UNIT 4
Writing
According to Bain “To expand an idea into a paragraph implies a sustained purpose and forbids digressions and irrelevant matter”. Expansion means amplification or enlargement for a proverb, a maxim, an epigram, or a statement. It usually consists of following things:
a) the meaning of the given Subject.
b) an explanation of the implications of the subject
c) an illustration of what the subject means.
d) an elaboration of the subject by means of some quotation.
The most important thing is to find out what exactly the given subject means. Then you should write down the relevant to the subject that arise in your mind.Next you should organize your ideas logically, cutting out whatever is irrelevant.
An expansion should in no case exceed 250 words while usually, one paragraph would be enough, sometimes become necessary to organize your ideas in two paragraph for the sake of clarity and proper development of your argument.
An expansion is not an essay, but something concentrated that it could be developed into essay if necessary.
A good expansion must have clarity, brevity, and coherence. It must avoid repetitions, digressions and irrelevant matter.
Example: “Manners Maketh a Man”
Answer: God created man into his own image. But all human beings are not human beings. There is something we call social ethics. How to live in society amongst our fellow beingsm particularly in out society, is an art learnt by practice. Manners are at the root of a good and refined social behaviour. It is not learning that makes one a good social being, it is education that make the complete man. Education implies nobility, humility and good manners mean good social being. There is a story of Diogenes who was know for his canine (doggist) temperament. One day Alexander the great went to see him because he wanted his advice on some urgent matter. The philosopher, a great learned man was sitting in a tub of water basking in the sun. When the Emperor had stood there for a quite a long time, the Emperor said: “Can I do anything for you”? The philosopher after a pause said: “get away and don’t obstruct the light of the sun”again he was silent. From this we can guess that Diogenes was not a cultured person inspite of all his learning. Manners in a man to be cultured, polite, tolerating and mannerly letters need to be added to man to make a complete man-manners.
Memos have a twofold purpose: they bring attention to problems and they solve problems. They accomplish their goals by informing the reader about new information like policy changes, price increases, or by persuading the reader to take an action, such as attend a meeting, or change a current production procedure. Regardless of the specific goal, memos are most effective when they connect the purpose of the writer with the interests and needs of the reader. Choose the audience of the memo wisely. Ensure that all of the people that the memo is addressed to need to read the memo. If it is an issue involving only one person, do not send the memo to the entire office. Also, be certain that material is not too sensitive to put in a memo; sometimes the best forms of communication are face-to-face interaction or a phone call. Memos are most effectively used when sent to a small to moderate amount of people to communicate company or job objectives.
Structure
TO: provide the names and titles of everyone who will receive your memo
FROM: provide your complete name and title
DATE: provide the complete and accurate date – don’t forget to include the year
SUBJECT: provide a brief, yet specific description of what the memo is about
Part 2: MESSAGE
Introduction – explain the purpose
Body – addresses the information required
Conclusion – (Summary and possible recommendations)
Sample
To: All employees
From: Management (Swadisht Foods Ltd.)
Date: [Day Month Year]
Subject: Postponement of New Year Party
As you all know, we hold a New Year party every year on [day] of [month]. This year, the workload has been quite hectic in [month] due to Covid-19 pandemic and the resulting lockdown in the preceding months. Hence, the management has decided to postpone the New Year party for this year to the second Saturday of [month]. Please find the party details below:
Date: [day] [month] [year]
Time: [party start time] to [party end time]
Venue: [location details]
Dress code: [dress code details]
Special Events: [event details]
Please accept our sincere apology for having to make you wait for the New Year celebrations, but believe us, it will be worth the wait. Those interested in volunteering for the event may call [name of the person] on [mobile number].
Wish you all a Happy New Year in advance.
Report writing is a formal style of writing elaborately on a topic. The tone of a report is always formal. The audience it is meant for is always thoughtout section. For example – report writing about a school event, report writing about a business case, etc.
Essential Elements to Report Writing
From the previous section, you must have gotten a tiny idea of what Reports are like. Let’s break it down further here extending from that point
- Reports are written with much analysis. The purpose of report writing is essential to inform the reader about a topic, minus one’s opinion on the topic. It’s simply a portrayal of facts, as it is. Even if one gives inferences, solid analysis, charts, tables and data is provided. Mostly it is specified by the person who’s asked for the report whether they’d like your take or not if that is the case.In many cases, what’s required is your suggestions for a specific case after a factual report. That depends on why are you writing the report and who you are writing it for in the first place. Knowing your audience’s motive for asking for that report is very important as it sets the course of the facts focused in your report. You will know what we mean in further chapters where we actually explain this with examples.
Furthermore,
- Write-up flows like – introduction, body, conclusion and summary. The layout is pretty crisp with a title page, numbered subheadings, clear bulleted points, recommendations, references, appendices, dates, and timings reported exactly sometimes, and so on. This format stays consistent throughout.
- All your facts and information presented in the report not only have to bias-free, but they also have to be a 100% correct. Proof-reading and fact-checking is always what you do as a thumb rule before submitting a report.
Browse more Topics under Report Writing
- Kinds of Reports
- Steps in Report Writing
- Tips and Conventions with Sample Reports
Parts of a Business Report
So, broadly here’s what we have as sub-headings in a report for a business student in the given order: Executive summary, table of contents, introduction, body, conclusion, references, Appendices.
This gives you a broad idea of what flow of thought you are to keep while writing a report.
Example of a Report for Business Students
XYZ Case study
Short Business Report: Guidelines
This document provides an outline for our annual business. Please follow this format when preparing your case reports.
Contents
The report should begin with a table of contents. This explains the audience, author, and basic purpose of the attached report. It should be short and to the point.
DATE: March 24, 2018
TO: Mr. Siddhartha Malik
FROM: Jeena Claudette, Marketing team, XYZ company
Executive Summary
The second page of the document must have a report title at the top, and provide an executive summary, that is a paragraph or two that summarizes the report. It should provide a sufficient overview of the report so that an executive (who doesn’t have the time or energy to fully read through the long report) can actually grasp the main points beforehand.
Most importantly, the summary should contain
(a) the purpose of the report,
(b) what you did (analysis) and what you found (results), and
(c) your recommendations. These recommendations should be short and not go beyond a page.
Report
Next page in the report must contain a title at the top (the same title that you put on the top of the previous page. This is the first page that should actually be numbered, and it should be page 2 (as the table of contents is not technically part of the report).
- This part introduces the reader to your report, sets the purpose in place and broadly plates out the content of your entire document.
- Throughout your report, keep breaking points and starting off a new logical thought with a numbered sub-heading
- A conclusive paragraph ties up all the information written before and leaves room for inferences if any
- The length of the body of the report will be determined by necessity to convey the analysis and conclusions, but should generally not exceed 10 pages.
- Tables and figures must all be labeled.
- References could be cited in footnotes, or in a separate “References” section, if they are many or if you prefer that format.
Remember there’s a format that’s structure-wise similar but some of your sections are actually your preferences. For being on the safe side, it’s always better to be extra careful in your initial report writing days and eventually, your style will evolve from there. Stay tuned, we got a lot more fun report-writing to do.
It's the "art of making things up" or putting a creative splash on history, as in creative nonfiction. In any instance, creative writing makes you step out of reality and into a new realm inspired by your own imagination. With creative writing you're able to express feelings and emotions instead of cold, hard facts, as you would inacademic writing.
Types of Creative Writing
Your imagination starts to flow when you engage in creative writing. The majority of writing, by far, is creative. With it, you can pretend anything you want and help a potential reader do the same. Different types of creative writing are found in these writing categories:
- Epics
- Novels
- Poems
- Screenplays
- Short stories
- Songs
- Television scripts
A news story is a written or recorded (or, occasionally, live) article or interview that informs the public about current events, concerns, or ideas.You don't usually write the story – though sometimes local media will use exactly what words you give them – but you provide story ideas to journalists who then flesh out your idea to create the story as it appears.
A news story can be:
Long or short, depending on its newsworthiness (we’ll discuss this more later) or interest to people who watch TV, listen to the radio, or read the paper.
Written, recorded, live, or taped, depending on the medium you use and the timeliness of the story
Hard - full of important facts and news items, or soft - focusing on the personal, more human side of a news event or situation. An example of a hard news story is an article on the alarming rise of HIV cases in heterosexual women. A soft news, or feature, article would be a story about a man in a wheelchair overcoming architectural barriers in town as he moves through his day.
EXAMPLE
Headlines
Our headlines aim above all to inform. We want to refer to the ‘whats’, the ‘whos’, the ‘wheres’.
But our headlines are also written to catch the eye. We want them to be enticing, though of course not misleading. This often means teasing out the most newsworthy element of the story, for example:
- What’s new?
- What’s better or worse?
- What’s unusual or unexpected?
Summary paragraphs
Our summary paragraphs (in bold) aim to build on the title, offering more details but still sticking to the most important information for a reader to know. In this case: who (patients with suspected bowel cancer), what (quicker tests), why (to assess their cancer risk).
Notice too that we often bring to the fore what the impact of our research is on life. How will this benefit the person reading at home? This kind of question keeps us mindful of our general readership, and helps us prioritise the messages in our stories.
Every short story must include a setting. It provides the backdrop of the story, establishing the time, place, and context.
The writer selects a particular setting for many other reasons—as a motive, as a metaphor, to create conflict, to create a mood.
How the writer describes the passage of time is also important to the reader. The writer can use scene, summary, or flashback to show the passage of time.
The Role of Setting
The most important reason for setting is to create a backdrop for the story–provide the story with a particular time and place. If the writer describes the setting with vivid descriptions and imagery, the writer can create a sense of believability in the mind of the reader.
Sometimes, setting is the conflict of the story. The setting stresses the tension between the main character and the setting, usually nature. For instance, in Jack London’s “To Build a Fire”, the conflict is between the man travelling on foot in weather in the cold and snow of the winter. He attempts to hike, alone, with only his dog to a camp site, where is friends wait. However, to get to the destination, he must hike through the snow, ice, and cold. He is in a race against time and frostbite. In the end, the man freezes to death. Without this winter particular setting there is no story.
Sometimes, setting can act as a metaphor of the story. For instance, in Hemingway’s “Hills with White Elephants”, the dialogue of the story reveals the metaphorical nature of the setting. The hills are a metaphor for fertility.
Sometimes, the writer describes a particular setting to create an atmosphere or mood. Read Poe’s “The Fall of the House of Usher “or “Tell-Tale-Heart”, and you will see how he creates a gruesome mood that adds to the tension of the story, one that reveals the main characters own emotional state. In short, a writer can create a particular mood/atmosphere to help the reader feel the psychological state of the main character.
Sometimes, the setting can act as a motive, driving the main character’s actions. In Tom Franklin’s, “Alaska”, a story about failed fantasy, the destination “Alaska” is the motive for the story that is told by the main character. He tells a tale about a planned trip to Alaska, but the trip never occurs. The writer tells us what would happen if the trip were to take place, how the men would quit their jobs, sell their cars, leave their girlfriends, and set out for Alaska to start a new life. The story begins with: “Our aim was this: Alaska.” And the story ends with: We would stop playing as if on cue and look at each other, suddenly happy, remembering Alaska, waiting for us.”
A business letter is a formal document often sent from one company to another or from a company to its clients, employees, and stakeholders, for example. Business letters are used for professional correspondence between individuals, as well.
Although email has taken over as the most common form of correspondence, printed-out business letters are still used for many important, serious types of correspondence, including reference letters, employment verification, job offers, and more.
Make the purpose of your letter clear through simple and targeted language, keeping the opening paragraph brief. You can start with, “I am writing in reference to…” and from there, communicate only what you need to say.
The subsequent paragraphs should include information that gives your reader a full understanding of your objective(s) but avoid meandering sentences and needlessly long words. Again, keep it concise to sustain their attention.
If, for example, you want the reader to sponsor a charity event, identify any overlap with their company’s philanthropic goals. Convince the reader that helping you would be mutually beneficial, and you will increase your chances of winning their support.
Sections of a Business Letter
Each section of your letter should adhere to the appropriate format, starting with your contact information and that of your recipient’s; salutation; the body of the letter; closing; and finally, your signature.
Your Contact Information
- Your Name
- Your Job Title
- Your Company
- Your Address
- City, State Zip Code
- Your Phone Number
- Your Email Address
The Date
- The date you're penning the correspondence
Recipient’s Contact Information
- Their Name
- Their Title
- Their Company
- The Company’s Address
- City, State Zip Code
The Salutation
- Use "To Whom It May Concern," if you’re unsure specifically whom you’re addressing.
- Use the formal salutation “Dear Mr./Ms./Dr. [Last Name],” if you do not know the recipient.
- Use “Dear [First Name],” only if you have an informal relationship with the recipient.
The Body
- Use single-spaced lines with an added space between each paragraph, after the salutation, and above the closing.
- Left justify your letter (against the left margin).
Closing Salutation
Keep your closing paragraph to two sentences. Simply reiterate your reason for writing and thank the reader for considering your request. Some good options for your closing include:
- Respectfully yours
- Yours sincerely
- Cordially
- Respectfully
If your letter is less formal, consider using:
- All the best
- Best
- Thank you
- Regards
Your Signature
Write your signature just beneath your closing and leave four single spaces between your closing and your typed full name, title, phone number, email address, and any other contact information you want to include.
Example
Linda Lau
Northern State University
123 Main Street
Anytown, CA 12345
555-555-5555
linda.lau@email.com
March 5, 2020
Oscar Lee
Managing Editor
Acme Graphic & Design
123 Business Rd.
Business City, CA 54321
Dear Mr. Lee,
I would like to invite you to attend our upcoming Liberal Arts department job networking event. The event will be held on the afternoon of May 1, 2020. We wish to provide our graduating seniors with an opportunity to meet business leaders in the area who may be looking for new hires who hold degrees in the Liberal Arts.
The event will be held at the Cox Student Center at Northern State University and will last about two to three hours. If you have an interest in attending or sending a company representative to meet with our students, please let me know at your earliest convenience and I can reserve a table for you.
Thank for your time and I hope to hear from you soon.
Respectfully,
(signature hard copy letter)
Linda Lau
Liberal Arts Department Chair
A Letter to the Editor may be written to the editor of a newspaper or a magazine. It is written to highlight a social issue or problem. It can also be written in order to get it published in the said medium.
As it is a formal letter, the format has to be followed strictly. Only formal language can be used i.e. abbreviations and slang language should be avoided.
A letter to the editor is a formal letter and in the examination, students are asked to write a letter to the editor. Here, we have discussed a Letter to the Editor Sample for the convenience of the students.
The format of a letter to the editor of a Newspaper is as follows –
1. Sender’s address: The address and contact details of the sender are written here. Include an email and phone number, if required or if mentioned in the question.
2. Date: The date is written below the sender’s address after Leaving one space or line.
3. Receiving Editor’s address: The address of the recipient of the mail i.e. the editor is written here.
4. Subject of the letter: The main purpose of the letterforms the subject. It must be written in one line. It must convey the matter for which the letter is written.
5. Salutation (Sir / Respected sir / Madam)
6. Body: The matter of the letter is written here. It is divided into 3 paragraphs as follows –
Paragraph 1: Introduce yourself and the purpose of writing the letter in brief.
Paragraph 2: Give detail of the matter.
Paragraph 3: Conclude by mentioning what you expect from the editor. (For example, you may want him to highlight the issue in his newspaper/magazine).
7. Complimentary Closing
8. Sender’s name, signature, and designation(if any)
Example- You are Radha G, a member of NGO AWAAZ. Write a letter to the editor of a national daily for a public movement to clean the Yamuna river. (You must introduce yourself, describe how the people are to be blamed for polluting the river and suggest the need for installing water treatment plant to clean the river).
33, Jal Vihar
Wazirabad, New Delhi – 33
Dated: 17 February 2021
The Editor
Hindustan Times
New Delhi.
Subject: Need for people’s movement for the clean Yamuna
Dear Editor
I am Radha G, member of NGO AWAAZ. I am writing to you in order to highlight the deteriorating condition of the river Yamuna.
The city of Delhi is getting contaminated water from the river Yamuna. The residents are to be blamed for this. They pollute the river with garbage, sewage, and filth. The river water is full of bacteria, plastic, chemicals, and other waste materials. It is unfit for consumption.
The people have been demanding a Water Treatment Plant. The authorities have not yet responded to the repeated requests.
I request you to highlight the problem in your newspaper and arouse public interest. We all need to get together in order to get the plant set up in the area.
Thank You
Yours sincerely
Radha G.
Precis Writing is a summary. It is an exercise of compression. A precis writing is a gist of any passage in as few words as possible. A precis should mention all important details of the original paragraph so that anyone who is reading it is able to understand the idea of the original passage.
Taking the above example forward, to describe the essential highlights and events that take place in The Merchant of Venice, you will not add your own thoughts and maintain the tone and expressions of the characters. You will also avoid mentioning events that aren’t essential. This is how precis writing works. You express or rewrite a paragraph or any piece of writing and make it as concise as possible without having to change the crux of the subject matter.
In precis writing, you must be carefully objective and maintain the theme of the passage without excluding the important points. Comprehend the passage carefully to conclude about what is important in an article or a story. You might take a while to read it the first time, but as you keep reading it, the later times might just be an easy skim over the pages. Precis writing requires a very strong understanding of the story/ text to convey the same message in a miniature form.
Use of Precis Writing
People often want to go through the highlights of books, movies, meetings, an article, report, news, etc. This is when precis writing works to deliver the main points to the audience without making any modifications in the proportion, tone, or theme of the content. Precis writing plays an essential role in the following areas:
- Precis writing can be used to describe a chapter so that students get the gist of the basics.
- Precis writing is also used in companies for job descriptions, meeting highlights, etc.
- The use of precis writing is also seen in movies to describe the main events or plot of the film.
- Precis writing is also used in scientific reports and researches to give the gist of its content.
Example of Precis Writing
Almost every organism has the tendency to react to certain stimuli for survival. This reaction to each and every situation has an evolutionary basis of adaptation. The study of human emotions dates back to the 19th century and psychologists have since then discovered many reasons for every emotion, yet these are just theories. The arousal of emotions and their assumed structures is said to occur due to repeated encounters with a situation followed by the adaptation of the encounter. Human emotions have been linked to adaptively regulate emotion-gathering mechanisms. The emotion of fear which is associated with ancient parts of the brain has presumably evolved among our pre-mammal ancestors while the emotion of a mother’s love called the ‘filial emotion’ has seen to evolve among early mammals. Various emotions work as manipulative strategies that favours survival. Feigning emotions by an accused person may help him be saved from the punishment. An exaggerated display of anger is also associated with manipulating or threatening someone.
Despite there being several emotions for various events, ironically the most interesting emotion is the emotion of disgust. Disgust is aroused when the body senses a danger to the immunity or the physiology of the human. The disgusted memory is associated with alerting the brain of a potentially dangerous substance. A few studies have shown that the encoding triggered in adaptive memory for problems is stronger than any other behaviour. This makes us instantly have a disgusted expression at the sight of something that makes us uncomfortable or uneasy. These expressions are also closely linked to self-protective communication.
Precis
Title: Human Evolution and Emotions
The emotions that humans express and react to stimuli in the environment have an evolutionary basis. Emotions are assumed to be a result of repeated encounters with a certain event.
According to evolution, emotions like fear, love, feigning, anger, and disgust are results of consistent reactions in particular situations. Some expressions are often built up or adapted as a form of self-protection.
A resume is a formal document that a job applicant creates to itemize their qualifications for a position. A resume is usually accompanied by a customized cover letter in which the applicant expresses an interest in a specific job or company and draws attention to the most relevant specifics on the resume.
American job coaches insist that a resume should be only one or two pages in length. British job applicants traditionally are expected to produce a somewhat more detailed document, called a CV (curriculum vitae).
Changing Times for Resumes
It goes without saying that resumes these days are delivered as email attachments, not printed out and mailed.
Although the two-page maximum still stands, many applicants use the web to the max when it comes to attachments. Video introductions, charts, graphs, and other illustrations can make you stand out, as long as they're relevant and slickly made.
The Resume Heading
The heading on the resume should include not only your name, email address, and mobile phone number but your address on LinkedIn or another professional community and the address of your website or blog if you have one.
Dialogue is typically a conversation between two or more people in a narrative work. As aliterary technique, dialogue serves several purposes. It can advance the plot, reveal a character's thoughts or feelings, or show how characters react in the moment.
Dialogue is written using quotation marks around the speaker's exact words. These quotation marks are meant to set the dialogue apart from the narration, which is written as standard text. Together, let's explore some dialogue examples.
What Is Dialogue?
In writing, dialogue shows a character speaking. It works to tell you more about the character and how they converse with others or react. When it comes to dialogue, you might see two types: outer and inner dialogue.
- Outer dialogue is when a character talks to another character in the story or play. This is the classic dialogue you see most of the time, set off by quotation marks.
- Inner (internal) dialogue is when a character talks or thinks something to themselves like an inner monologue. In written works, this is set off by quotation marks or italics.
Famous Examples of Dialogue From Literature
Let's take a moment to enjoy dialogue examples from some of the literary greats. No novel would be complete without an interesting volley between the main characters.
A Wrinkle in Time, Madeleine L'Engel
This is a great example. Watch L'Engel intertwine scene description with dialogue.
Calvin licked his lips. "Where are we going?"
"Up." Charles continued his lecture. "On Camazotz we are all happy because we are all alike. Differences create problems. You know that, don't you, dear sister?"
"No," Meg said.
"Oh, yes, you do. You've seen at home how true it is. You know that you're not happy at school. Because you're different.”
"I'm different, and I'm happy," Calvin said.
"But you pretend that you aren't different."
"I'm different, and I like being different." Calvin's voice was unnaturally loud.
"Maybe I don't like being different," Meg said, "but I don't want to be like everybody else, either."
A cover letter is a written document commonly submitted with a job application outlining the applicant's credentials and interest in the open position. Since a cover letter is often one of only two documents sent to a potential employer, a well- or poorly-written letter can impact whether the applicant is called for an interview.
Understanding Cover Letters
Most job postings are done online and no longer require a physical application. Instead, applicants send companies a copy of their resume along with a cover letter either by email or with a hard copy through the mail. A resume offers a glimpse into the professional and academic experience of a potential employee. The cover letter, on the other hand, acts as an introduction written by the candidate to express their interest in the position and what makes them the best fit for the job.
A good cover letter complements a resume by expanding on items relevant to the job. In essence, it's a sales pitch that describes why the applicant is the best person for the position. Career experts advise job seekers to spend time customizing each cover letter for the particular position, rather than using a generic missive. Although this requires extra effort, it can be very helpful in allowing an applicant to stand out above the competition.
The cover letter provides information to the employer about who the candidate is as a professional and as a person. This includes their areas of interests, professional goals, knowledge, skills they've gained over the years, their achievements, passions, and aspirations. The cover letter should be a one-page document that provides a clear and concise idea about why the candidate is the best person for the job. It should also highlight the cultural fit.
Cover Letter Format
Your Contact Information
Name
Address
City, State Zip Code
Phone Number
Email Address
Date
Employer Contact Information (if you have it)
Name
Title
Company
Address
City, State Zip Code
- Cover Letter Contact Section Examples
Salutation
Dear Mr./Ms. Last Name,
Cover Letter Greeting Examples: Note: If you do not have a contact name, you can skip the salutation entirely. Or, you can use Dear Hiring Manager, To Whom It May Concern, or one of the other examples listed in the link. Ideally, you will be able to address your cover letter to a specific person. Doing research can help you figure out who is the most appropriate person to receive the letter. Note: If you do not know the gender of your contact, you can write out the person's full name, e.g., "Dear Cory Smith"or "Dear Jordan Parish."
Body of Cover Letter
The body of your cover letter lets the employer know what position you are applying for, why the employer should select you for an interview, and how you will follow-up. Organize the body of your cover letter into the following paragraphs:
- First Paragraph
The first paragraph of your letter should include information on why you are writing. Mention the position you are applying for and where you found the job listing. Include the name of a mutual contact, if you have one. - Middle Paragraph(s)
The next section of your cover letter should describe what you have to offer the employer. Mention specifically how your qualifications match the job you are applying for. Think of this section of the cover letter as where you're making a pitch for your fit as an employee and show what makes you a great candidate. Make the connection between your qualifications and the job requirements clear. Use this section to interpret your resume—don't repeat from it verbatim. - Final Paragraph
Conclude your cover letter by thanking the employer for considering you for the position. Include information on how you will follow-up. Optionally, you can briefly restate why you would be a good fit for the position.
Complimentary Close
Respectfully yours,
- Closing Examples
Signature
Handwritten Signature (for a hard copy letter)
The rules for writing formal emails are-
To write an email in English in the right way, don’t improvise! Read the following advice to avoid making serious mistakes that could compromise the success of the email from the moment it is received.
Subject
The subject is the first piece of information that the recipients of an email see, and if it’s written incorrectly or unclearly, it could push the reader to delete it without even opening it! So it’s important to give a clear and precise message, right from the start, indicating the content or reason for writing in two or three words that grabs the attention of the recipient.
Style
Unlike many other languages which require long complex sentences in a formal written context, English is very concise and favors short sentences and a simple structure. Make sure you break up the text into two or three paragraphs – this enables the reader to quickly see the key points.
Courtesy formulas
When you write an email in English, you’re not only using another language but you’re also entering another culture with different habits. The Anglo-Saxons in general pay a lot of attention to forms of courtesy and gratitude, therefore never forget to add them.
Check the email
Never send an email in English without having re-read what you wrote. Grammatical or typing mistakes are very common even in your own language, so in English you can make errors much more easily. Double-checking what you’ve written is a simple step to take that can prevent you from appearing unprofessional and above all careless.
Signature
Be sure to have set your emails to end with all the important information about you, including:
- Name and surname
- Job title
- Relative details about your company (name, address..)
- Link to the company website
The format of a formal email in English
- Introduction
- Body of the text
- Conclusion
Introduction
Depending on the type of relationship you have with the person you’re writing to, there are different ways of starting an email, but any email should always start with a greeting. In our specific case being formal, the most appropriate options are:
- Dear Mr/Mrs/Ms (surname of the recipient, e.g. Mr Black)
- Dear Sir/Madam (if you don’t know the name of the recipient) or more generally ‘To whom it may concern’
After the initial greeting you need an introductory sentence that indicates clearly the reason for writing and is consistent with the subject of the email. Introduce yourself briefly (long texts often discourage people from reading them), then follow on with:
- I am writing with regard to… (email subject)
- I am writing in connection with… (email subject)
- I am writing in reference to…
If you’re writing an email to send information, you can start with one of the following sentences:
- I am writing to let you know…
- I am delighted to tell you… (if you’re communicating good news)
- I regret to inform you that… (if you’re communicating bad news)
If instead you’re replying to an email you received, you can say:
- I am writing in response to…
- I am writing in reply to…
- I am writing to thank you for… (if you need to thank the recipient)
Body of the text
There are no conventional formulas for writing the body of the text because this varies according to the function of what you need to communicate. It’s useful to prepare an initial draft and then proceed with any corrections.
The general rules are that the text should be divided into short paragraphs that avoid abbreviations and acronyms, both of which you can use, on the contrary, when you write an informal email to family and friends.
Based on the type of message you’re sending, there are various ways to write a final invitation before ending the email, such as:
- I look forward to hearing from you soon
- Thank you in advance
- For further information, please do not hesitate to contact me
- Please let me know if you have any questions
- Thanks for your attention
Conclusion
The most common way to end an email are:
- Best regards
- Kind regards
- Yours faithfully (if you began the email with ‘Dear Sir/Madam’ because you don’t know the name of the recipient)
- Yours sincerely (if you began the email with ‘Dear Mr/Mrs/Ms + surname)
- Regards
Examples of formal emails in English
Let’s see how all of this works in practice.
Example 1: Delay with the delivery of an order
Subject: Delivery delay
Dear Mr Pascal,
We regret to inform you that we will not be able to respect the deadline previously agreed for the delivery of your order. Our supplier has warned us today that they are experiencing supply problems, which will result in a delay in our production chain. We count on your understanding and thank you for your patience.
Please accept our apologies.
Best regards,
…
Basic elements of story writing are-
1. Setting: Where and when is the story set? Setting represents both the physical location but also the time (i.e. past, present, future) and the social and cultural conditions in which the characters exist.
2. Character: A person or animal or really anything personified. There can be one main character or many, and often there are secondary characters, but not always.
3. Plot: The plot consists of the events that happen in the story. In a plot you typically find an introduction, rising action, a climax, the falling action, and a resolution. Plot is often represented as an arc. To learn about plot in detail, read the article: “What is a Plot.”
4. Conflict: Every story must have a conflict, i.e. a challenge or problem around which the plot is based. Without conflict, the story will have no purpose or trajectory.
5. Theme: Idea, belief, moral, lesson or insight. It’s the central argument that the author is trying to make the reader understand. The theme is the “why” of the story.
6. Point-of-view: “Who” is telling the story? First person (“I”) or third person (“he/she/it”). Limited (one character’s perspective), multiple (many characters’ perspectives) or omniscient (all knowing narrator). Second person (“you”) is not often used for writing stories.
7. Tone: The overall emotional “tone” or meaning of the story. Is it happy, funny, sad, depressed? Tone can be portrayed in multiple ways, through word and grammar choices, choice of theme, imagery and description, symbolism, and the sounds of the words in combination (i.e. rhyme, rhythm, musicality).
8. Style: This is how things are said. Word choices, sentence structure, dialogue, metaphor, simile, hyperbole. Style contributes significantly to tone.
Note making is not just about writing down everything you hear or read. It is a process of reviewing, connecting and synthesising ideas from your lectures or reading.
Making notes helps you to:
- Stay active and engaged during your lectures, reading and revision
- Understand what you are learning and clarify your thinking
- Be selective and identify key ideas
- Remember the material
- Organise your ideas and make connections
- Plan and structure written assignments
- Review and revise before exams.
You can also see our note making techniques tutorial, which explores the different approaches you can take to note making. You will learn the various options for note making in different contexts and explore the advantages and features of each approach.
What your notes should contain
All good notes should contain:
- Source information (title, author, date etc)
- Headings to help you identify the key topics
- Key points, examples, names, new ideas
- Triggers to make your notes more memorable – such as mnemonics, colour or drawings
- Further reading and ideas to follow up later.
Consider developing a system of symbols and abbreviations to help you speed up your note taking. Common abbreviations in notes include “poss.” for possibly, “esp.” for “especially”, and “govt.” for government, but you can create a list that works for you.
Sometimes poor note taking can lead to unintentional plagiarism. To help avoid this you should make quotes, paraphrases and summaries look different from your own ideas in your notes. You could use quotation marks or square brackets, or highlight other people’s ideas in a different colour.
Set up a system to record complete bibliographic details, including:
- Name of the author, editor, lecturer or organisation
- Date of lecture, publication, or access (for websites)
- Title of lecture or source
- Page numbers where applicable
- Other bibliographic details you might need for a reference.
Three stages of note making
Note making doesn’t only happen when you are reading or attending lectures. There are three stages to making effective notes: before, during, and after.
- Before: Prepare by finding out what you need to know and what the purpose of the reading or lecture is.
- During: Note down main ideas and keywords. Find techniques that work for you.
- After: Reflect and review and then organise your notes.
Information transfer is the process of moving messages containing user information from a source to a sink via a communication channel. In this sense, information transfer is equivalent to data transmission which highlights more practical, technical aspects.
The information transfer rate may or may not be equal to the transfer modulation rate.
Bidirectional information transfer is called information exchange.
Set Clear Goals for Yourself
You should never agree to an interview unless you are sure of what you want to convey. Not all press is good press. If you sound like you are uninformed of your message shifts erratically in the interview, you will not help your cause. Before you begin, consider how this article could be helpful to your organization and its ultimate goal. Then, think about whom you want to sway and what language or arguments would best accomplish that.
Use your goals to determine your “message.” Throughout the interview, you want a clear theme to develop. That’s your “message.”
Be Prepared
Before the interview, you should prepare possible questions you expect the interviewer to ask and come up with answers to those questions. Then make an effort to sit down, preferably with someone else to help you, and practice your responses. Try to be clear, concise, and interesting. You don’t want to drone on long after the reporter has stopped taking notes. Remember, you should have a clear message you reiterate when appropriate. For example, in preparing for your interview you and another organizer have come up with some possible questions the reporter might ask.
When brainstorming your responses, try to find ways to insert your message. You don’t need to use your catchphrase in every response, but the general message should be conveyed as often as possible. When practicing, try to anticipate difficult questions the reporter might ask you. Find different ways of answering the question and consider possible follow-up questions. When brainstorming responses to tricky questions, think two or three questions ahead to see where the reporter might try to lead you. It sounds like a lot of speculation, but it’s worth it when a little forethought can help you avoid a sticky situation.
In the interview, you want to respond to the reporter, not just answer her questions. That means you want to tailor your remarks in such a way as to lead the reporter back to your key point, your “message.” If you feel that the interviewer’s questions are straying away from the real issue, steer the dialogue back to the topic by saying something like, “That’s an interesting question, but I think the real issue is . . .” or “While that may be one aspect of the problem, the greater issue is . . . .” You don’t want to antagonize or appear to belittle the reporter, but you also don’t want to jeopardize the value of the interview.
The reporter has been trained to think of the interview and the story as theirs. Therefore, you shouldn’t expect her to docilely follow what you think the agenda for the interview should be. There’s a certain tension between any good reporter and her savvy interviewee. It’s your job to get your points across as effectively as possible and still maintain a mutually beneficial relationship. It’s in her interests to fold your perspective of the issue into the story they envision.
You should realize that most interviews will take place without a lot of preparation time for you. You shouldn’t expect to have much advance notice. Therefore, by the time you present yourself as a resource for journalists, you should have already practiced and given considerable thought to your interview techniques. You don’t want to be caught off-guard.
Understand the Reporter’s Needs
Some reporters at a newspaper have a specific beat, or topic area, that they are expected to cover and on which they can be very knowledgeable; others are general assignment reporters, or reporters who are expected to write on a variety of issues that may constantly change. When a reporter first approaches you for an interview, you should determine how much they already knows about the subject. Oftentimes, reporters new to the topic will inform you that they will need more than the usual amount of background information. This presents you with an excellent opportunity to educate them and strengthen your professional relationship. Good information from you now will make it more likely the reporter will rely on you in the future.
If you are working with a reporter new to your issue or organization, it’s a good idea to give them as much comprehensible background information as you think necessary to understand the issue. This doesn’t mean that you should fax them a hundred-page treatise. What you should do is give them one to two pages of background information and let them know about any informative and easy to use websites that are available. A bulleted fact there would be easy to read and quickly convey the key points. Remember that reporters need to prepare for interviews almost as much as you do. They’ll appreciate the extra information and the opportunity to prepare their questions in advance of the interview.
If the reporter is an old hand on the subject, you don’t need to steer them toward any information unless you think they is unaware of something new that is integral to the topic. In this case, you might want to mention the new piece of information and let them know where they can find it. If the reporter asks you about any new information, you should feel free to let her know about the latest data available, for example.
The Format
Most interviews take place over the telephone. The reporter may call you a few hours before her article is due and ask to interview you on the subject. They’ll ask you to spell your name slowly and to give them your exact title and the name of your organization. They may also ask you to succinctly describe your organization. You should have a standard description of your organization developed before your first interview.
During the interview, if you falter and inadvertently give incorrect information, make sure to correct yourself as soon as possible. Be as accurate, succinct, and clear as possible, even as you put forward your message. With practice, this will become second nature.
On the Record vs. Off the Record
Anyone who’s ever seen “All the President’s Men” has heard about on the record and off the record. On the record means that your words can be used in a story and attributed to you. Ninety-nine times out of a hundred, this is how you should be speaking to reporters. It’s rare that you would need to go off the record for any reason. Off the record is a gray area that is often dependent on different reporters. Before you enter this murky area, make sure that you and the reporter understand each other about how the information will be used. For the most part, off the record means that your information cannot be used in the article and the reporter cannot repeat it to anyone using you as the source. What the reporter can do is to ask other people to confirm what they have learned from you, on the record.
For an advocate, you should almost always restrict yourself to things that can be used on the record and attributed to you. If you’re giving reporters information that you don’t want to be linked to, you should realize that this situation could easily backfire on you. If you really feel that you must give this information, make sure to let the reporter know that this information is off the record BEFORE you say a word.
There are other categories for sharing information with reporters. One is called background. Saying something on background means that you don’t necessarily want the information to appear in the story, although it can, depending upon your agreement with the reporter. It cannot, however, be attributed to you. Background information is used to help a reporter frame a story or more accurately understand the context of the issue. The reporter might attribute it to “a source in the activist community” but that should not jeopardize your anonymity. While this information can be useful to the reporter, they will probably still try to have someone confirm the information on the record.
Not for attribution is another method of dispensing information. It can be used in the story, but it should be attributed to a “source.”
If a reporter uses a tape recorder to record the interview, it should be turned off before you provide any information that is anything but off the record. No matter your relationship with the reporter, mistakes can be made.
Remember, reporters aren’t there to protect you from yourself. If you volunteer too much information; forget to say that something is off the record before you say it; misunderstand what the reporter means when they says off the record, on background, or not for attribution, you’re going to be the one who’s hurt. The clearer you are in the beginning, the less damage control you’ll have to do later.
Ending the Interview
Once the interview has come to an end, make sure the reporter has your phone number (if they did not call you first) or other contact information such as e-mail to insure that they can get in touch with you if they has any follow-up questions as they is writing her story. Get their phone number as well, in case you have anything really important to add. If possible, find out when they expects the story to run. Sometimes, even when a reporter has written a story, it does not run due to the newspaper’s space constraints. You never know when a water main might break and drive you from relevance. In closing the interview, make sure to thank them for their time.
Collecting Clips
If this is the first time you have ever seen your name in print, you probably won’t need to hear this advice; however, it’s important to collect and file your clips. These clips can be used in soliciting other articles on your issues, can be included in press kits, used in testimony, brought to editorial board meetings, sent to funders, and analyzed for future interviews. And besides, they may come in handy for your organization’s 25th (or 50th) anniversary celebration!
Corrections
Hopefully, this won’t ever be an issue, but everyone is capable of making a mistake or misunderstanding something you might have said. If it’s a really grave error, call the reporter and let them know of the mistake, in a professional, non-confrontational way. If you come on strong, yelling and threatening to get her fired, you can pretty much say goodbye to any good relationship you might have had with them and, perhaps, other members of the press. Reporters are like the rest of us, they like to talk, and reporters have friends and colleagues who are also reporters. Always remember to be calm and polite in pointing out inaccuracies.
If the reporter is unresponsive to your request for correction and the mistake is something huge you have to set the record straight. Talk to the reporter’s editor at the newspaper and let him know calmly, professionally- that this information is inaccurate and damaging. If this article is one of a series that seems to show a bias against your organization by this reporter, you can ask to have another reporter cover your stories in the future. However, this should very rarely occur and you should be aware that it could diminish your coverage. If you are seen as troublesome, you could be bypassed by the media.
Conclusion
It’s important for you to remain self-assured no matter how nervous you may be feeling. The reporter has come to you as an authority. Be confident in your mastery of the material. With the proper preparation, there’s no reason to worry. The more interviews you do, the more comfortable you will be.
REFERENCES
- Adair, John. Effective Communication. London: Pan Macmillan Ltd., 2003.
- Ajmani, J. C. Good English: Getting it Right. New Delhi: Rupa Pubications, 2012.
- Amos, Julie-Ann. Handling Tough Job Interviews. Mumbai: Jaico Publishing, 2004.
- Bonet, Diana. The Business of Listening: Third Edition. New Delhi: Viva Books, 2004.
- Bovee, Courtland L, John V. Thill & Barbara E. Schatzman. Business Communication Today: Tenth Edition. New Jersey: Prentice Hall, 2010.
