UNIT 2

CONCEPT OF DISPARITY-I

2.1 INTRODUCTION

The concepts of disparity and disability are often used interchangeably. However it's essential to know the difference between the 2. Though the origin of both the terms comes from inequality, the nature of inequality and stratification is different in both the concepts.

The term disparity means to be different. Gender disparity for that matter is that the differences between the genders which are often treated as unequals. Disability is that the condition of being unable impaired to keep up equality. Disparity is usually man made but disability may be natural too.

For e.g. Women are physically weak and can't do adventurous activity (which isn't true) is a statement coming from gender disparity created by social systems.

But a polio patient is unable to do adventurous activity is disability coming from physical limitations.

2.2 GENDER DISPARITIES- AS A FORM OF INEQUALITY

Gender disparity as a kind of inequality is a manifestation of socio-cultural discrimination against women in society. Physical difference between man and woman, which is biological in nature is regarded “Sex”. However there's not hierarchy attached to the phenomenon of “sex” i.e. biologically being a boy or a girl doesn't attach superiority or inferiority to either of them. It's the socio- cultural norms and the structure of patriarchy that converts ‘sex’ into ‘gender’ then associating it with power and authority to one at the cost of the opposite . The term Patriarchy comes from two words ‘patri’ and ‘arch’ which suggests father and rule respectively. It means ‘rule of the father’ or male domination. And it's this patriarchal structure of society generally and of family especially that creates gender disparity or gender bias.

Gender disparity are often defined as “a situation of unequal and hierarchical relations and therefore the socially constructed roles or stereotypes assigned to women as that of a housewife and mother are considered as ‘norms’ to be followed invariably across class, caste, race and culture. This bias often results in denial of opportunities and injustice to women”

2.3 DECLINING SEX RATIO:

Sex ratio is calculated as the number of females per thousand of males. Sex ratio of any country isn't just a demographic variable but a crucial indicator of country’s gender development index. And an adverse sex ratio reveals a lopsided social development and violation of human rights. India is one among those female deficit countries in the world where sex ratio is calculated per thousand of males. In most of the developed nations sex ratio is usually calculated as number of males per thousand of females as there's a natural tendency of female foetus to survive longer than their male counter parts.

Sex ratio in India has seen a declining trend since the turn of the century. The sex ratio, which was 972 per 1000 of men in 1901, has declined to 933 in 2001. It's marginally increased to 940 within the year 2011. There's also a thought of child sex ratio that's calculating the sex ratio is in the age bracket of 0-6 years which is additionally declining drastically in India. From 976 in 1961 to 927 in 2001 and as per the provisional census report for 2011 it's further declined to a devastating 914. (See table 2.1)

Table 2.1

Sex ratio and child sex ratio in India (1901-2011)

The sharp decline within the sex ratio isn't evenly distributed within the country also . Economically affluent states and literate areas have lower sex ratio compared to tribal and illiterate areas where sex ratio is far better. Urban areas are much more behind than rural areas. States like Punjab, Haryana and Rajasthan are historically female deficit states and still be so. However now even states like Maharashtra and Gujarat have joined the list of female deficit states with sex ratio of as low as 925 and 918 respectively in 2011 census

2.4 CAUSES OF DECLINING SEX RATIO:

• Sex Determination (SD) and Sex Selective Abortion (SSA) - With the introduction of latest reproductive technologies in 1970s in India, amniocentesis and ultrasound sonography was an enormous hit amongst the doctors and families expecting a baby. Aside from knowing the abnormalities within the foetus, this technology also revealed the sex of the kid which helped the oldsters to work out the sex and abort an unwanted female foetus. This is often considered to be the main reason for declining sex ratio.
• Female infanticide and foeticide - Several Indian states historically were known for its practice of female infanticide. With the thought of girl child being a burden to the family, there was a rampant elimination of female infants thorough various practices like ‘doodh piti’ (drowning in milk) in Gujarat, suffocating the kid, consumption of opium seeds etc. After the new reproductive technologies were available the heinous practice shifted from infanticide to foeticde.
• Son preference and patriarchal value system- The patriarchal system reinforces certain norms form Indian religions and cultures. Son is preferred in an Indian household for social, economic and non-secular reasons. He’s considered to be the bread winner and a support to parents in their old age. It's also believed that son continues the surname and lineage (Vansh). Consistent with Hindu tradition a son is required to ignite the pyre of his parents for them to achieve salvation. These myths and beliefs expects to own a minimum of one son within the family and with a small child norm or one child norm in urban educated families, daughters are eliminated to keep up the family size and structure.
• Dowry and burden of marriage cost- Dowry is that the gifts in terms of money or kind given by the bride’s parents to the groom’s family. The high demands of dowry converts girl into a liability for her parents and marrying her to an appropriate groom becomes a burden. With increasing cost of marriages, which are forced to be borne by the bride’s family alone and ever increasing evil of dowry practice are the basis cause for considering a woman child in the family as a commodity to be disposed through infanticide or foeticide to avoid the financial burden later.
• Lower nutritional and health status of women- Biologically, female foetus are stronger to sustain illness, or escape miscarriages, but later the cultural inequalities find yourself in women of the house eating less, leftover and last, making her vulnerable to low nutritional value and low health status. Early and unsafe pregnancy, lack of maternal and post natal health care all end in high female mortality rates resulting in low sex ratio.
• Absence of stringent implementation of PCPNDT act- In 1994 to stop the practice of sex determination and sex selective abortion, pre-conception and pre-natal diagnostic procedure (regulation and prevention of misuse) was passed in 1994 which was later amended in 2003. It prohibited the sex determination before or after conception, prohibiting advertisements and revelation of the sex by any medical practitioner in any form. Under this act several raids were conducted and sonography machines were sealed, licenses were cancelled in last decade. But thus far no doctor has been convicted or imprisoned. The law isn't been implemented stringently and still contains many loopholes making it weak in bringing solution to the matter.

There are dangerous consequences within the society thanks to declining sex ratio. It's caused a significant imbalance within the gender balance and increase in violence against women in India.

2.5 VIOLENCE AGAINST WOMEN- MEANING AND FORMS:

India has always lived with a paradox with glorifying women as goddess (Devi) on one hand and giving a devil treatment on the opposite . From cradle to death (in fact much before she reaches a cradle) or from womb to tomb she is subject to discrimination and step motherly treatment. At every level of her life altogether the institutions of family, marriage, religion, education, economy, law, media and politics, she faces the brutal exploitation from the pre-existing and omnipresent structure of patriarchy.

Meaning of Violence against woman (VAW):

United Nations Declaration 1993, defined violence against women as “any act of gender base violence that leads to or is probably going to lead to physical, psychological or sexual harm or suffering to a lady , including threats of such acts, coercion or arbitrary deprivation of liberty, whether occurring publicly or private life”. This is often an all-inclusive definition of VAW.

The violence of her basic human rights often takes place in various ways. It's going to take a sort of sex determination and sex selective abortion, neglect of infant and girl child within the areas of nutrition healthcare, illiteracy and drop outs, under estimation of household work, inequality and harassment at the work place, dowry and related harassments including bride burning, sexual assault, rape, religious rituals, cultural practices, misrepresentation in media and lots of others.

According to the National Crime Records Bureau’s facts

 Every three minutes there's a criminal offense against women

 Molestation happens every quarter-hour

 Sexual harassment every 53 mins

 Rape case every 29 mins.

 4 out of 10 women in India face violence in their homes.

 A women is killed for dowry every hour.

Form of violence against women:

Violence against women is often classified broadly into three categories….

Figure 2.1

A) Domestic violence: The violence which takes place within the household or by a known perpetrator is taken into account to be violence. Wife beating, wife battering, dowry harassment, emotional torture by relatives , sexual abuse, marital rape( sexual intercourse which is non-consensual in nature), deprivation of basic necessities, discrimination within the family and denial of economic rights are all a part of violence .

B) Criminal violence: The act which are considered to be crime and punishable under Indian penal code termed as criminal violence. They're Rape, molestation, trafficking of girls , harassment at work place, bride burning, abduction and kidnapping, eve teasing, female foeticide or infanticide are all a part of Criminal Violence

C) Social violence: The violence which women face because of societal norms and religious practices are a part of social violence. It includes Sati, prohibition of widow remarriage, child marriage, devdasi, denial of entering or worshipping at religious places, atrocities against woman within the name of caste, community etc.

Some of the sorts of VAW are discussed as follows.

 Wife beating and battering: The physical torture a lady undergoes at the hands of her husband or in laws is one among the severe type of violence against women. It often results in physical injuries, loss of limbs and sometime even loss of life. Dowry demands and intoxication are the main reasons for the same.

 Dowry deaths and bride burning: Continuous and ever increasing demands for dowry by in laws or husband are an explanation for great suffering for woman and a curse on Indian society. Young newlywed girls are burnt or brutally killed for the sake of dowry which is then depicted as a case of suicide. Sometimes the brides do commit suicide as an escape from the torture within the marital homes.

 Discrimination and harassment at the work place: As mentioned earlier 40% of the ladies have faced the harassment at work place. With increasing number of girls going out to work and contributing to the economy, there's a rise within the harassment at the work place. Inequality within the wages, denial of promotion or posing for favours of sexual nature by the authorities or colleagues has become a common feature of urban economy.

 Rape and molestation: one among the most atrocious crimes against women is rape. In additional than 60% of the cases the perpetrator is a known member to the victim. The ordeal of the victim continues even after the act where within the society and systems continuously blame and question her for her character and loss of virginity. Most of the cases don't get register within the court of law because of the fear of social stigma attached to the act of rape. Abduction and kidnapping are generally followed by rape and murder.

 Eve-teasing: one among the crimes which haven't been taken seriously till date is eve-teasing. It can range from lewd comments or whistling to acid attacks or molestation. Conveyance, public spaces like parks, gardens, railway stations or open spaces became the house ground for eve- teasers. Ignorance or neglect is the general tools used by girls, which may later have serious repercussions.

 trafficking of woman: Buying or selling of women for slavery and sex trade may be a serious crime that needs a mention. Women are used as slaves and tortured physically, mentally or sexually by their buyers. Sex trade and sex tourism is rampant at national and international level where woman are used as sex toys. Poor families sell their girls to repay their debts in developing nations.

2.6 MEASURES AGAINST VIOLENCE AGAINST WOMEN:

There are several government and non-government organizations working towards gender equality and fighting against all sorts of violence against woman. Following are a number of the landmark legal measures and acts concerning woman’s rights.

Table 2.2

There are several articles within the Indian Constitution which promise equal rights and liberties to all women in India. There are special provisions for woman in terms of positive discrimination or social action in terms of reservation of woman in local self-government, educational institutions, job opportunities and conveyance .

There are variety of government bodies, NGOs and civil society organizations helping women to achieve justice and equality in the society. They work in the areas of research, sensitization, awareness, law making or amendment within the existing law, campaigns for empowerment of woman. There’s a special ministry for women and child welfare at the centre and state to seem into the policies and programmes for woman within the nation. The National Commission for Woman (NCW) is that the statutory body of state of India at the central level that looks in to the matters concerning gender justice.

2.7 PORTRAYAL OF WOMEN IN MEDIA:

Media is a plural form of medium. Media is a unit through which messages, information, data, thoughts and concepts are transmitted or communicated. Mass media is a sort of media where transmission and communication takes place across society to large number of individuals at the same time. Media are often classified as print media which incorporates newspaper, magazines, journals, pamphlets, leaflets, printed advertisements etc. whereas audio-visual or electronic media includes television, films, radio, computers and internet etc.

Since these tools of media communicates to masses at the same time and over a period of time, its content and concepts have a great influence on society’s way of thinking. Media has been wont to change the perception of society. Hence portrayal of girls in media definitely influence and shape the ideas and perception towards women therein society. Media can create awareness and sensitize people regarding issues concerning women. An affirmative image portrayed in media creates a positive environment towards women and traditional stereo typed image can create a degrading status of girls.

Positive role of media:

 Awareness and sensitization- Media especially newspapers, journals and news channels help people to become conscious of current scenario and status of girls in the society. It can analyse problems of girls and make its readers or viewers sensitive towards an equivalent. For. E.g. Recent television program Satyamev Jayate to some extent has covered several issues concerning women. Or reporting on cases of violence against women with an excellent sensitivity. Spreading the knowledge regarding policies and programmes for ladies

 Highlighting achievers- Women’s achievements are often highlighted in the fields of science, technology, education, economy, industry, entertainment, art, literature, music, welfare work or politics. For e.g. Making story of Kiran Majumdar Shaw as an industrialist or on Lata Mangeshkar as an artist create a positive image of girls in the minds of individuals .

 Strong woman characterization- There are often strong women characters in television serials or films becoming ideals for its viewers.

Negative role of media:

 Women as sex symbols- Women in media has been misused as a sex symbol for selling products within the advertisements or providing entertainment within the TV shows or films. Woman in skimpy clothes become an object to ogle up on and her sexuality becomes the sole facet of her personality.

 Beauty pageants and western standards- Rampant beauty pageants where woman is seen as a model with a perfect face and figure often misjudge her as a dumb character or beauty without brains. Western standards of fairness and slim figure became a craze amongst young Indian girls because of media.

 Stereotypical image- there's a stereotypical image portrayed as either a perfect bahu or a daughter who is vulnerable or a vamp that's cunning or shrewd. Reinforcing conventional roles of woman confined to households and personal spaces, following customs and rituals further propagates traditional state of mind and attitudes towards women in society

2.8 DISABILITY – AS A KIND OF INEQUALITY

An inability to efficiently cope up with the day to day activity is often referred as disability. It’s impairment may it's physical, mental, cognitive, sensory or emotional restricting individual in its daily routine. Generally disability is usually replaced by the utilization of the term handicapped or challenged. But disability has a more affirmative connotation and doesn't cripple individual’s acceptance within the society in terms of opportunities. There also are terms used like differently able than disabled especially in terms of mental disability.

We are broadly classifying the disabled as physical and mental disability

Figure 2.2

DISABILITY

Physically Mentally

Visually Auditory Orthopedically

Physical disability- visual, auditory and orthopaedic:

A person who is unable to perform normal physical activity within the day to day life because of some impairment is named physically disabled. It's further divided into three types supported the deformity in a particular organ. Those with deformity of vision are called blind or visually disabled. Individuals with problem of speech and hearing come under the category of auditory disabled or deaf and dumb those with loss or deformity of limbs are called orthopedically disabled. In India, of all the disabled there are around 49% who are blind, 13% are deaf and dumb, 28% has orthopedic disability. Malnutrition, ignorance and inefficient medical faculties are major causes for physical disability in our country.

A) Visual disability:

A person whose vision is completely or partially lost or whose vision is 6/60 or less are called blind or visually disabled. Blindness is a major disability amongst all forms in India.

Causes of blindness:

1) Cataract: In spite of mass awareness programmes conducted and easy treatment for cataract, it's one among the main reason for blindness in India. It's related to old age and may be easily cured with an easy surgery or laser treatment.

2) Glaucoma: Pressure on the cornea results in this kind of disease which could cause partial or complete blindness.

3) Trachoma: It’s a toxic kind of conjunctivitis that's cause by bacteria. If not treated immediately can cause spread of the disease also as loss of eye sight?

4) Night blindness and colour blindness: Lack of vitamin A causes night blindness that's loss of vision after sun set and lack of nutrients and genetic disease can cause colour blindness.

5) Accidents: Eyes are one among the foremost delicate body organs. Injury of any kind to the cornea or retina is often dangerous to the eyesight.

6) Other diseases: Hyper tension, diabetes or stroke are often the cause for partial or complete blindness.

Treatment:

Based on the causes for blindness, it is often treated accordingly. Treating the disease that has caused loss of eye sight like Hypertension, Diabetes or nutritional deficiency are often cured with medication. Timely surgery for cataract also can save the patient from blindness. Cornea transplant also are possible in case of injury or genetic disease by birth.

B) Auditory disability:

A person who is unable to listen to a sound of 30 db is often considered as deaf. The person with speech impairment and stammering are considered to be dumb. Those that are deaf by birth are dumb also as they haven’t heard the sounds required to be able to speak and converse.

Types of deafness:

a) Conduction deafness: Defect in the ear drum or middle ear causes this type of deafness.

b) Nerve deafness: If the connecting nerves get damaged or wakened because of old age or other reasons, then nerve deafness can occur. It’s caused because of damage to the basilary membrane.

Causes:

- Genetic disorder or hereditary.

- German Measles to pregnant woman.

- Over dose of antibiotics.

- Inefficient treatment in Jaundice, meningitis, viral infections can cause deafness.

- Accidents or severe injury to internal ear , ear drum of nerves joining ear and brain.

- Continuous or sudden exposure to high decibel sounds near airports or a blast or in industrial setup with high decibel sounds also can cause partial or total deafness.

- Infection or inflammation of ear can cause deafness.

Treatment:

Depending on the basis cause for deafness, deafness are often controlled or cured in some cases or just in case of total loss of hearing aids are available to enable hearing. Speech therapy in case of stammering or dumbness helps the patient where the communication can happen through the utilization of sign language.

c) Orthopedically Disabled: Inability to use ones hands or legs for motor functioning or loss of limbs are often included into orthopedically disable. Deformity of hands, legs, spinal cord, muscles can all be included during this kind of disability.

Causes:

1) Polio- The virus of polio damages the limbs and cause paralytic condition within the body. It affects the patient within the childhood. India to an excellent extent has overcome this problem with vaccination. However there are seldom instances of this disease.

2) Spinal Bifida- Underdeveloped spinal cord or damaged spinal cord cause spinal bifida. Movement controlled by spinal cord becomes impossible making patient immobile and dependant.

3) Cerebral palsy- The a part of the brain which takes care of motor able activity of a person's being if affected adversely or not developed to its optimum level can cause spastic paralysis .

4) Muscular dystrophy- Muscle fibres within the body gets weakened then the body gets affected with dystrophy.

5) Accidents and injury- they will always lead to loss of limbs or deformity of limbs.

Treatment

Regular vaccination should tend for preventing polio. Physiotherapy and occupational therapy also can help patients to be self-reliant in their daily chores. Artificial limb like Jaipur foot helps in movement for those that have lost limbs.

Mental disability- Levels and kinds of mental disability:

When an individual loses the capacity to think independently and rationally, whose intellectual levels aren't developed then the person is named mentally disabled. Individuals with an intelligent quotient (IQ) of less than 70 are often considered as a mentally retarded or mentally disabled.

Levels of mental retardation:

On the premise of the IQ levels of an individual the mental retardation is analyzed at four different levels.

1) Mild mental retardation- an individual whose IQ is between 50- 70 is named mild mentally retarded. These children can complete their primary level of education comfortably but have problems of concentration and analytical ability is additionally very low.

2) Moderate mental retardation- Individual with an IQ between 35-50 is named moderate mentally retarded. They can’t take up formal education and needs support of their members of the family to do their daily chores. They will be made independent with some basic technical skills and may be made independent in their own health and safety.

3) Severe mental retardation- Persons with an IQ of 20-35 are severely people. Their brains are extremely limited and wish close supervision and support of a loved one in their daily lives.

4) Profound mental retardation- Individual with an IQ less than 20 are profound people . They can’t be kept at home and need intensive treatment at an asylum or mental hospital.

Types of mental retardation- There are several sorts of mental retardation or mental disability.

Down’s syndrome – it's a genetic disability in which there is a drag in the 21st pair of chromosomes.

Autism- The part of the brain dealing with communication is broken then it can lead to autism. Eye to eye contact, conversation and sometimes even basic motor abilities get affected.

Psychosis and neurosis- split personality, hallucination, and schizophrenia are all kinds of this disorder.

Learning disability- Dyslexia, disgraphia or discalculacia are all a part of learning disability. The training capacity of an individual in this sort of disability is slow and needs special methods for learning.

Treatment:

Psychological counselling, behavioural therapy, occupational therapy can all help the patient to lead a normal like. Special schools and shelter homes provide those skills in art, handicrafts or other technical skills that enable them to be independent and assured. Training in social adjustment through skills for safety, security and hygiene make them more acceptable and adaptable within the family and society.