Unit – 1

Vocabulary Building

Q1) Point out the three major processes in Word Formation. Explain them briefly.

A1)

There are three major processes by which the base is modified. They are:

There are some other minor devices also called reduplication, clipping blending and acronym.

Q2) Mention the minor devices in Word Formation and define those with example.

A2)

English vocabulary has been enriched from time to time from other Languages. New words are either borrowed or coined. Roughly 70% of the words in English are borrowed or coined. T.C. Baruah says "A word says "A word is the smallest meaningful unit of sound.”Every language has its own distinct patterns of combining morphemes to get larger units.

A form to which a rule of word-formation applied is called a base. Once a base has undergone a rule of word-formation the derived word itself may become the base for another, deviation and by re-application .It is possible to derive words of considerable morphological and semantic complexity

Q3) Write the classifications of the Prefixes with examples.

A3)

The prefixes are classified as follows:

1. Negative Prefixes:

a) The negative prefix'- 'in' is used-with words of Latin origin –‘Un’ is found in English Unfortunate, injustice.

b) The exact opposite meaning is brought by the prefix – dislike, disloyal.

c) Latin and French non-meaning not is used Non-violence, non-committal.

d) A-means lacking, a moral, asymmetry.

2. Reservative Prefixes:

a) Un - means to 'reverse action. Added to verbs (Reverse of Action) untie, unseat, unload.

b) de - means to reverse action added to abstract noun defrost, deforestation.

c) dis - to deprive of' is added to verbs, participles and

nouns. Disconnect, discolored, discontent.

3. Pejorative Prefixes:

Depreciatory means diminish in value.

a) mis– wrongly

misinform, misconduct, misleading

b) mal - means 'badly

mal treat, mal function, mal formed, malodorous

c) Pseudo means false

Pseudopodia, pseudo-intellectual

4. Prefixes of Degree or size:

a) Arch - highest, chief

Archbishop

b) Super - means above, more than, better

superman, super market, supernatural

c) Out - means to do something, faster, longer

Out run, out live

d) Sur - means over and above

surtax

e) Sub - means lower than, less than

sub human, sub standard, subordinate

f) Over -too much

over real, over dressed, over confident

g) under - means too little

undertook

h) Ultra - means extremely

ultraviolet, ultra modern

i) Mini - means small or little

miniskirt

5. Prefixes of Attitude:

a) co - with or joint

co-operative, co pilot

b) Counter - means in opposition to

countuant, counter-revolution

c) Anti means against

Antisocial, anticlockwise, antimissile.

d) Pro- means of the side of

Pro-communist

6. Locative Prefixes:

Super –Over - super structure

Sub -means beneath - subway subconscious

Inter means between - international interaction

Trans - means across - transplant, translation

7. Prefixes of time and order:

Fore - -means before - fore tell

Post - means after - post-war Ex-means former

Pre - means before - pre-war, pre planned

 Ex – means former - ex-minister

Re - means again - rebuild, resettlement, rewrite

8. Number Prefixes:

Uni, mono means one - unilateral, monotheism

Bi, di means two - bi lingual, dipole

Tri means three - tripartite

Poly, multi means many - multi racial, poly syllabic

9. Other Prefixes:

Semi means half - Semi circle

Vice means deputy - Vice president

Auto means self - Auto biography

 Neo means new - neo-gothic

Pan means world wide - Pan-American

Proto means first - prototype.

10. Conversion Prefixes:

Be, en and a

Be spectated (Participle adjective)

bewitch (transitive verb)

enslave (verb) afloat (adjective)

Q4) What is called Occupational suffixes? Give examples.

A4)

Occupational suffixes:
Ster - person engaged in - gangster

EER - an occupation - engineer

ER - in habitat - Londoner.

Q5) Explain Noun Suffixes by giving examples.

A5)

i) Noun/Adjective:
ITE means faction - Israelite, socialite

(i) AN means pertaining to-Indonesian, republican

ESE means nationality - Chinese

IST means occupation-Violinist, Organist

ISM means attitude - idealism Political movement-communism

Noun Suffixes:
ER, OR means instrumental -  driver, actor

ANT means agentive- inhabitant

 EE means passive - employee

 ATION means institution - organization

MENT means action - amazement

AL means action – refusal

ING means activity– driving

AGE means result of activity - drainage

NESS means quality - happiness

 ITY means quality – sanity

Q6) What do you mean by compounds in English explain?

A6)

English has a genius pattern for the formation of very expressing compound words. A compound word is a unit that consists of two or more words. There are no formal criteria that can be used for a general definition of compounds.

Orthographically they are written as one-word (bedroom) sometimes u is hyphenated (tax-free) and sometimes as two words without a hyphen (reading room) compounds may be classified on the basis of their syntax.

A. Noun compounds:

i)Subject and verb compounds:

The sun rises: Sunrise

The day breaks Day break

The girl dances: Dancing girl.

ii) Verb and object compounds:

x calls the girl: call girl

x chews gum: chewing gum

x pays taxes: Tax payer

x see sights: sight seeing

iii) Verb and Adverbial compounds:

x swims in the pool: swimming pool

x sits with the baby; baby sitter

x work at home: Home work

iv) Noun + Noun (Verb compound)

Wind mill, Toy factory, Blood stain, Oak tree, girl-friend, motor cycle, Ashtray

v) Other noun & noun

It names an entire thing by specifying some features.

Paper back - the book has a paper back

- blockhead - pot-belly, blue bell, bird brain, high brow, loudmouth

- pale face, fat head, etc.

B. Adjective compounds:

a) Verb+Object compounds

Man - Eating - x eats man

- heart breaking

- self defeating

- breath taking

b) Verb+Adverb compounds:

x goes across oceans: Ocean going

x feel it in the heart: Heart felt

x works hard: Hard working

Q7) Define

A7) Reduplicative:

Reduplicative are compounds which have two or more elements either identical or only slightly different.

e.g.: goody-goody (affectedly good)

The difference between the two elements may be in the initial consonants as in walkie-talkie or in the medial vowels egcriss-cross Most of the reduplicative are highly informal or familiar.

a) to imitate sounds:

tick-tack, bow-vow, ding-dong, ping-pong, flip-flap

b) to suggest alternative movements

see -saw

c) to identify

tip-top

d) to disparage by suggesting instability, nonsense, insincerity, vacillation, etc.
e.g.:

CLIPPING:
It is formed by the people who are fond of brevity The term clipping enotes the subtraction of one or more syllable from a word. This is used in informed style.

The shortening may occur at

a) The beginning of the word:

Telephone – phone

Omnibus - bus

aeroplane– plane

b) The end of the word:

Mike – Microphone

exam - examination

Movies - Moving pictures

add – advertisement

Photo – Photograph

c) At both ends of the word:

flu –influenza

BLENDS:
In a blend at least one of the elements is fragmentary; words are coined by combining parts of words. Many blends have only a short life and are very informal.

e.g.,
Motel from Motor + Hotel

Smog from smoke + Fog

Transistor from Transfer + Registor

Brunch from breakfast + lunch

Electrocute from Electro + Execute

Telecast from Television + Broadcast

ACRONYMS:

Acronyms are words formed from the initial letters of words. They are abbreviations of words. They are pronounced as a succession of Letters (alphabetisms) as in BBC, TV etc or as words in NATO, SEATO, etc.

a) Alphabetisms:

C.O.D - Cash on delivery

U.N - United Nations

G.H.Q - General head quarters

b) Words:

UNESCO - United Nations educational scientific and cultural organization

RADAR - Radio Detection and Ranging.

By the process of word formation, the original roots have acquired a variety of meaning.

Q8) Explain Root Words from Foreign Language and their use in English?

A8)

English is part of the German branch of the family of Indo-European language, so why is it so influenced in Latin and Greek? Although the origin of the English languages ​​was introduced in England at the beginning of the 5th century by people from Denmark and Germany, the language was not entirely different from what we speak today.

When the Normans, a number of French Catholics, invaded the British islands in 1066, they came with their two languages: Latin and French. Because they were a ruling party long after the invasion, English became the language of the weak, effectively forcing English speakers to accept Latin and French words in their own language to match. Since the Renaissance began, nearly 500 years later, many Latin words, as well as those of the Greeks, were included to make English a more '' learned 'language because of the Renaissance's emphasis on classics.

Abacus:
Abacus is derived from the Greek word - abax, meaning "sand tray."

Allegory:
Allegory is derived from Greek - allos meaning "other" and agora meaning gathering place (especially the market). Eventually words join and are linked to the verb to speak of one thing and another to mean another.
Apricot:
The term comes from the French - apricot - and it was a bit confusing until the fifteenth century - it does not have a single simple etymology, but rather a mixture of many theories under consideration. but all these roads lead to Rome, from where that name - and fruit - began to spread throughout Europe.

Addictive:
Slaves agreed to allow Roman soldiers to pay for a concert in battle they were considered addicted to. Finally, a person who was addicted to anything called addiction.
Alarm:
From Italian, "All'arme" - "To arms!"

Alcohol:
Alcohol is taken from an Arabic al-kuhl, which has meant that there is a very good antimony powder used for eye makeup. It voiced the idea of ​​something so elegant and smooth, so the Arabic alchemists give the name of al-khul which brings in any insubstantial powder obtained by slow release (a direct conversion of a solid base into a vapor, or process of return), and thus for all computers available through the sanitization process.

Algebra:
The name means "the science of equations" in English comes from an article by one of al-Khowarizmi's (see "algorithm"), "Ab his AL-JAHR w'almuqaBAlah", meaning, "The Science of Transportation and Sanitation/ Cancellation."

Algorithm:
The name means "rules of computing" in English, which is based on al-Khowarizmi (Try saying it soon), an Arabic mathematician who lives around A.D. 825 who completed the best known numerical work using Arabic numerals.

Appendix:
In Latin it means "the hanging part." The human supplement hangs at the end of a large stomach; appendices given at the end of the book.

Assassin:
Assassin from the old Arabic word "hashshshin," means "person who loves hash," that is, marijuana. Earlier it was referring to a group of heroes who would smoke before the war.

Asthma:
Latin for asthma, "asthma," meaning "asthma" and "hypertension." The Latin word is derived from the Greek that feels the same.

Avocado:
Avocado from "awaguatl," the original American testicle name. The Spaniards got the word and used to refer to what we now call avocado.

Ballot:
Ballot, an Italian word meaning "small ball or pebble or stone." Italian citizens voted by placing a small stone or ball in one of the many boxes.

Barbarian:

Barbarian from "barbaroi" in Greek, meaning "babblers”.

Bead:
Bead from the Old English "gebed," which means, "prayer."

Beserk:
Beserk mainly comes from the Old Icelandic "berserkr," meaning "bear shirt."

Biscuit:
Biscuit from mediaeval French 'Bis + cuit' which means 'double cooked'

Boulevard:
Boulevard from (French) Boulevard; and Bulwark

Bucolic:
From the Greek "boukolos," meaning "shepherd," from "bous," meaning "ox."
Bulimia:
Bulimia comes from the Greek "bous" meaning "ox" and "limos," which means "starvation," probably because a person with Bulimia is hungry for beef.

Cab:
Old Italian terminology for goat (cabra in Spanish).

Calculate:
The calculation comes from calculus, the Latin word pebble.

Cantar: (Spanish) Singing

From the Latin "Cantare," which means, "to sing often." Latin "Canere" simply means "to sing."

Carnival:
Literal meaning: "Flesh, farewell." The end of "val" does not appear in the Latin "Vale." The modern Italian carnevale comes from the Old Italian "carnelevare"; levare = raise, place, remove. ) where people used to fast.

Catharsis:
In Early Modern English, it is used in the sense of "cleaning." The concept of this name was still used as recently as 1803.

Candidate:
From the Latin Candidus a word that means, "bright, shining, white, white." The ancient Roman members who were elected to this position wore bright white hats. The same name also spelled out the "firm", who are often not elected.

Casarse : (Spanish, to marry)

From "casa," which means "house"; so is the English phrase, "to wrap."

Cell:
Originally meant a monastery. It was Robert Hooke, who invented the first telescope. His first guess was the cork stem, which was made up of small columns. To him, the tiny fractions were like the little monasteries in which they lived, known as cells. Therefore, he called these microscopic building blocks "cells".

Chapel:
From the Cape "Italian" Capella, since the original Chapel was where the cape ("capella") of the St. Martin of Tour was kept.

Vulture and Chasm:

From the Greek "chainein," which means, "to soften"; So chaos was "just the beginning of the abyss" without the known universe we know.

Champion; and Campus:

Check out Kampf

Charlatan: 
From the Spanish "charlar” for discussion /to chat.

Cheers:
From the Greek "Kara" for "face," with Latin "Cara," and the French French "Chiere". So "Take courage," it means, "Put on a happy face."

Chocolate:
It comes from the Spanish word for the same name, which came from the Nahuatl word (Aztecs language) "tchocoatl."

Cider:
It comes from the Greek Greek sycamore, which came from an ancient Hebrew shekel, which means "any alcoholic beverage other than wine made to ferment fruit juice."

Claim:
From the Latin "clamor", which is a judicial or public appeal raised on the discovery of sin.

Conejo: (Spain) Rabbit

This Spanish word, meaning "rabbit," comes from the Latin word cuniculus, itself, which was taken in a letter from a previous Iberian name - according to Pliny the Elder - referring to both the animal and the scroll - and, by extension, any basement or trench. For its part, the name rabbit is a Flemish origin, and was originally used for small animals. The word used to refer to an old animal - in Flemish and Old English - was "cony" or "coney," which is derived from the cuniculus.

Coward:
From Old French "coe" which means "tail." The OED adds, "The exact indication of the tail is uncertain: it may be an animal that 'turns tail' on a plane, or a practice in frightened animals to draw the tail between the hind legs: cf. the use of Heraldic in theory B 2. It is noteworthy that in the Old French version of Reynard the Fox , Coart is the name of a hare: this may be a descriptive adjective with regard to its zeal; it is closed, and that the word is then transferred to 'the heart of a hare.'

Companion: Compañero (Spanish); Copain (French) Partner

From the Latin "Companionem," which was, "breadwinner" - "Con" (also) and "Pan"

(bread) - your "partner" may have been someone to break bread with. "Look again to the Lord and take care of it.

Cravate (French); Krawatte (German); Corbata (Spanish) Tie:

The names "Krawatte" (German), "cravate" (French) and "corbata" (Spanish), which all mean "human" tie, first appeared in the Napoleonic Wars when French troops entered the Crotia region, which, at that time, were part of the Holy Roman Empire. Evidently the Croatians were so capable of removing the German Habsburg yoke that they showed the victorious French troops a bouquet of flowers and ran to them and bound the scarlet threads in their uniforms as a gesture of goodwill. From them the name "Croat" or its variants appear to be attached to certain parts of Continental Europe.

Cretin:
From the French "Crétin", which originally meant "Christian."

The cup:

See Kopf

Currant:
From the Corinthians

Curfew:
From the French "couvrir feu," literally, "Cover the Fire."

Daisy:
From "Eye of the Day." George Eddington writes, "Not special in itself, but Mata Hari also means" Eye of the day, "the young woman took the name because she lived in the Dutch East Indies and heard the natives so much in the sun. "

Debonair:
French "good spirit." In the Middle Ages, people's lives were judged in part by the way they smiled. The person giving out “a good spirit” was viewed as a healthier and happier person.

Deer:
From the Old English "deor," which means "animal."

Demon: (German and English)

From the Greek "Daimon" this supernatural force is somewhere between humans and gods, without undesirable touch. An example would be the daimon of Socrates. The daimonans had a genius that did not conform to our modern ideas of good or evil: it was a natural force that could give clues about the circumstances and the critical actions.

Denim:
The heavy cloth used for jeans was originally made in Nimes, France, as well as in Genoa, Italy (see jean). It was renamed Serge di Nimes - later reduced to di Nimes, which became denim.

Derive:
From the Latin "De Rivus," "From the broadcast."

Deutsch: (German by German)

"Deutsch" comes from the Old German word "diutisc" which means "human language" (as opposed to Latin). There are uncertain hints of the "Germanic" origins as the Celtic "Angry Men" or Old High German "Greedy Men"!

Dexterity:
From the Latin "dexter," meaning "right" (in the left sense).

Dibbs:
It is suggested that this phrase is based on an old children's play called dibstones. The game, which was played with sheep knuckle-bones or gemstones, dates back to at least the 17th century (that's right, that's when the name started being written). The goal was to catch his opponent's stones, and when a stone was hit, the winner would call "Dibbs!" with the meaning "I want [stone]". It was recently used out of the game but with the same meaning, and there you have it. Interestingly, the use of this outside of the game was not recorded until 1932 in the US. (Lee Quinn)

Elite:
From the Latin Latin, which means "to choose," from which we find a modern Spanish word that means the same, elegir.

Escape:
In Latin, escape means "out of the cape." The ancient Romans often avoided arresting the runaway population.

Essay:
The English noun phrase comes from the French verb "story", to try. The earliest scholars believed that their papers were a modest attempt to present their papers.

Exchequer:
The Moors introduced Abacus in Europe to expand the Europeans, and monks distributed the device throughout Europe. In Britain, it was used but in its simplicity: they used a checkbox and letters such as checks (instead of using standard rods and beads) - and this gave the British version an "exchequer" to the "Chancellor" of the Exchequer.
 

Faro: (Spanish) Lighthouse

An ancient island from Egypt, the Paroah Island, had a lighthouse.

Feo: (Spanish) Ugly

From the Latin "Foedus," "disgusting."

Forest:
From the same French meaning, Forest comes directly from the Latin realm, meaning "outdoors," and took the concept of a place restricted or protected by an obstacle. The concept will later outline the legal barriers around areas reserved for royal hunting (as well as logging). Unfortunately, the English foreign word is taken in parallel, indicating a foreigner outside the royal realm, beyond the borders.
 

Fowl:
From the English "fugol," which means "bird."

Freedom:
This comes in German (a literal, modern translation, "Freiheit"), but is actually very close to taking the German word "Friede", which means "quiet"

Fromage (French); Status (Medieval French); Formaggio cheese (Italian)
From the Latin word for basket or wooden box where curds were cut to form cheese, forma, itself derived from the Greek word phormos (This is where the English word "form" comes from). According to them, the English word cheese, the Spanish word queso and the German word Kaese all come from the Latin word cortus, food too.
 

Gohen :(Germany) To go

From the beginning it means, "emptiness"

Genuine:
It originally meant "put on his knees." In Old Rome, a father formally admitted that his new child by sitting in front of his family put his son on his knees.

Gewissen: (German) Conscience

From "wissen" (to know), where we get the word, "wissenschaft" – science.

Gift:
From the Old English as "gift," which means, "to pay one's wife" for one meaning "marriage" in the plural. The Middle Dutch "gift", now labeled "gif," meant the same, but today it means "poison." Old High German "gift" turned into "poison". From the root "geb-", from which the English word "give." There is another German word, however, which includes the word "gift", but which retains the old meaning of "paying a wife". The name "Mitgift", which is a modern German word for "dowry".

Gin; Ginebra (Spanish); Genievre (French):

The English word "gin" comes from the French word genievre, meaning "juniper," a berry name that gives gin its unique, spicy flavor. Unfortunately, the word "juniper" comes from the Celtic word jenupus, which means "spicy." One final note: the name of the western city of Geneva and comes from the same source. Evidently, the countryside around Geneva was initially littered with juniper forests.

Gorilla:
New Latin from the Greek Gorillai, a tribe of hairy women, probably of African descent.

Groggy:
It comes from the description that many British sailors face when they are going to drink a lot of "grog", a mixture of rum and water. Grog is said to have taken the nickname "Old Grog" given to British Admiral Vernon by his sailors; much like Lord Mountbatten later, he was in the process of wearing a sort of heavy grogram coat, a soft weather cloth (the name comes from French gros-grain). Sailors began to use his nickname in an amusing way in their rum fragments, after he ordered in 1740 to be purified by water.

Guapo :(Spanish) Handsome

Guapo, and Chulo ("cool"), both originally had the meaning of "scoundrel", claiming to be "good-looking" perhaps in the form of "heroes." The despicable "Wop" comes from "guapo", in the form of the Italian language "guappo".

Gymnasium:
The Greek of the place where you train is naked.

Hablar :(Spanish) To Speak

From the Latin "Fabulare," which means, "to speak fairy tales."

Hazard:
The word came from Arabic "al zahr", which means "dice" and was used by people in Western Europe to name each of the various dice games they learned while in the Holy of Holies during the Crusades. The name eventually caught the attention of the danger, because from the very beginning, dice games were associated with gambling and cartoonists using corrupted dice.

Heresy:
The Greek is "Choice."

Hierarchy:
Previously it was the separation of angels from different periods into different stages.

Home:
From the old English "hum," which also comes with the words, such as Nottingham.
Host, Hospital, Hostel, Hospitality, hospice:

From the Latin for "nurses, patients," which means, "one who receives stacks in his home." In English, "Host" also means "edible bread eaten at the Hospital"; so the link between friendship and bread is also noteworthy; see Partner with the King.

Husband:
It comes from the old German words hus and bunda, meaning "house" and "owner," respectively. The word originally had little to do with marital status, except that the fact that home ownership made husbands more desirable to date.

Idea, ideal, Idol:

Everything from the Greek word "idein" to "seeing"; you see Sanskrit "vid" (knowing) and Latin "videre" (seeing) and English "intelligent." The W / V sound from the Indo-European root is lost in ancient Greek.

Incentive:
From the Latin word "delicate," meaning "to sing." The idea is "When playing music, one has to = dance."

Jeans:
Genoa - called "Gene" by the sixteenth-century Europeans - was the first city to make denim cloth (see Denim) used for jeans. The pants were named after the city.
 

Kampf (German) Struggle:

From the Latin "company" - of its fortress type, where Roman soldiers were driving soldiers - where we also call the English words, "camp," "compass" and "champion." So, when we talk about "college campus," there are subtle ways of fighting.

Ketchup:
The Chinese invented the ke-tsiap - a drawing of spiced fish and spices (but no tomatoes) - in the 1690s. By the early 1700's its popularity had spread to Malaysia, where British explorers first encountered it. By 1740 the sausage - called ketchup - was a peculiar English phenomenon, and was beginning to become popular in American colonies. Tomato ketchup was not invented until the 1790s, when colonies in New England began mixing tomatoes in sauces. It took a long time to add tomatoes to the sauces because, most 18. For a century, people thought they were poisonous, because tomatoes are a close relative of belladonna poisonous plants and nearby plants.

Kike - a shameful, offensive name for a Jew:

Initially it was developed by German Jews to use against Russian Jews. It comes from the "k" sound at the end of many Russian Jewish words, such as "Lewinsky" or "Lemcoff."

Knave:
Dropped from the old English word "cnafa" which simply means, "youth."

Knight:
From the Old English "cniht," which means "boy, servant."

Kopf (in German) Head:

From the Latin "cup", meaning "cup"; The Romans used the cup as a metaphor for the upper part of the head. Similarly, another Latin word meaning "cup," "testa," has now become the French word "Tête," meaning "head,". Note that the Germans and Celts use "skullcap" "on top of one's head") as a drinking container; this has been part of the recognition of enemy culture. So it has to do with "chief" and "capital" (and "testicle").
 

Lettuce; and Leche (Spanish) Milk: Latin lettuce was "lactuca sativa," which means "milky sap"; so it has to do with the Spanish "leche" of milk and "lactic" and other derivatives.

Liberty:
The Latin words "Liber," "Libera," and "Liberum" - by Long I - came from a source meaning, "to pour." In this case, we get the word "Freedom" (which is why it's pronounced I) short, from the freedom we feel when we get drunk. See Library (unrelated).

Library:
From the Latin word, Liber - whose name is I - meaning "divination," which would call for the inner sound of a tree. The earliest manuscripts were written on these bins, and from this bark we find the modern name "Library." See Liberals (unrelated).

Liebe (German) Love:

From the Latin for the word "Libido," from the Latin "Libere" (for free, as in

"Liberals").

Light; and Licht (German) Light:

It is related to the Latin "Luna," which means, "the moon." "Moonlight" is therefore something like tautology.

Lindo (Spanish) Beautiful:

Related to "limpid" and "legal."

Lobster:
From the Latin "locusta," which means "locusts." The OED adds, "The Latin word for origin. It means the same lobster or crustacean, the locust application is suggested by a similarity of position."

Lord:
It comes from the Anglo-Saxon "hlaford," named after "hlaf" and "weard," and then, "loaf-ward"; likewise, "Lady" comes from the Anglo-Saxon "hlaefdige," or "bread-maid." See also partner and host.

Lucifer:
Lucifer is Latin for "Light Bringer". The same Hebrew, Haleal, means "antagonist." The passage in Isaiah (the only place in the Old Testament that mentions Lucifer) uses the Hebrew word for the Morning Star (ie planet Venus). The verse refers to the Babylonian king excessively, saying that he regarded himself as God, just as the Morning Star is a shining light in the sky, but pearls in comparison to the sun.

Lukewarm:
Tautology; "luke" Means warm or lukewarm [from ME lew, yes, luke, lewk and OE hleowand h hrr = lukvuarm]

Madera (Spanish) Wood:

From Latin materia, from PIE * mater-, meaning "mother"

Malaria:
From the medieval Italy "mal" "(bad) and" aria "(wind), which describes miasma from areas around Rome during the summer months, which are believed to be the cause of the downfall.

Mayonnaise:
The suffix spoken is French for "native" or "from within." Mahonnaise is said to have been created to celebrate the victory of the French war of 1756 by defeating the British on the Spanish island of Port Mahon.

Marcher (French) To Walk:

The OED states, "The etymology of Fr. March is obscure; the passing idea is that the ancient engraving concept of 'tread' was based on the concept of hammer ', and that the name stands for Gaulish Latin * marcare, f. L. marcus hammer. "

Mark (German) The German unit of currency (pre-Euro):

Originally meant "Borderland," from medieval German border towns - that's why the English word "Mark," as it stands, "mark the border." So, the German place names, Finland, Dänemark, Ostmark, etc. From Mark German, we also find the "marshal" of French as well as Spanish, Portuguese, Italian, and Catalan, "marca."

Mistress:
From the French "Maîtresse," which means "bride".

Money:
From the Latin word "moneta" which means "warning"

Mound; and Monde (French), Mundo (Spanish) World:

From pre-Christian, the German word "mund" or protection, such as that given by a family or tribal leader to group members. This was also the name of the small garbage hills or "protection" used to bury deceased members of the nation. It is interesting to note that the name was introduced by the Germanic tribes (ie, Goths, Visigoths, Vandals, Alemani, Suevi) who invaded the Roman province of the late fifth century AD and where they derived the word "this monde" (in French) and "el mundo. "(Spanish) meaning" earth "(literally" mound of clay ").

Muscle:
From the Latin mus (mouse) and ele (dim.) - a small mouse that goes under the skin when flexed.

Museum, Mosaic:

Both from the Greek Muse (the Latin museum for "The Place of the Muses"; the mosaic is from the Greek logoios, "related to the Muses")

Mustard (Eng.) / Moutarde (Fr.) / Mostrich (N. ger. Dialect) / Mostarda (It.) / Mostaza (Sp.):

As a courtesy, mustard has been enjoyed for thousands of years. It is made from the crushed seeds of a member of the Cruciferae family known as Sinapis. Originally, crushed seeds were mixed with vinegar - much as we enjoy it today - but vinegar was eventually replaced for some time in the Middle Ages with grapes "must" (which is the result of the win-win process). So, the word "must" ard. The botanical name Sinapis introduced the French name of the plant itself, seneve, and the German name of the mustard, Senf.

Nacht (German) Night:

Originally it meant “Day,” as the ancient Germans, like the ancient Jews, measured daily from sunset to sunset. See also Tag.

Nauseau, Navigate:

Both from Proto-Indo-European * nau, meaning "boat"

Nemesis:
From the same Greek, it originally meant, "the act of distributing or distributing others" and later "wrath and vengeance, righteous indignation for breaking the law."
Nemesis was the god that restored balance. It would have been a mass of shipowners to introduce the ship without sacrificing to the gods, for example, this destructive act could provoke a counter-reaction, as we saw with the Titanic. There was no judgment or divine punishment involved, simply a response from another world to the loss that occurred in this country.

Nice:
From the Latin word "nescius," which means "ignorance," and, at various times before the appointment of the present meaning means "foolish" then "foolishly accurate" and "precisely accurate" and "correctly accurate" and then our current definition.

Noon:
It is derived from the Latin noun. The word "afternoon" originally meant nine o'clock after sunrise, or 3:00 p.m .-- usually the hottest part of the day and time when most people in the Roman Empire skipped lunch.

Nostril:
From Old English "nosthryl," they came from the OE words "nosu" (meaning "nose") and "thryl" (meaning "pit").

Occasion:
From the Latin place, which means, "an accident, or a great event."

October:
From the Latin octu (m), meaning "eighty," and imber, meaning "rain." The same "Imber" in September.

Office:
It originally meant, "Church Server." (Note the country of origin of that name.)

Ojalá (Spain) "I hope [that ...]":

This word, which in Spanish means "I wish that" or "May God grant" comes from the old Arabic saying "To Sh Allah," which means "May Allah grant." In one of the great paradoxes is that people, who have been on the staircase for centuries, the Catholic frontlines have fought a battle to bring the Iberian Peninsula to Islamic Moors, to this day urge Allah each time to express a strong desire.

Old; and Alt (German) Elder:

"Alt" originally meant, "You've grown"; the "growth" role; related to "Alan," which means, "to grow" but is no longer available in modern German. In ancient English, the word "Alan" was also used in the same sense of growth or diet. Latin related "alt" which means "high."

Omlette:
Coming to English by using the French word for the same, the word is thought to come from the Latin word lamella, "small plate," referring to the longer, more omlette form, as well as to represent the gradual decomposition of allumelle first, then allumelette. alomelette (The cuisinerfrancois of 1651 has aumelette). The modern name "omelette" first appears in the 1784 Chinese bourgeoise.

Opportunity:
From the Latin Ob-, meaning "in relation to," and portu (m), meaning "port."

Orange (Eng.); Orange (Fr.); Naranja (Sp.); Arancia (It.):

Interestingly, none of those terms come from the Latin word for orange, citrus aurentium; instead, all of them come from the traditional Sanskrit nagaranga, which accurately means "fatal indigestion for elephants." In certain traditions the orange, not the apple, is that the fruit liable for sin . There was an ancient Malay fable--which made its way into the Sanskrit tongue round the Seventh or Eighth Centuries B.C.--that links the orange to the sin of gluttony and has an elephant because the culprit. Apparently, at some point an elephant was passing through the forest, when he found a tree unknown to him during a clearing, bowed downward by its weight of lovely, tempting oranges; as a result, the elephant ate numerous that he burst. a few years later a person stumbled upon the scene and noticed the fossilized remains of the elephant with many orange trees growing from what had been its stomach. the person then exclaimed, "Amazing! What a nagaranga (fatal indigestion for elephants)!"

Ostracize:
"Ostron" may be a Greek word for pottery. Periodically the Greeks would hold an election to work out if someone was a danger to their community. Everyone would write their votes on broken pieces of pottery ("ostron") and if the vote was successful, the person was banished or "ostracized."

Pagan:
From the Latin paganu(m), for "someone who isn't from the town, rather from the country." In Late Latin, this became pagensis, "one who is from the country," and this utimately became the French pays and thus the Spanish País, both meaning "nation."

Palaver:
From the Spanish, "palabra," meaning, "word."

Parlement (French) Parliament:

From the French, "Parler," meaning, "to speak." Thus, we will not complain when our legislators do little aside from "speak."

Parler (French) to talk:

From the Latin "Parabolare," meaning, "to tell parables."

Pavilion:
Pavillion comes from the Latin "papilion-em," meaning, "butterfly." Pavillion meant a tent and therefore the allusion is to butterfly wings.

Pay:
Pay goes back ultimately to Latin, "pax" peace, by way of , appease, pacify. So "pay" originally meant "pay off," to stay the peace.

Pedigree:
From the French "Ped de gru," which suggests or meant, "Crane's foot," the /|\ symbol "used to denote succession during a genealogical table."

Peach:
When the peach first made its thanks to the Roman Empire from Persia, it had been called malum persicum, "Persian apple." The persicum then became pessicum, pessica and pesca (In modern Russian, it's still piersika.). The Italians have retained the term pesca, and it's become "peach" in English, peche in French, and Pfirsich in German. The Spanish differ from the remainder of Europe in calling it melocoton, literally "cotton-skinned apple"--from melum, "apple," and cotonium, meaning "quince" in Latin.

Pecuniary:
From the latin "pecunia," which originally meant, "wealth from livestock."

Pearl:
From from the Latin leg, because the bi-valve that produces pearls seems like a leg-of-mutton.

Pineapple (Eng.); Piña (Sp.); Nana (Fr.); Ananas (Germ.):

When Columbus landed in Guadeloupe in 1493, he found pineapples, which probably had originally come from Brazil. As Father de Acosta observed as early as 1589, the Spanish thought this new fruit resembled a pine cone; hence, the Spanish name of pinya, and therefore the English name of "pineapple" (the fruit was often just called a "pine" when it had been first introduced into Britain). The word nanais some of the Brazilian Guarani word meaning "perfumed" and was retained in both French and German.

Pedestrian:
Originally meant a lover (originally of Aristotle).

Planet:
From the Greek "Planasthai" for "to wander."

Porcelain (French) Porcelaine:

French porcelaine, from Old French pourcelaine, from Italian porcellana "of a sow," hence cowry shell, hence porcelain (from the resemblance of the cowry shell to the vulva of a sow), from porcella, diminutive of porca, sow, from Latin, feminine of porcus, swine.

Q9) Explain the meaning and use of following words - Synonyms, Antonyms and Standard Abbreviations

A9)

A Synonym is a word or phrase that has the same or similar meaning.
Synonym examples:

Word origin: Greek, syn = same, onyma = a name

Short list of synonyms in English, listed by the part of speech:

Nouns:

Verbs:

Adjectives:

Adverbs:

Prepositions:

Conjunctions:

Interjections:

Synonyms are not necessarily the same!

The punctuation is no different!

You see, they can be very similar, but they don't mean the same.

Here is a common example:

the following words are single-word words. Their standard definition is "fun to watch."
There are significant nuances.

Look at the pictures, read the definitions and see for yourself.

Here is another example to illustrate this point:

"To ask" means to say or write what you wish to happen.
"Asking" means saying or writing what you wish to do, but it is legally used.
In other words, he uses "inquiry" and "request" in various contexts and contexts.
So it is not enough to just read the meanings of words and punctuation. You should also know the subtle differences, nuances, and issues of using each word.

Additional example:

One of the definitions of the word "hurt" is "to be hurt."

For example, "My back hurt like hell."

The only word for "injury" is "brightness."

"Bright" means "sad, in a sad way." Acute pain means that it is not severe, but it is persistent.
For example, "For a long time I stood with my feet in pain."

So, you see, "injury" and "ache" are synonyms. Their meanings are quite similar, but not the same.

Antonyms:
An antonym is a word that means the opposite of another word.

examples:

Word origin: Greek, anti = opposite, onym = name /word

Short list of antonyms in English, listed by the part of speech:

Nouns

Verbs

Adjectives

Adverbs

Prepositions

Conjunctions

Interjections

Q10) Why are synonyms and antonyms important?

A10)

Knowing synonyms and antonyms can help you express yourself better – VERY MUCH/ CLEARLY.

If you know different words that mean the same thing (but in a different way, or at a different angle), you can choose the best word (same words) to use.
That way, you are able to deliver the exact message you intend to convey.
Knowing pronouns and conflicting words can help you express yourself better - VARIETY and much more. (Here "colored" means "interesting or entertaining.")
Repeating the same words often makes you monotonous. It is not well understood in natural speech, and especially in art writing (poetry, prose). Using synonyms to make your speech or writing more rich and "colorful"

Using diviners helps to emphasize your point, illustrate the difference, or explain exactly what you mean. Antonyms also add "colors" to speech or writing.

For example, compare these two categories:

"The girl is looking out the window. As she looks out the window, the girl sees a little cat. The kit she saw was not fat. It was very oily."

"The girl is looking out the window. While she is looking out, she has found a small cat. The jar she has seen is not oily.

For example, expenses, fees and charges, are all used to describe your payment:
Cost = the amount of money you need to buy, do or do something. (How much the consumer spends.)

• Total cost was $ 100.

• You can get a new roof for $ 850.

• They protest at the high cost of living.

Charging = the amount charged for the return of goods or services. (How much is requested by seller / supplier.)

• There is a $ 7 monthly fee for using the phone.

• There is a fee for admission to the base.

• Delivery will be free.

Fee = the amount of money to pay for professional advice or services (a statutory amount).
• The college has a fee for the services it provides.

• These Fees do not include accommodation or meals.

• My insurance covers doctor's money.

As you can see, costs, charges and fees have the same meanings, but there is a slight difference. They can be used separately.

These words are used interchangeably as verbs, too:

• How much does it cost? (Not: How much does it cost?)

• How much do you charge for repairs to the roof? (Not: How much does it cost to repair the roof?)

Q11) How to use synonyms and antonyms to improve vocabulary?

A11)

Synonyms and antonyms can help remember the words you are trying to learn and read.
To illustrate, suppose you were trying to learn the word bash. "Bash" is a random word meaning "big or exciting event, with food, drinks, dancing, etc." For example, "Get ready for the biggest birthday bash ever!"

Once you understand how the word "bash," you will find it helpful to know its word "group".
(Note that it doesn't work either way. Trying to define "bash" as "group" is not true.)

In most cases dictionaries show a list of words used after specific definitions or notes for internal use. There are also special dictionary dictionaries. They are called thesauruses. Thesaurus is a book in which words have the same or similar meaning are grouped together.

There are also online thesauruses that you can take advantage of:

Macmillan and Thesaurus Dictionary: A Free English Dictionary Online

Merriam-Webster - Free Internet Dictionary, Thesaurus and more

Thesaurus.com

Awareness name: thesauruses and lists a lot of unfamiliar words / not. So, use your judgment when dealing with them.

Q12) How to use synonyms and antonyms to improve writing skills?

A12)

Knowing many different phrases and concepts can help you change your writing.

The trick is to be able to choose the right word, and you can't choose the right word unless you actually know it. So, you need to know a lot of words, and know how and when to use them.

This is best achieved by reading, reading, reading, and then learning more.
There is, however, a list of exercises you can do to help.

An example for a writing exercise with synonyms

Let's say you'd like to expand your working vocabulary of connecting words that can add details, such as "moreover."

(Vocabulary works with words you know and actually use.)

So here is an exercise to help with that.

1. First, using a dictionary or thesaurus (or several of them), make a list of synonyms with the word "moreover."

Here is a list like that:

Moreover, moreover, moreover, something else is going on, the same, besides, yet, yet, what else, and, and, again, binding.

2. Look at each word in the dictionary.

Make sure you understand the definitions.

Go through the example sentences. It is important to see how each word / phrase is actually used.

Note also the following points:

• Possible places for each word / sentence in a sentence (beginning, middle, end).

• How punctuation is used next to it.

• At what time each word / phrase is used: legal, informal, bets, etc.

Write several sentences with the same word.

Here is an example to this:

Moreover (formal):
The solution offered was long and complex. Plus, it didn't seem to be working at the time.
She is a beautiful woman, moreover, she is a talented character.

Additionally
The factory had to shut down 20% of its workforce. In addition, management had to reduce production costs by 40%.

In addition

There is, in addition, one problem.

In addition to these files, I want you to look at the ones above.
They won the competition, and in addition made a new record.

Further
We did not have a pet. We have also seen, that we cannot pay.

• He lost his ticket. Moreover, he did not have his own ID.

• I will need more details on this.

Furthermore
He lied about his job. In addition, he lied about his actual age.

• The child brought happiness into their lives. Caring for her, moreover, has made them stronger.

Likewise (formal):
The first week was difficult. The second week was similarly difficult.

People want to stop the war. Similarly, the government needed to end it.

Besides/ Otherwise:

We have had many problems with no money.

Apart from selling cakes, this bakery also offers many beverage options.

Then/ After that:

I have been very tired lately and there is a wedding to do.

• Judy and Tracy want to come, and then Lisa and her boys, so we need another car.

Yet/However:
He is late again. I think we need to talk.

• My employer fired another job. It's the fourth of this month!

What is more

He lost his case, and what more was he trying to hide!

• The show was just amazing and what else, she organized herself.

Too (usually in spoken English)

Do I see it too?

• Clean your room and you should open windows.

Also (more formal than "and" and "also", “as well”, “too”)

• Jim is a great musician. He also plays the piano.

• I hated that movie. Also, it was very crowded inside.

• There were not many students today. It was too hot.

As well / And: (in American English sounds formalor legit)

Will she be here?

• We make boots and belts.

To boot/ Getting started (humorous / funny or old-fashioned)

Wear a red dress and high heels with high heels in the boot.

• Their son cannot get grain, and cannot drink milk to begin with.

• That dish looks bad, and it tastes bad, to begin with.

Standard Abbreviations:

A:
A, the ampere
Å, angstrom units
aa amino acids (s)
Ab, anti
AIDS, acquired immunodeficiency syndrome
AKT, v-akt murine thymoma viral oncogene Homolog 1
ALS, amyotrophic lateral sclerosis
AMP, adenosine monophosphate (ADP, ATP)
AMPK, AMP kinase
ANCOVA, an analysis of financial discrimination
ANOVA, analysis of variance
ATPase, adenosine triphosphatase (AMPase, ADPase)
AU, combat units
AUC, the area at the bottom of the curve

B:
BAC, bacterial chromosome transplant
Β-gal, gal-galactosidase
BM, context
BMI, body mass index
BMP, a bone morphogenetic protein
bp, base (couples)
BP, blood pressure
bpm, hit (s) per minute
BRAF, v-raf murine sarcoma viral oncogene homolog B
BrdU, bromodeoxyuridine
BSA, bovine serum albumin
BTU, British (heat) unit
BW, body weight

C:
° C, degree (s) Celsius
cAMP, cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cGMP)
Cas9, a 9-CRISPR-compatible protein
CCL, CC chemokine ligand
CCR, CC chemokine receptor
CD, collection of variants (CD4, CD8)
CDC, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention
cDNA, complementary DNA
CDP, cytosine diphosphate
C / EBP, CCAAT / proteinancer binding
CFA, complete Freund's genius
CFSE, carboxyfluorescein diacetate succinimidyl ester
CFU, colony-forming units
ChIP, chromatin immunoprecipitation
CHO, Chinese hamster ovary
CI, confidence interval
Ci, curies (s)
C-KIT, CD117, cell / cell growth line, protooncogene c-KIT
cM, centimeters (s)
Cmax, higher value [higher]
Cmin, minimum [concentration] concentration
CMP, cytidine monophosphate (CDP, CTP)
CMV, cytomegalovirus
CNRS, Center National de la Recherche Scientifique
CNS, central nervous system
CoA, coenzyme A
COX, a cycloo oxygenase
cpm, counting (s) per minute
CRISPR, compounded regularly by a short palindromic repetition
CSA, an activity that stimulates colonization
CSF, a factor that promotes colonization
Ct, limit cycle
CT, compact tomography
CXCL, CXC chemokine ligand
CXCR, a CXC chemokine receptor

D:
d, day (s)
d, of persons
3D, 3-dimensional
Da, dalton (s)
DAB, 3,3′-diaminobenzidine
DAPI, 4 ′, 6-diamidino-2-phenylindole
DC, a dendritic cell
DEAE, diethylaminoethyl
∆ (delta), change, change
DFG, Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft
DMEM, Dagbecco's modified Middle Eagle
DMSO, dimethylsulfoxide
DNA, deoxyribonucleic acid
dpc, coitum date (s)
dpf, the date (s) for fertilization
dP / dt, the initial output pressure measured later
dP / dV, pressure per unit change
dpm, disintegration (s) minute
dsDNA, double-stranded DNA
dsRNA, double-stranded RNA
DTT, dithiothreitol
 

E:
E1, embryonic day 1 (E2, E3)
EBV, Epstein-Barr virus
EC50, 50% active concentration
ECG, electrocardiogram, electrocardiography
ECL, enhanced chemiluminescence
E. coli, Escherichia coli
ED50, 50% effective dose
EDTA, ethylenediamine tetraacetic acid
EEG, electroencephalogram
EGF, a characteristic of epidermal growth factor
EGFP, an enhanced GFP
EGFR, EGF receptor
EGTA, ethyleneglycol-bis- (β-aminoethylether) -N, N, N ′, N'-tetraacetic acid
ELISA, an enzyme-linked emunosorbent assay
EMSA, electrophoretic mobility shift assay
ER, endoplasmic retopulum
ERK, an extracellular signal-regulated kinase signal

F:
F F, degree (s) Fahrenheit
FACS, fluorescence-activated cell sorting
F-actin, Actin filters
FBS, fetal bovine serum
Fc, immortalized fragments [of the immunoglobulin molecule]
FCS, baby calf serum
FDA, Food and Drug Administration
FDR, false discovery rate
FFPE, formalin-fixed, paraffin-embedded
FGF, fibroblast growth factor
FISH, fluorescence in hygridization
FITC, fluorescein isothiocyanate
fl, worried
Fox, Forkhead box
ft, foot, feet
FWER, smart family error rate

G:
g, gram (s)
g, units (s) of gravity
GABA, γ-aminobutyric acid
GAP, a GTPase-activating protein
GAPDH, glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase
GEF, a guanine nucleotide growth factor
GFP, a light green protein
GM-CSF, a granulocyte macrophage colony-growth factor
GMP, guanosine monophosphate (GDP, GTP)
GPCR, a G protein-coupled receptor
GWAS, a multidisciplinary relationship / case study
Gy, gray (s)

H:
h, hour (s)
HA, hemagglutinin
HBSS, Hanks' salty solution
HBV, hepatitis B virus
HDL, high lipoprotein
H&E, hematoxylin and eosin
HEPES, N-2-hydroxyethylpiperazine-N'-2-ethanesulfonic acid
HGF, a hepatocyte protein
HIF, an inaccessible hypoxia-factor
HIV, human immunodeficiency virus (HIV-1, HIV-2)
HLA, human leukocyte antigen
HMG, 3-hydroxy-3-methyl-glutaryl
HPLC, liquid chromatography is efficient
HPV, a person's papilloma virus
HR, risk ratio
HRP, peroxidase
HSA, album serum
hsp, a heat shock protein
HUVEC, the vena umbilicalis endothelial cell body
 

I:
i, electrical current
IACUC, Committee on Animal Care and Institution
IB, immunoblot
IC50, 50% inhibitory concentration
ICAM, a molecule of intracellular adhesion
ICOS, an inaccessible cost moleculei.c.v., intracerebroventricular (ly)
ID50, 50% inappropriate dose
IDL, a medium-density lipoprotein
IFN, interferon
Ig, immunoglobulin (IgE, IgG)
GF, growth as insulin
IHC, immunohistochemistry
IQB, an inhibitor of NF-κB (IvanoBi, IvanoBβ)
IL, interleukin (IL-12)
e.g., intramuscular (ly)
MDM, Iscove'smodul within the center
in., inch (es)
i.n., intranasal (ly)
INSERM, Institut National de la Santé et de la Recherche Médicale
IP, immunoprecipitation
i.p., intraperitoneal (ly)
QR, filter range
IRB, institutional review board
ISH, in hybridization
IU, units overseas
i.v., intravenous (ly)

J:
JAK, Janus kinase
JNK, c-Jun NH2-terminal kinase
JUN, Jun protooncogene

K:
K, degree (s) KelvinKA, regular association
kb, kilobase (s)
kcal, kilocalorie (s)
KD, constant isolation
kDa, kilodalton (s)
KI, regular blocking
Km, Michaelis-Menten Regular
KO, knockout

L:
L, liter (s)
LD50, 50% deadly dose
LDL, low lipoprotein
accommodation, a measure of discomfort
LPS, a lipopolysaccharide
LUC, luciferase

M:
m, meters
M, molar
mAb, monoclonal Ab
MALDI, a laser desseltion / ionization designed for a matrix
MAPK, a mitogen-activated protein kinase
Mb, database
2-ME, 2-mercaptoethanol
MEK, MAPK kinase
MEM, Small Eagle Medium Suitable
mEq, milliequivalent (s)
MFI, mean fluorescence intensity
MHC, a posh histocompatility complex
minutes, minutes (minutes)
miRNA, microRNA
mmHg, millimeter (of) of the zebra
MMP, matrix metalloproteinase
mo, month (s)
MOI, recurrence (ies) of infection
mol, im (s)
MOPS, 3- (N-morpholino) propanesulfonic acid
Mr., a relative of cells
MRI, resonance imaging
mRNA, messenger RNA
ms, millisecond (s)
mTOR, a mammalian target of rapamycin
MTT assay, 3- (4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl) -2,5 diphenyl tetrazolium bromide assay
MW, relative molecular mass
Myc, V-mycmyelocytomatosis viral oncogene homolog (avian)

N:
N, [common] solution
n, number in group
N, total sample sizeNA, it doesn't work
NAD, nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide
NADH, lower the NAD
NADPH, reduced NAD phosphate
NF-κB, a nuclear factor
NIH, World Health Centers
NK, natural killer [cell]
NKT, natural killer T [cell]
NLR, a Nod-like receptor
NMDA, N-methyl-ᴅ-aspartate
NMR, nuclear magnetic flux
no, a number
NOD, a nonobese diabetic
NOR, nonobese resistance
NOS, NO synthase
NP-40, Nonidet P-40
NS, not important
NSAID, an antiinfrance resistant drug
nt, nucleotide (s)
 

O:
OCT, correct temperature
OD, optical for humans
OR, the size of the matter
ORF, open reading frame
osm, osmole (s)
OVA, ovalbumin

P:
P, phosphate (PO4)
P, possible
P1, postnatal day 1 (P2, P3)
PAGE, polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis
PBMC, a blood mononuclear cell
PBS, phosphate-buffered salt
PCR, polymerase chain reaction
PDGF, a platelet-derived protein
PDGFR, PDGF receptor
PECAM, a molecule of platelet-endothelial cell adhesion
PEG, polyethylene glycol
PET, positron emission tomography
PFU, units that make plaques
pg, pics
pH, proton concentration
pI, isoelectric point
PI3K, phosphatidylinositol-3-kinase
PIPES, piperazine-N, N'-bis (2-ethanesulfonic acid)
PKC, protein kinase C (PKA, PKB)
PLC, phospholipase C
PMA, phorbol myristate acetate
PMN, a polymorphonuclear cell

U:
U, unit(s)
UCD, University of California, Davis
UCLA, University of California, Los Angeles
UCSD, University of California, San Diego
UCSF, University of California, San Francisco
UMP, urophine monophosphate (UDP, UTP)
UTR, unread region
UV, ultraviolet

V:
V, volt (s)
VCAM, a cell adhesion molecule
VEGF, a vascular endothelial growth factor
VEGFR, a VEGF receptor
VLDL, a very low lipoprotein
Vmax, high speed
vol, volume
vWF, von Willebrand factor

W:
W, watt (s)
WBC, white blood cell
WHO, World Health Organization
wk, week (s)
WNT, a family type of wireless MTT integration site
wt, weight
WT, wild type

Y:
yr, year (s)