand how to change/transform assertive sentences into exclamatory sentences and vice versa.
Structure 1:
Assertive sentence: Subject + verb + noun phrase (subject complement) + modifiers (optional).
When an assertive sentence has the above structure, use the subsequent structure to convert it into an exclamatory sentence;
Exclamatory sentence: What + noun phrase + subject + linking verb + !
Assertive sentences examples
It is a beautiful day.
It = the subject
is = the linking verb
A beautiful day = the noun phrase (subject complement)
That was a nerve-racking match.
Max has an amazing car.
Exclamatory sentences examples
What a beautiful day it was.
What = A word that strengthens the emotion in the sentence
A beautiful day = the phrase (subject complement)
It = the subject
is = the linking verb
What a nerve-racking match that was!
What an amazing car you have!
Structure 2:
Assertive sentence: Subject + verb + adjective (subject complement) + modifiers (optional)
When an assertive sentence has the above structure, use the subsequent structure to convert it into an exclamatory sentence:
Exclamatory sentence: How + the adjective + subject + linking verb + !
Assertive: The weather is romantic.
Exclamatory: How romantic the weather is!
Assertive: The place was expensive.
Exclamatory: How expensive the place was!
Assertive: they're excited to come back to my place.
Exclamatory: How excited they are to come to my place!
Expressive Language
Expressive form of language reports feelings or attitudes of the writer (or speaker), or of the subject, or evokes feelings in the reader (or listener).
a. Poetry and literature are among the best examples, but much of, perhaps most of, ordinary language discourse is the expression of emotions, feelings or attitudes.
b. Two main aspects of this function are generally noted: (1) evoking certain feelings and (2) expressing feelings.
Examples:
- Sankha felt nervous
- Rabin was angry
- Raka is quite handsome
Exclamatory sentence
As a child you may have heard these a lot. When a child steps out of line or makes the wrong decision, parents tend to emphasis what they are saying by using exclamatory sentences.
That is the purpose of exclamation sentences. They express very strong emotion. In listening, it is not hard to identify an exclamation sentence. The tone of the person’s voice will convey that information.
In writing, to make an exclamatory sentence you do need to use the exclamation mark. Writing does not have any sound helping it out, so it needs help from its punctuation friends. Here are a few examples of exclamation sentences:
- I said I wanted pizza!
- I want to go now!
- We are the champions!
- What a cute baby!
Depending upon the situation, there are different methods of expressing or writing exclamatory sentences. Some examples of the common categories are given hereunder.
1. Expressing strong emotion
- Many, many sweet returns of the day!
- Happy New Year!
- Happy Christmas!
2. Those begin with “What”:
- What beautiful scenery!
- What a cute baby!
- What a nice behaviour!
3. Those begin with “How”:
- How beautifully she sings!
- How brightly it shines!
- How neatly she has kept her house!
4. Exclamatory sentences containing “such”:
- She is such a kind lady!
- He is such a bright student!
- She is such a wonderful writer!
5. Exclamatory sentences containing “so”:
- She is so glamorous!
- He is so handsome!
- That gentleman is so generous!
It is to be remembered that exclamatory sentences express strong emotion and should be used carefully. They are not to be used to write reports or academic purposes.
- Geoffrey Leech (1974) has described five main functions of language. They are: Descriptive or Informational Function, Expressive Function, Directive Function, Aesthetic Function, Social or Phatic Function.
- The descriptive function of language helps us deliver messages, describe things, and give our listener new information.
- Expressive language function reports the emotions or attitudes of the author (or speaker), or of the topic, or evokes feelings in the reader (or listener).
- Directive language function refers to the language used for the objective of causing (or preventing) overt action. Directive language isn't normally considered true or false.
- In the aesthetic function of language, the words and sentences are considered as linguistic artefacts. It helps us use words as a tool of a poetic art, and as certain signs.
- Phatic or social language function can also be described as "Elevator talk" and street-corner conversations accomplishing a social task. The only purpose of such a function is to keep up social relationships, and to start, or continue the conversation.
- An assertive/declarative sentence is employed to declare something. The information you give may be facts or just opinions.
- Declarative sentences can either be positive or negative. When they have a positive meaning, they are known as affirmative or positive sentences. When they contain a negative meaning, they known as negative sentences.
- The purpose of an interrogative sentence is to ask a question in order to obtain an answer. Sometimes an interrogative sentence might be rhetorical in nature, meaning it will ask a question but won’t necessarily require an answer.
- There are four types of question sentences. They are: Yes/No Interrogatives, Alternative Interrogatives, Wh- Interrogatives, Tag Questions.
- An exclamatory sentence is employed to describe strong feelings/emotions like love, hate, excitement, joy, sadness, frustration, etc.
- Imperative sentences are statements that are used to command or order people to do something.
