MEANING AND CAUSES OF STRESS
Stress may be defined as a state of imbalance arising due to excessive psychological and/or physiological demands on a person. Dr. Hans Selye, one of the leading authorities on the concept of stress, described stress as “the rate of all wear and tear caused by life.”
Fred Luthans defines stress as “an adaptive response to an external situation that results in physical, psychological, and/or behavioral deviation for organizational participants.”
Causes of stress
Factors or conditions that cause stress are called “stressors.” The causes or sources of stress can be broadly divided into four groups as shown in the following chart:
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- Organizational Stressors
The organizational Stressors are also called as job related stress as some of the important job related causes of stress are as follows:
1. Role Conflict: It takes place when different people have different expectations from a person performing a particular role. For example, HR manager acting as a link between the management and the worker’s union may face the problem of role conflict, i.e. if he supports the management, the worker’s union may not like, and it he supports the workers’ demands then management may not like it. In such a situation, the HR manager is caught in a "catch 22" situation.
Role conflict can also occur if the job is not as per the expectation or when a job demands a certain type of behaviour that is against the person s moral values. For example, an honest and disciplined person may find it difficult to adjust with unethical practices in business.
2. Role Ambiguity: It occurs when the person does not know what he is supposed to do on the job. His tasks and responsibilities are not clear. He may not have proper knowledge of the job, or he may be lacking the skills to perform a particular task. This creates confusion in the minds of the worker and may lead to stress.
3. Organizational Structure: The organizational structure defines the pattern of relationships in the organization. Stress can take place when the organizational relationships are poorly defined. At times, an employee may be asked to report to several bosses. Also, there may be excessive rules and regulations that are to be observed.
4. Working Conditions: Employees may be subject to poor working conditions. The poor working conditions would include poor lighting and ventilations, unhygienic sanitation facilities, excessive noise and dust, presence of toxic gases and fumes, etc. Poor working conditions can create physiological and psychological imbalance in a person thereby causing stress. Long working hours may also bring physical strain, which in turn may lead to stress.
5. Rotating Shifts: Stress may occur to those individuals who work in different shifts. Employees may be expected to work in day shift for some days/weeks, and then in the night shift. This may create problems in adjusting to the shift timings, and it can affect not only personal life, but also family life of the employees.
II. GROUP STRESSORS:
The group stressors can be categorized into three groups:
1. Lack of Group Cohesiveness: Every group is characterized by its cohesiveness, although they differ widely in degree of cohesiveness. Cohesion refers to the ability of a group to remain together. Cohesiveness helps to develop team spirit among the members. However, lack of cohesiveness may lead to poor relations within a group, which in turn may lead to stress.
2. Lack of Social Support: Employees are greatly affected by the support of one or more members of a cohesive group. By sharing their joys and problems with other members, they feel contended. In the absence of such social support, it can be stressful to members of a group.
3. Interpersonal and Intergroup Conflict: Interpersonal and intergroup conflict takes place due to differences in perceptions, attitudes, values and beliefs between two or more individuals and/ or groups. Such conflicts can be a source of stress to group members.
III. INDIVIDUAL STRESSORS:
There are certain factors, which are individual in nature that can cause stress. The individual stressors are as follows:
1. Personality: People can be broadly classified as "Type A Personality" and "Type B Personality".
Type A Personality is more affected by stress due to certain features of that person, such as:
•Does several things at one time.
•Feels guilty when relaxing.
•Feels impatient with themselves and others. •Feels aggressive and competitive.
•Gets irritated at minor mistakes with self, and with others.
•Sets high standards.
Type B Personality is less affected by stress due to certain features of that person, such as:
•Never in a hurry.
•Relaxes without guilt.
•Does one thing at a time.
•Is not impatient.
2. Life Changes: Life changes can bring stress to a person. Life changes may be slow or sudden. Slow life changes include getting older, and sudden changes include death of a loved one, accident of self or loved one, etc. Sudden changes are highly stressful.
3. Career Changes: Career changes can also bring stress to a person. When a person suddenly switches over to a new job with new responsibilities, then the employee may find it very stressful. Under-promotion, over-promotion, demotion and transfers can also cause stress. Also career women have more stress, as they have to strike a balance between office work and housework.
4. Frustration: Frustration is another cause of stress. Frustration arises when goal directed behaviour is blocked or thwarted. Management should attempt to remove barriers and help the employees to reach their goals. Proper training and counselling can help to reduce frustration.
IV. ENVIRONMENTAL STRESSORS:
The environmental stressors are also called as extra-organizational stressors. The various environmental stressors are:
1. Civic Amenities: Poor civic amenities in the area in which one lives can be a cause of stress. Inadequate or lack of civic facilities such as improper water supply, excessive noise and air pollution, lack of proper transport facilities can be quite stressful. For instance, travelling in Mumbai's suburban train during peak hours is a nightmare for the commuters.
2. Caste and Religion Conflicts: People living in areas, which are subject to caste and religious conflict do suffer from stress. Quite often, the lower caste and in the case of religion-the minorities are subject to more stress.
3. Technological Changes: Changes in the technological field can be a source of stress, as employees are under the constant stress of the fear of losing jobs, or the need to adjust to new technologies.
4. Other Environment Factors: The various other environmental factors, such as political factors, law and order situation, problem across the national borders, social and cultural changes can also be factors of stress to some people.
MEANING AND CAUSES OF CONFLICT
Conflict is an interpersonal process that arises from disagreements over the goals to be attained or the methods to be used to accomplish them. It is a situation in which two or more parties feel themselves in opposition.
Conflict is inherent in social as well as in organizational life. It is found that managers spend nearly 20% of their time dealing with conflicts. Managers may be either directly involved or they may be acting as mediators in settling conflicts between employees. Managers must have a good knowledge and understanding of conflict and methods for resolving it.
Causes of Conflicts
- Organizational Change: In order to keep pace with the changing technology, social, cultural and political environment, organizations are expected to change themselves. A change in an organisation is likely to create conflicts relating to goa setting, resource allocation, etc..
- Different Set of Values: People in an organisation have different set of values. For instance, some people value honesty and integrity, whereas, others may not. Due to differences in the set of values, there can be conflicts in the organisation. For instance, the marketing manager may be in favour of honest advertising, whereas, the advertising manager or the advertising agency may be in favour of tall claims. Such differences may result in a conflict.
- Personality Clashes: There are personality differences. Not everyone thinks, feels, looks, or acts alike. Some may be too aggressive, whereas, others may be quite assertive. The differences in personality can be a cause of conflict among people in the organisation. Although personality differences can cause conflict, yet they can be utilized for the advantage of an organisation. Employees need to accept, respect, and learn how to use these differences when they arise.
There are a number of characteristics on which personality differences exist, but the 5 major personality traits are agreeableness, conscientiousness, openness to experience, emotional stability & extroversion.
- Agreeableness: People high on this trait are caring, sensitive and empathetic while those low on this trait are uncooperative and irritable. Agreeable people are usually patient, co-operative and empathetic.
- Conscientiousness: People high on this trait are dependable and self-disciplined and those low on this trait are disorganized and careless. As employees they have lower absenteeism rates, better quality of work and set challenging performance goals for themselves. They are also more likely to show organizational citizenship behaviours.
- Openness to Experience: People who are open to experience are curious, flexible and receptive while at the opposite and we have individuals who are closed, fixed and resistant. People who are open to experience are less likely to resist organizational change.
4. Threat to Status: status is important to many individuals in an organisation. When there is a threat to one's status, then that person would make every possible effort to maintain and preserve it. Conflict may arise between the defensive person and the one who has created a threat to status.
5. Differences in Perceptions: People view things or events differently. This may be due to their past experience and expectations. Since their perceptions are real to them, they fail to understand that others hold contrasting perceptions of the same thing or event. As a result, conflict occurs between the two persons having different perception of the same event or object.
6. Competition: Conflicts may arise as people or groups compete with each other for rewards and resources. For instance, one department may like to obtain more funds for its activities, as compared to other departments, as it may feel that its activities are more important in the organisation. This may lead to conflict in the organization.
7. Problem of Multiple Roles: When a person has to perform multiple roles, it can cause an intrapersonal conflict. This is because; the person may try to give more importance to one role as compared to the other role. In such an instance, there can be intrapersonal conflict.
8. Problem in Setting Goals: There can be clash in setting goals or priorities in the organisation between the superior and the subordinate. For instance, the superior may give more importance to quality of performance, Whereas, the subordinate may give more importance to quantity of performance.
9. Lack of Trust: Every relationship requires some degree of trust the capacity to depend on each other’s words or actions. It takes time to build trust, but it can be destroyed in a moment. Lack of trust in each other can be the cause of conflict in the organizations.
10. Other Causes: Conflicts may also arise due to personal prejudices, ego, inter-group rivalries, and so on. Again, a conflict may be caused due to a single factor or due to multiple factors.
Family
A family serves to breed society biologically, through procreation, and socially, through the socialization of youngsters. Although a family can fulfill a spread of other functions, not all of those are universal or obligatory.The incest taboo, which prohibits sexual relations between relations, may be a sort of exogamy and should help promote social solidarity.The family of orientation refers to the role of the family in providing children with an edge in society and socialize them.From the parents’ perspective, the family of procreation refers to the family’s role is to supply and socialize children.Exogamy may be a social arrangement consistent with which marriages can only occur with members outside of one’s group, Exogamy may be a social arrangement consistent with which marriages can only occur with members outside of one’s group.
Neighborhood
A neighborhood may be a geographically localized community within a bigger city, town, or suburb. Ethnic neighborhoods were important in many historical cities, and that they remain common in modern cities. Rural-to-urban migration contributed to neighborhood distinctiveness and social cohesion in historical cities. A community may be a group of interacting people, living in some proximity. Community usually refers to a social unit—larger than a household—that shares common values and has social cohesion. Social capital refers to a way of connectedness thanks to the formation of social networks during a given community.
Community: a gaggle sharing a standard understanding and sometimes an equivalent language, manners, tradition and law.
ethnic enclave: An ethnic enclave is an ethnic community which retains some cultural distinction from a bigger, surrounding area, it's going to be an area, a neighborhood or an administrative district supported ethnic groups social capital: the great will, sympathy, and connections created by social interaction within and between social networks.
Specialization and Differentiation
Neighborhoods in preindustrial cities often had a point of social specialization or differentiation. Ethnic enclaves were important in many past cities and remain common in cities today. Economic specialists, including craft producers, merchants, et al. might be concentrated in neighborhoods. Other neighborhoods were united by religious persuasion. One factor contributing to neighborhood distinctiveness and social cohesion was the role of rural to urban migration. This was a continuing process for preindustrial cities during which migrants attended move in with relatives and acquaintances from their rural past.
School
Education is that the process by which society transmits its accumulated knowledge, skills, customs and values from one generation to a different. The sociology of education is that the study of how public institutions and individual experiences affect education and its outcomes.A systematic sociology of education began with Émile Durkheim’s work on moral education as a basis for organic solidarity.Socialization is that the process by which the new generation learns the knowledge, attitudes and values that they're going to need as productive citizens.The hidden curriculum may be a subtler, but nonetheless powerful, indoctrination of the norms and values of the broader society.
Socialization
The process of learning one’s culture and the way to measure within it. The sociology of education: The sociology of education is that the study of how public institutions and individual experiences affect education and its outcomes.
hidden curriculum: A curriculum that goes beyond the specific demands of the formal curriculum. The goals and requirements of the hidden curriculum are unstated, but inflexible. They concern not what students learn but how and once they learn.
Peer Groups
A coeval, whose members have interests, social positions, and age in common, have an influence on the socialization of group members. This is where children can escape supervision and learn to make relationships on their own.The influence of the coevals typically peaks during adolescence.However, peer groups generally only affect short term interests unlike the family, which has future influence.
Peer groups also can function a venue for teaching members gender roles.Adolescent peer groups provide support for youngsters and teenagers as they assimilate into the adult society decreasing dependence on parents, increasing feeling of self-sufficiency, and connecting with a way larger social network.
The term “peer pressure” is usually wont to describe instances where a private feel indirectly pressured into changing their behavior to match that of their peers.
Peer pressure: Peer pressure is that the influence exerted by a coeval, encouraging individuals to vary their attitudes, values, or behaviors so as to evolve to group norms.
Gender roles: Sets of social and behavioral norms that are generally considered appropriate for either a person or a lady during a social or interpersonal relationship.
Peer group: A coeval may be a group whose members have interests, social positions, and age in common.
Mass Media and Technology
Since mass media has enormous effects on our attitudes and behavior, it contributes to the socialization process. Mass media is that the means for delivering impersonal communications directed to a huge audience.
The term media comes from Latin meaning, “middle,” suggesting that the media’s function is to attach people.Media bias refers to the bias of journalists and news producers within mass media. Bias exists within the selection of events and stories that are reported and the way they're covered. A technique wont to avoid bias is that the “round table,” an adversarial format during which representatives of opposing views discuss a problem.
A technique wont to avoid bias is that the “round table”, an adversarial format during which representatives of opposing views discuss a problem.
Mass media: Collectively, the communications media, especially television, radio, and newspapers, that reach the mass of the people.
1.3 Significance of Values, Ethics and Prejudices in Individual Development
SIGNIFICANCE OF VALUES IN INDIVIDUAL DEVELOPMENT
Values refer to moral and social norms that are essentially desirable for the wellbeing of an individual, group or a society. Some of the important basic human values are:
•Truth and honesty
•Generosity
•Patriotism
•Respect for seniors
•Justice and kindness
•Tolerance
•cooperation
•Excellence
- IMPORTANCE OF VALUES:
The values play an important role in the individual, group and social development. The values influence the character and personality of individuals, which in turn can affect the group personality, which in turn can influence inter-groups and society as a whole. In other words, the value system can have a cumulative effect on the society The role of values is briefly explained as follows:
1. Personality Development: The values develop the overall personality of an individual. It is said that values are not inborn. A person develops values through learning, observation and/ or social interaction. The values are generally learnt through parents, religious leaders, teachers, and other senior members of the society. "Sometimes great life-changing values come to us in brief moments of contact with high potential personalities" wrote Walter Mac Peek.
2. Values Reflect Character: Values reflect the character of a person. Character is the sum total of one's values. It is said that values are responsible for the consistency of one's behaviour. Normally, a person may not behave contrary to one’s values. Albert Einstein once remarked "Try not to become a man of success, but rather a man of value".
3. Value Improves Social Relations: It is true that basic human values tend to improve social ties or relations. For instance, respect for parents, teachers and seniors help to develop good social and emotional relations. The healthy relationships are vital for the wellbeing of individuals, groups, and the entire society.
4. Values Generate Love, Peace and Happiness: Values tend to generate love, peace and happiness in the society. For instance, the values of respect and concern for others, cooperation, etc. develop a spirit of togetherness. Conflicts can be solved through mutual understanding and as such there can be love, peace and happiness.
5. Values bring Respect: Values bring respect to an individual in a society. A person whose behaviour is guided with values performs good deeds in the society, and therefore, is respected in the society.
6. Values Develop Positive Attitude: Values develop positive attitude towards life, work, and the society. For instance, the value of excellence helps to develop positive attitude towards every facet of life, be it studies, work, social activity or any other activity. For instance, a student who wants to excel in studies would make every possible effort to learn the subject matter to the fullest, whereas, a student who considers studies as a punishment or a meaningless activity would develop negative attitude and may even develop negative tactics such as bluffing and copying in the exams.
SIGNIFICANCE OF ETHICS IN INDIVIDUAL DEVELOPMENT
Ethics is a branch of social science that deals with moral principles and values. It differentiates what is good and what is bad. What is good should be followed and what is bad should be avoided. Thus, ethics provide moral principles and rules of good conduct to be followed by individuals in a society.
Ethics and truth are closely connected. An ethical person follows the path of truth and honesty. Great leaders adopted ethics as way of life. They preached and practiced the great virtue of truth and honesty. Mahatma Gandhi once remarked "God is Truth, and Truth is God."
Abraham Lincoln, a great follower of ethical standards once remarked "You can fool all people for some time, some people all the time, but not all people all the time."
- IMPORTANCE OF ETHICS
The ethics play an important role in development of individuals, groups, and societies. High ethical standards are vital for personality development of an individual, and also for the wellbeing of groups and society. The importance of ethics is briefly explained as follows:
1. Dignified Life: Ethics enable a person to live with dignity. The general society appreciates a person who follows ethical practices. He attains a distinguished status in the society. Even unethical persons appreciate and respect a person of ethical standards. However, an unethical person may be looked down by majority of people in the society.
2. Peace of Mind: It is said that "truth makes you free." A person who follows ethical practices is at peace with himself. However, an unethical person, such as a liar or a corrupt person is often at discomfort. A liar may have to tell more lies to defend him, and finally may lend up in grave problems.
3. Rewards: Truth always prevails. Those who are true and honest get rewards such as promotion or monetary incentives. They are held in high esteem by their colleagues, friends, neighbours and others.
4. Restricts Corruption: Ethical persons do not get involved in corrupt practices. They also discourage others to get involved in corrupt practices. At present, there is rampant corruption in every walk of life -in education, business, politics, defence, judiciary, police, etc. Corruption is a black-mark on the growth and prosperity of a nation. Therefore, we need ethical persons in every field. Teachers, religious leaders, and others can play a good role in developing ethics in the minds of the people.
5. Reduces Social Exploitation: Ethics help to reduce social exploitation of workers, colleagues, and other members of the society. For instance, an employer with high ethical standards will always make efforts to provide better wages and working conditions to his employees. Henry Ford once remarked "Coming together is a beginning, keeping together is progress; working together is success."
6. Social Upliftment: Ethical people work towards social upliftment of the weaker sections of the society. If possible, they may contribute generously to the welfare of the weaker sections, by providing donations, opening schools, and hospitals, etc. Upliftment of weaker sections can strengthen the nation into a powerful socio-economic nation.
SIGNIFICANCE OF PREJUDICES IN INDIVIDUAL DEVELOPMENT
Prejudice implies a preconceived and unreasonable judgement or opinion, usually an unfavourable one, arising out of fear, hatred or suspicion. It is a judgement or opinion formed before the facts are known. It is an unreasonable bias. Prejudice could involve irrational hatred of other races, creeds, regions, occupations, etc. Most of us do have prejudice for some aspect or the other, and it is equally true that most of us are victims of prejudice on some grounds or other.
- Examples of Prejudice:
•A college lecturer may have prejudice against the students that they are not interested in studies, and that they come to the college only for time pass.
•A student may have prejudice against the studies -that the studies do not have any practical significance.
•A science or commerce student may have prejudice against Arts Stream.
•A politician may have prejudice against a particular community or region, or political party.
•A religious leader may have prejudice against the preaching of other religions, other than his religion.
•A local citizen may have prejudice against non-locals.
- Role of Prejudice:
Generally, prejudice can play a negative role on the personality development of an individual. It can adversely affect social relations law and order, build stress and tension, develop fear, suspicion or hatred, etc. However, if the judgement is favourable, then it may lead to positive outcomes.
The role of prejudice in the personality development of individual can be broadly divided into two groups:
- NEGATIVE ROLES:
1. Stress and Tension: Prejudice can generate stress and tension in an individual. For instance, continuous and unwarranted hatred of a particular person or religion, or some other element may result in stress and tension in an individual. The negative thoughts may bother the individual so much that it can build frustration and tension, which in turn can lead to health problems, such as sleep disorders, headaches, blood pressure, etc.
2. Retards Personality Development: Personality is the sum total of physical, mental and social qualities. Prejudice may affect physical health, bring mental tension, and affect social skills of an individual. The individual may become hostile towards particular groups, individuals, and so on. This could affect not only physical and mental health, but may also spoil social relations with other members of the society.
3. Poor Image of the Individual: A person who voice prejudice may be seen in a poor image by others - friends, colleagues and superiors at work place, and other members of the society. The poor image may affect career development chances in the organisation, as the superiors may not like individuals with prejudices. Therefore, prejudice can have an economic effect on the individual. It may not be out of place to mention, that Mr. George W. Bush, and Tony Blair (former PM of England) did have a prejudice towards Iraq (Saddam Hussein and his team), may be out of fear of chemical weapons, and forced war on Iraq. Ultimately, no trace of chemical weapons was found in Iraq. This badly affected the image of both the leaders at the domestic as well as at the international level.
4. Aggression and Violence: Prejudice can generate arrogant and aggressive behaviour on the part of individuals. For instance, religious fanatics have a negative prejudice against other religions, and given a little chance (sometimes no opportunity at all) may go all out to display their aggressive behaviour, which may even lead to violence, which in turn may affect life and property.
5. Develops Revengeful Attitude: Prejudice may develop revengeful attitude on the part of an individual. This is especially true, when there is prejudice against caste, and religion. For instance, in several parts of India, the upper caste people do have prejudice against the lower caste. Therefore, the upper caste people commit atrocities on the backward caste people, such as burning of the houses belonging to lower caste, murders, and other negative acts. Such actions do generate reactions of revenge on the part of affected persons, and they too retaliate. In other words, it is a lose-lose situation to everyone.
- POSITIVE ROLE:
Prejudice may play a positive role, especially, when a person has favourable opinion or judgement. For instance, a favourable opinion may not generate stress and tension, and as such may not haveeffect on mental and physical health of a person. Such a person may always think positive about various aspects of life or society. At times, the victims of prejudice may benefit out of hatred, atrocities, etc. For instance, if there is hatred on the part of locals against non-locals, then the non-locals may make every possible effort to improve upon in terms of education, skills, and so on. This may enable them to get better job opportunities, and better status in the society.
Stereotypes are generalizations or assumptions about the characteristics or traits of people belonging to a group. An example of a stereotype statement is "All Asians are friendly and all English are arrogant, Stereotype is an imagination, often wrong, about what people in that group are like. In conflicts, people generally develop negative feelings of the opposing side. The opposing side is imagined to be aggressive, sell-serving and deceitful. On the other hand, people view themselves as always right, and positive. This conflicting situation may grow worse if no action is taken to resolve the problem of stereotypes.
Prejudice means pre-judgment. It implies an irrational and irresponsible lack of consideration of things that should be considered. Prejudice is often prevalent at the time of employment. There is a prejudice that Irish are lazy workers but Japanese are hardworking people.
Stereotypes and prejudice often pose conflicts in society. Such conflict in the society can be averted with the help of the following strategies:
1. Opening Communication Channels: In a conflicting situation, the channels of communication are blocked. In order to break stereotypes and reduce prejudice, the lines of communication should be made open between people and groups. Opening lines of communication reduce conflicts, avoids misunderstanding and can develop trust between people and groups. Often, a third party intermediary can help to initiate communication to break stereotypes and prejudices.
2. Apology and Forgiveness: Apology and forgiveness may be tools for conflict resolution arising out of stereotypes and prejudices. Blaming one another escalates the conflict. An apology means acknowledging the guilt. This helps to rebuild a new relationship on a stronger foundation.
Forgiveness is superior to take revenge or punish. It is not giving up, but willingly to move ahead for the benefit of both the parties.
3. Trust-building: Stereotyping and prejudice develop distrust among people and groups. Therefore, trust-building is important for conflict resolution. The various trust-building programmes include:
(i) Joint Projects: The negative stereotypes should be engaged in joint projects, where mutual interdependence, cooperation and positive relationships are required. Joint projects help to understand each other and to resolve fundamental differences.
(ii) Mediation: Mediators can help parties to establish trust and work together effectively. The mediator helps the parties to assess the relative benefits of the different options and drafts an agreement that is in the interest of everyone. Finally, it is upto the conflicting parties to decide whether to accept or reject the agreement. For mediation to be a successful tool of trust-building programme, the mediator must be highly skilled and respected.
4. Dialogue: The goal of dialogue should be breaking stereotypes and prejudices resulting in conflict resolution. There are four types of dialogues:
(i) Adversarial dialogue: In this case, the conversation is in the adversarial mode ‘I am right and you are wrong’. In this type of dialogue, the chances of conflict resolution are less.
(ii) Human relations dialogue: In this case, a facilitator is engaged to explore the feeling about the conflict and each other. The negative stereotypes are broken down and people become friends.
(iii) Activist dialogue: This type of dialogue provides a foundation for action. Mutual co-operation, understanding and trust are developed.
(iv) Problem-solving dialogue: Like human relations dialogue, the conflicting parties explore feelings about the conflict and each other and also give special attention to the parties' fundamental human needs. Intense and joint efforts are made to meet those needs and to resolve the conflict.
5. Other stereotype breaking and prejudice reduction actions include:
•One member of a group may visit the opponent personally and be friendlier, more agreeable and more helpful than the opponent expected. This may help to revise the image of the people and group.
•One must simply determine what the other side thinks of you or expects of you, and then do the opposite. The goal is simply to contradict the negative images that people usually have of their opponents, and begin to replace these negative images with more positive ones.
•Public media campaigns and educational programmes can help to counter common stereotypes and reduce prejudice.
AGGRESSION
Aggression refers to behaviour that is intended to cause harm or pain. Aggression can be either physical or verbal. According to Andrew Michener and John Delamater, aggression may be defined as "any behaviour intended to harm another person, which that person wants to avoid".
- TYPES OF AGGRESSION
1. Hostile Aggression: Aggression in which the main objective is inflicting some kind of harm on the victim
2. Instrumental Aggression: Aggression in which a person performs not primarily to harm the victim but to attain other goals, such as control of valued resources or praise from others.
People having Type A behaviour pattern generally engage in hostile aggression and people having type B personality engage in instrumental aggression.
VIOLENCE
Violence includes acts of aggression and abuse that cause or intend to cause injury to others. Violence can be defined as "behaviours by individuals that intentionally threaten, attempt, or inflict physical harm on others."
Although aggression and violence appear to be synonymous, violence involves greater intensity and destruction.
- CAUSES OF AGGRESSION AND VIOLENCE
The following are the causes of aggression and violence:
1. Human Instinct: Human aggression centres on the view that human beings are somehow programmed' for violence by their basic nature. In other words, aggression is an essential part of human nature. Sigmund Frend points out that aggression is a result of a powerful death wish or instinct possessed by all persons. If aggression is not released, it may generate dangerous acts of violence.
2. Frustration: Frustration may result in acts of aggression and violence. When a person experiences any interferences with his goal-directed behaviour, he may develop a strong motive to harm others. Strong frustration leads to aggressiveness and often may lead to violence.
3. Observation: People often become aggressive by observing other's committing acts of aggression. Some people imitate aggressive behaviour of their parents, boss or others.
4. Cognitive Factors: Cognitive factors play a crucial role in determining one's reactions. Aggressive behaviours of a person depends upon his moods and experience. If a person shows bad mood and unpleasant experience, he may behave in an aggressive manner.
5. Provocation: Aggression is often the result of physical or verbal provocation from others. When a person becomes a victim of some form of aggression from others, he may often reciprocate with as much aggression as he has received or perhaps even more. Some forms of provocation include:
•Arrogance
•Humiliation
•Physical injury, etc.
6. Media: Media promotes programmes or films that contain crime and acts of violence. This may influence people especially younger generation and they too get involved in such crimes and violence.
7. Expectation of Reward: Expectation of reward is also another source of aggression/violence. People often behave aggressively with an expectation that their such behaviours would bring reward to them in some form. For example, a child may throw tantrums to his mother, anticipating that she would permit him to play with the toy.
8. Communalism: Communalism is a belief or an ideology of a social or a political or a religious group that their religion and practices are superior to those of other groups. A communal group promotes the interests of its own members, and in doing so may even be hostile to the interests of other groups or communities. The communal groups try to provoke other groups through their fundamentalist speeches and actions that leads to violence and lawlessness in the society.
9. Casteism: The caste system refers to the various hereditary social classes. On account of casteism, there are conflicts between the upper castes and the lower castes. Due to caste conflicts, violence breaks out resulting in lawlessness in the Society. It results in loss of life and property, especially that of lower class people.
10. Regionalism: Regionalism refers to loyalty of people to particular area within a state or a country, usually characterized by common culture and language, or historical and social background. Extreme form of regionalism generates conflicts between regions. Regionalism can cause interstate tension confrontation, aggression and violence.
- MEASURES FOR RESOLVING AGGRESSION AND VIOLENCE
The following are the important measures to overcome the menace of aggression and violence in society:
1. Law and Order Administration: The law and order administration must conduct their duties with complete responsibility. The police force should be positively active to combat riots or violence arising out of communalism or casteism. Timely intervention of the police would help to control violence and riots before the situation becomes worse, and may go out of control.
2. Education: The educational curriculum should give importance to peace, law and order in society. The education system should create an atmosphere of trust and cooperation among the members of society.
3. Role of Media: The media should play an important role to develop a feeling of fellowship among the various sections of the society. Media should expose the ulterior motives of certain selfish leaders who instigate communal and caste-related violence.
4. Public Awareness Campaigns: Sustained publicity campaigns in mass media must be undertaken by the Government and NGOs advocating peace and harmony in society. The frequent repetition of such campaigns may act as a constant reminder to the people not to indulge in anti-social activities, and to work towards a better society.
5. Punishment: government employees including the police personnel found guilty on negligence of the duty on increasing anti social activities in some form or the other must be severely punished including dismissal from service, and withholding or retirements benefits.
References
- Foundation course - Manan Prakashan
- Organisational Behaviour by Stephen K. Robbins
- Culture and Organizational Behaviour by Jay B.P. Sinha
