Unit - 1
Information Design and Development
Q1) What are the various techniques involved when writing for online media?
A1) When online media is concerned, the expectations, motives and habits of readers are always different than printed content. Therefore, it is crucial that writers must know these differences which will allow them to write clearly and effectively for an online audience.
Below are the three main areas that web writers need to focus on when writing online content:
Structure
The structure (including layout and headings) of a webpage plays an important part in its search engine optimization (SEO) and reader appeal. Search engines, such as Google, only view a webpage in terms of its headings, subheadings and keywords. Make sure your headings are meaningful and accurately reflect your content in order to increase SEO.
The structure should be easily scannable. Only 11% of users read a webpage line by line, according to recent studies. In fact, users often look at webpages in a vague F-shaped pattern, searching for indications that a webpage contains the information they are looking for. Once again, your headings need to be clear and meaningful, and your content should be organized with the most important information near the top, moving towards more niche topics near the bottom.
Content
A study shows that it takes readers 25% longer to read text online than in print; and on average, readers will only read the first 20% of a webpage containing more than 600 words. What this means is that writers need to make their content as concise as possible. Get to the main point, and get to it quickly. Use the active voice whenever possible to make your content clear and concise.
Ask yourself if any of your information would be better on a different webpage, or if the content could be broken down into a concise bulleted list. Bullets are a great way to break up large chunks of text, and are easy for readers to scan through.
Accessibility
When writing for the web, writers need to make sure their content is accessible to everyone. As mentioned before, there are many different technologies, devices, and viewing channels that can assist for reading online content.
One of the most important aspects of designing online content is to make sure your layout, language and content are accessible. For example, a screen reader will read “3:00pm” as “Three zero p m”, which is confusing and time-consuming. By writing “3pm” instead, you will make the text much more accessible.
With the variety of different applications and devices out there, it is important to remember that a web page on a laptop/computer will display accordingly on a smart phone. It is for this reason the use of tables, whenever possible, should be avoided because they can often cause accessibility problems when the screen size changes.
Conclusion
Reading and writing digitally is very different from print. Web writers need to keep in mind that their readers are looking for specific information and have short attention spans. Therefore, online content needs to be scannable, accessible and concise.
Q2) What are the channels used for transferring information through online media?
A2) With online media, there is a vast availability of devices and channels that readers can use to access online content. Almost any device with internet access (such as smart phones, tablets, eReaders, laptops and computers) can be used to read digital content. These devices have different screen sizes and proportions, meaning that content will be displayed differently depending on which device it is viewed on.
Apart from these devices, there are also a number of accessibility options with various applications for those who have hearing, seeing or learning disabilities. Many readers have voice-over technologies which provides dictations of the written content, and many devices support braille readers such as audio-books. Font sizes and type, plus screen colours and brightness, can be adjusted to suit different needs. While designing, the content and layout of every web-page should be curated with these accessibility tools in mind.
It is also significant to understand that the content written for a web page will be published in multiple channels. Many online users use RSS feeds, which monitor sites and deliver summarized text and metadata to various outputs such as a feed reader or even the user’s personal email. Digital content can also be shared via social media platforms. The variety of channels means that it is especially important that the metadata (such as tags, heading and summaries) and images of a webpage accurately represent the content and appeal to readers who may be viewing the content out with the actual website.
Q3) What are the basic techniques to use while curating content for printed media?
A3) Below are some methods for writing content for printed media:
Inverted Pyramid
Printed media typically follows the inverted pyramid model, in which the most pertinent information is placed at the top of the article. The less important a detail is, the farther down it is placed. The most engaging or crucial information must be placed in a manner so that it is immediately obvious to readers, who might browse headlines and leads to determine which articles they want to read. This style is most common in straight news stories. In long-form journalism and lengthy feature articles, on the other hand, writers might focus more on creating a piece that’s engaging and holds the reader’s attention from beginning to end.
The Five Ws and H
All print media must answer the five questions, commonly referred to as the five Ws and H. This is short for who, what, where, when, why and how. For example, a report about a bank robbery would include a description of what happened, where the bank was located, when the robbery took place, who the suspect is, how much money he stole, and the means the robber used.
Simple Language
Because it’s written for a mass audience, a pared down style of writing that will appeal to the greatest number of people. For example, print journalists use adjectives and adverbs sparingly, focusing instead on simple sentences with powerful nouns and verbs. Also, they use as few words as possible to get their points across. Because space is often limited, they must focus only on the most relevant information. You might think a description of the person’s outfit or office are interesting, but unless you’re writing a personality profile this information will likely detract from the core message of the article.
Narrative Structure
Depending upon the requirement, printed media often has a storytelling component, in which an account is related in a linear fashion. The purpose is to convey information and give readers a deeper understanding of the subject matter. Content for the Internet, on the other hand, might instead focus on actionable content, such as telling readers the top five ways to clean tarnished silver. Similarly, a piece for TV or radio might not recount events from beginning to end, instead focusing on action the viewer or listener must take, such as avoiding a certain stretch of highway that’s backed up due to a traffic accident.
Q4) Is print based media still relevant? Give reasons to support your answer.
A4) Although print-based media is considered the predecessor of digital media, it should not be seen as less effective or less relevant. Its simplicity and immediacy -- the qualities that might make you post notices for a lost pet on posts around the neighbourhood rather than on the internet -- keep it a valuable tool even today.
The potential of print-based media to affect change in communities cut off from technology is self-evident; but even within communities with abundant access to technology, it can be very effective as either a complement or an alternative to a digital media campaign. Advances in software have made the production and distribution of print-based media (using digital means) more accessible than ever before to activists on a tight budget.
Importance of Print Based Media
The printed word has not lost its ability to motivate and spur to action – but its power gets diluted in the sea of words online. Using print-based media can be a chance to take your campaign back to the street. Print communication can radically amplify your message, often for very little cost and effort.
A printed t-shirt worn in the right place at the right time, or eye-catching stickers, can make a bold statement. A monthly newsletter, created with your key audiences in mind, can be an excellent way to invite the participation of your community at a grassroots level. Other formats include posters, flyers, magazines, stickers and brochures for physical distribution.
Q5) What is meant by information design? What are its various types?
A5) Information and data are all around us. Everything we do collects data.
For example, our devices are constantly collecting data about how we shop, communicate, what we like to do, how our health is, and what our life, in general, is like.
Information design takes on an important role in this flow of data and information. Information design can be described as a way of putting together chunks of relevant information to make it easy to understand for users.
Information design is often visual, but can also be sensory. Some types are even physically interactive through sound and smell. The best examples also take accessibility into account.
Types of Information Designs
The different types of information design can be separated into different categories. Below are a few.
Q6) Give examples of various information design structures.
A6) Encyclopedias and Yellow Pages
Before the internet, encyclopedias were the best way to find information about anything, fast. Just how the Yellow Pages were the best for finding businesses in your area. Both of these are examples of searchable information design in a print format.
Search Engines
Our digital, online equivalent of encyclopedias and yellow pages are search engines like Google, Bing, Yandex, etc.
Infographics
The first thing that comes to find for most people when they hear information design is infographics. These are visualizations that include a chosen set of data with a purpose.
Websites
Every single website is an example of information design.
They’re larger than an infographic but smaller than a search engine. The print equivalent of a website would be a brochure or catalog.
Manuals
The manuals that come with new appliances might not be the prettiest but they’re still considered information design. IKEA and Apple manuals on the other hand are highly visual and emotive examples.
Explainer Videos
Explainer videos are another example of information design. They are moving infographics that tell a story plus incite the viewer to act.
Way-finding Visuals
Way-finding is the term that applies to all types of information design which helps people find their way. From Google maps to subway diagrams, any visualization that helps a user find a place on a map is also considered in this category.
Museum Exhibits
Every exhibit in a museum, especially the information panel, is considered information design. Examples of these range from a simple text panel to an interactive display. A highly sensorial example are the hands-on science and discovery museums for children
Bullet Journals
A bullet journal is a daily agenda that people can personalize to their liking. Every single bullet journal is different but their purpose is the same; tracking a person’s activities throughout the year. Bullet journals are personal information design projects.
Q7) What are some strategies for organisation in technical writing?
A7) Business documents - such as letters, emails, reminders and reports - use categories to distinguish different types of information, ideas, and ideas. The sections written in the business format are organized in an orderly, professional and well-organized manner. When writing a business document, we have to look at how the paragraph will appear on the page, the organization of the section and its placement throughout the article. We have to agree on the way our categories are organized. We should use short language and simple style to keep the reader focused on our message.
Block Status:
The general visual format of the sections in the business document is the block format where the section start is missing. Instead, the entire section is separated on its own and left with a reason, which means it corresponds to the left edge of the paper. A blank line is inserted at the back of each section to distinguish it from the next section or item of a document. Semi-block, where each article's beginning is inserted, is rarely used.
Font:
The sections in the business document are typed in traditional font such as 12-point Times New Roman. Avoid using strange fonts that deviate from your text. Use the same font for the rest of the document, except for titles, which can use either a larger font size or a stronger typeface.
Paragraph content:
Each section has to deal with one main idea. Introduce the main idea to a common statement in the first paragraph of a paragraph. Follow this topic sentence with a few sentences that support the main idea. This may contain informative information or debate to defend your view. Wrap up the paragraph with a summary sentence. If the class is running too long, you risk losing the student's attention. Instead, arrange the long section into two or more sections.
Paragraph Order:
A business document, such as a report or letter, begins with a paragraph that informs the title of the book. This is followed by one or more sections that develop the lesson. The concluding paragraph summarizes the information you provided or asked the student to take some action. For example, a letter outlining the reasons for an ad campaign may begin with an introductory paragraph introducing the campaign, followed by three sections each explaining the unique purpose of the campaign and a concluding paragraph asking the reader to approve the campaign. If the document is long, use headers to separate large sections.
Style:
While the tone can be friendly, business texts are written in formal style. Your writing may be read by third parties and kept by the company for many years, so avoid personal comments. Keep your writing up to date using gender-neutral language, as well as grammar and spelling. Keep your sentences short and to the point. Avoid clichés, contraction and slang.
Importance of constructing good paragraphs:
Paragraphs are the building blocks of papers.
Without well-written paragraphs that flow logically from one idea to the next and worthwhile and help support a somewhat problematic inter-search engine, your paper will not be viewed as reliable and, well, you will find the poor distance.
Here are some ideas for solving common problems associated with classification:
1. No controlling idea
Think of each paragraph as having three common layers of text. Virtual content is in the middle. It includes all the evidence you need to make a point. However, this evidence needs to be presented by the subject line in some way or your readers do not know what to do with all the evidence you have provided. Thus, the beginning of a passage defines a controlling view of a category. The last part of the section tells the reader how the section relates to the broader debate and often provides a change in the following concept. Once you understand the use of topic sentences, you can decide that a topic sentence for a particular paragraph should actually not be the first paragraph sentence. This is correct — the topic sentence can go at the beginning, middle, or end of a paragraph; what is important is that it is there to inform readers what is the main idea of the section and how it links back to the broader thesis of your paper.
2. More than one controlling idea
This is the most common reason why a class is too long. If a paragraph is longer than a page, it may contain more than one view. In this case, consider eliminating sentences that fit the second concept, in the sense that they probably do not really inform and help support the central research problem, or split the paragraph into two or more categories, each with one governing idea.
3.Transitions are needed
You are probably familiar with the idea that conversions may be required between paragraphs or sections on paper. Sometimes they are useful within the body of one category. Within a clause, modifications are usually single words or short phrases that help to establish the relationship between ideas and build logical development of those ideas in the paragraph. This is especially true within paragraphs that discuss many examples or discuss complex ideas, issues or concepts.
Q8) What are the various factors affecting information and document design?
A8) Document design concerns with how the physical appearance of your document appeals to the audience. Hence, it is important to pay attention to your document design as readers do not read only the printed words on a page, but also, they also the visual presentation of the text. Furthermore, a good document should effectively communicate as well as translate the main ideas of a document to the audience. Consequently, according to Reep (2006), there are six important factors that you need to consider about in producing an effective and yet attractive document.
Q9) Write a short note on organisational structure.
A9) An organizational structure is a system that outlines how certain activities are directed in order to achieve the goals of an organization. These activities can include rules, roles, and responsibilities. The organizational structure also determines how information flows between levels within the company.
This structuring provides a company with a visual representation of how it is shaped and how it can best move forward in achieving its goals. Organizational structures are normally illustrated in some sort of chart or diagram like a pyramid, where the most powerful members of the organization sit at the top, while those with the least amount of power are at the bottom.
Q10) What is a technical report? Describe its structure.
Reports can be as short as a few sentences and as long as a few large pages. Although reports can be verbal and informal, here we are concerned with written and formal reports.
While writing the following principles can be kept in mind:
When organizing and preparing your reports you need to know who your audience is and whether or not your content meets their interests and needs.
Legitimacy has to do with how easy or readable it is. As most reports in normal cases type, all meetings with good typing should be followed. If there are handwritten reports, special attention should be given to writing clearly and clearly. Any departure from the above requirement will prove displeasing to your audience.
Clarity, durability and systematic presentation of readable content. The concept is summarized better than the following:
The author does a lot by giving his reader a lot of information and taking away from him a little time.
In this regard the following five goals are met:
Just like unwanted fat in the body, padding, prolixity and repetition violates the respect of good writing, not to mention the respect they wrote for you. So 'agree' and 'prefer' will be more acceptable than pompous 'agree with' and 'prefer'. As such, why use 'at that point in time' and at a time when we have the best and most economical holdings at that time 'and' when '. Viewed from the point of view of the report, or requested for the report, a good report will contain four important details, an analysis of the information, conclusions and recommendations. It should always be remembered that effective reporting requires special attention to the needs and expectations of the reader. It means that the author of the report has to 'snap a picture', he must think and understand himself.
A technical report is comprised of the following sections:
The title page includes the main title of the report, it must be short and concise. You can also include the word counts of your summary and main body.
B. Table of Contents
Help your reader quickly and easily find what they are looking for by using informative headings and careful numbering of your sections and sub-sections.
For example:
C. Introduction
The introductory part of the report comprises of statement of the objectives of the report and how the report should be treated by the readers. It should indicate towards the problem that is going to be addressed in the main body. It should be catchy and interesting to grasp the attention of the reader from the very start.
D. The Body
The main body consists of the central theme or the main idea of the report. It can be divided into a number of sections and subsections to separate your research and subsequent findings in a logical order.
E. Figures, Graphs, Formulae and Tables
This section consists of the statistical representation of the data you have collected. Ideas should be conveyed in the form which is most suitable to the reader and easily understandable by the reader. Excessive use of these tools should be avoided.
F. Conclusion
The conclusion is a kind of summing up of all the points you have stated in the main text. It should be a definite solution to the problem introduced during the introductory part of the report. The conclusion must be short and to the point.
G. Summary
Summarize all the key points stated in the report including your research, your findings and your conclusion. The summary should feel like a brief overview of your investigations and outcomes. The summary should be constructed in such a way that it can be called a stand-alone document on its own.
H. References
References must include detailed information of all your citations and the sources of material quoted in your texts. It can also include bibliography for further reading.
I. Appendices
This is the last element of a report. It refers to any material which can be useful in the detailed understanding of your subject. It is not meant for the casual reader but for readers who are highly interested in the subject.
Q11) Discuss in detail the format of a memo report and progress report.
A11) Memo Report
A memo report or memorandum is an internal and informal form of communication which is written to inform and to call to action. It is normally used for communicating policies, procedures or other information within the organisation.
Unlike Interpersonal communication a memo report is presented to a large number of people. A memo has to be concise and concrete in terms of providing information.
One of the instances where you could be asked to write a memo report is in a lab. Here the audience for your memo report is your professor who has asked you to conduct an experiment and supply him with appropriate results.
All memo reports consist of two parts: the heading and the body
The Heading
The heading part follows the format given below:
TO: (The name of the receiver and their designation)
FROM: (Your name and designation or title)
DATE: (Current Date)
SUBJECT: (The purpose of writing the report)
The Body
The body of a memo report, like any technical report, should be concise and to the point. It needs to be properly structured and organised. It should consist of the following elements:
Opening:
This section should consist of 2 to 3 sentences and should state the main purpose of the memo. It should include the main problem with which the memo is concerned with and how it is going to be addressed. A good way to start the opening statement would be “The purpose of this memo is to inform you regarding the recent changes….”
Findings:
While writing a technical report it is crucial to include a summarized version of your findings regarding the concerned topic. It should include key points so that the reader can understand the purpose of the memo immediately. This section can also be labelled as “summary” or “recommendations”
Discussion:
This is the longest section in the memo which deals with all the information and evidences you have collected to support your arguments. This section can be subdivided into four subsections namely, Methods (any experiments or calculations involved), Analysis (the analysis of collected data), Results (summary of results obtained from methods and analysis) and Commentary (your objective views on your findings)
Conclusion:
After discussing your research, you should summarize the main elements of your finding in 2 or 3 sentences that should reiterate all the implications in the memo.
References:
All citations and bibliography are to be mentioned in the references section.
Progress Report
A progress report is a type of report which is written in order to inform a supervisor, associate, or customer about progress you’ve made on a project over a certain period of time.
A progress report must answer the following questions:
A progress report can be structured in three different ways:
a) Memo – An informal memo report to be sent to someone within the organization.
b) Letter – An informal or formal letter to be sent to someone outside of the organization.
c) Formal Report – A formal report to be sent to someone outside the organization
You should choose the type of progress report depending upon your requirements.
A progress report has no specific structure but should always include the following elements:
Q12) What is a laboratory report? Define its format.
A12) A laboratory report is a formal, analytical and concise record of an experiment. The discussion of the experiment, the various procedures and the subsequent results obtained should be clear and specific enough that a reader could easily replicate the experiment. One of the main purposes of writing a laboratory report is to communicate the work done in the laboratory to the management on a regular basis. Another reason for writing a laboratory report is to record an experiment for the future and archive it.
Format
Although most laboratory reports will include the following sections, some experiments will require a
different format. All reports should be tailored so as to meet the requirements laid down by the experiment.
Abstract: The abstract should contain a brief informational synopsis of your experiment. It is advisable to keep the abstract under 200 words. While writing the abstract, assertive or declarative sentences should be used rather than writing a long descriptive prose.
Introduction: Here the background of the experiment which is to be undertaken is explained in a few lines. The introduction should explain the objectives you hope to achieve from the experiment. When appropriate, the background should indicate theoretical predictions.
Procedures (or Methods): This section includes a detailed set of instructions of how the experiment is ought to be conducted. Each instruction should be so precise that the reader should be able to replicate it if he so desired. There should be no ambiguity and error when it comes to numbers and quantities. All statistical information should be well organised.
Results and Discussion (sometimes presented as separate sections): This section must convey results relevant to the goals of the experiment. Here the analysis of the results obtained from the experiment must be carried out along with its implications. All possible sources of error should be acknowledged with potential solutions if any. Results can also be presented in the form of graphs and tables if the experiment needs it.
Conclusions: Here you should place the specific results acquired into the context of the experiment as a whole. The discussion section should serve as sufficient conclusion if the experiment and report is short. Remember to evaluate the results you obtained in light of the objectives stated in the introduction.
Appendices: This section must include the information which is too extensive or tangential to warrant inclusion in the main body of the report, but necessary as procedural or analytical evidence.
Q13) What is a research paper? What are the steps involved in writing a research paper?
A13) A research paper is a form of academic writing which involves in-depth analysis, interpretation and argumentation of a specific topic. They are long and detailed studies of subjects which test the researching abilities of the writer along with their logic and writing abilities.
The basic idea of a research paper is to contribute something new or original to the topic. It requires strong and extensive knowledge of the topic and the ability to engage with a variety of sources on part of the researcher.
Below are the steps one must follow to write an engaging research paper:
1. Understand the assignment
The first step of writing a research paper is understating your assignment. Find out the objectives, deadline, formatting, length specifications and submission methods for your research assignment. It can be helpful to make a list of these items and check them off as you define them. Be conscious of word limits and timeframes if any.
2. Choose a research paper topic
Try to choose a topic from a subject which already interests you. Narrow it down to a topic which meets the requirements for your assignments, and would be easy for you to research. Brainstorming with a pen and paper is a good method to search for a topic. While choosing a topic try to be original and specific. Other research papers and dissertations can also be helpful for choosing a topic.
3. Conduct preliminary research
Journals, websites on the internet and journals are some of the best sources for conducting research. Try to avoid irrelevant ideas or concepts which would hinder you from thinking radically about your topic. Like a debate it is essential to look for both arguments and counter-arguments about your topic. Try to formulate an original idea and persuade it while researching. Make questions such as “What do I want to look for?” “Why is this relevant to this other thing” and so on. They would help you search for many possible answers which you can incorporate in your research.
4. Develop a thesis statement
A thesis statement is your central argument in the research paper. This argument should be your original contribution to the subject and should establish your purpose and position in writing the paper. If you start your research paper with a question, this thesis statement should be its answer.
It should be coherent, concise and meaningful. The thesis statement should be summed up in a sentence or two with the right choice of words which summarize your argument.
5. Create a research paper outline
A research paper outline will be like a table of contents with headings and subheadings for your topics, arguments and evidences that you would present in the paper. It will give you an idea of what the final draft of the research paper will look like.
A structured outline of your paper will make your succeeding processes much more efficient.
6. The first draft
The first draft will not look like the final product but it will give you the basic layout of how it should be. The basic strategies while writing the first draft should be to write down your central arguments and add detail to them. It is not necessary to start with the introduction just start from wherever you feel comfortable. It is very important to keep track of your sources at this stage to avoid plagiarism.
Use the first draft to organise and structure your research paper while filling it with information. It’s essential to follow a logical order while jotting down ideas and evidences.
7. Write the research paper introduction
The introduction to a research paper should introduce the background of the research and define key terms and concepts. It should provide a brief insight into what is going to be your original contribution to the subject.
It should also let the readers know what to expect from the rest of the paper and how you are going to present your arguments and evidences. It is advisable, while writing an introduction, to be very specific and keep it as short as possible.
8. Write a compelling body of text
This is the part where you include all the findings from your research. It should cover your thesis statement and answer all the questions as clearly and concisely as possible. Here all the ideas should be elaborated and evidences should be produced to support your arguments.
The structuring of the main body should be logical and the reader should be able to follow each argument with ease. If two paragraphs discuss something similar, they are to be written in such a way that they give two different perspectives.
9. Write the research paper conclusion
The conclusion should provide a sense of closure to the reader summarizing all that you have stated previously in the paper. The conclusion should be convincing enough to prove your thesis statement beyond any doubts.
The conclusion should be short and to the point and should not include any new information or arguments.
10. The revision process
The revision process involves proof-reading the paper to ensure there are no discrepancies and the paper is articulated as it is supposed to be.
While revising, check the logical flow of arguments, check for typographical errors, check if all questions raised in the paper are answered, check for irrelevant or unnecessary information.
Q14) What is a dissertation or a thesis? How is it written?
There are two major differences between a dissertation and a thesis. Firstly, while a dissertation is presented at the end of a post-graduate programme a doctoral thesis marks the end of a PhD degree. And secondly while they both follow the same format and structure a thesis is much more detailed and intricate than a dissertation.
In short, a thesis is presented to earn a doctorate degree while a dissertation is presented to earn a master’s degree.
Below are the elements and format of a dissertation or thesis:
Title page
The title should be an indication of what the research is about. It will need to be succinct, specific and representative of the research you have done. Every discipline has its own format for the title page, this format is to be followed and the title page is to be created accordingly.
Abstract
The Abstract is one of the shortest sections of a dissertation or thesis. It is a concise summary of the research which you have done for the thesis. It should consist of the results and implications of the research and should answer they 'how's' and 'whys' of the paper. The abstract is almost always constrained in one page and has a certain word limit which may differ depending upon the discipline.
Contents, figure and table lists
This section will include the organisational structure of the dissertation or thesis. Any imbalance in space devoted to different sections of content will become clear. This is a useful check on whether you need to join sections, or create new or sub-sections.
Introduction
This is the first piece of actual information that the reader will come across but it is advisable to write it in the end. Once you have completed the other sections of the dissertation, you will have a clearer idea of what you are introducing. The introduction has two main roles:
The literature review, or context of the study
The purpose of this chapter is to show that you are aware of how your dissertation fits into the body of existing research in your field. To do this you need to:
This can lead into a clear statement of the research question(s) or problem(s) you will be addressing.
It is worth taking time to develop a logical structure for sections in this chapter. This will help to convince examiners of the relevance of your research. It will also provide you with a framework for your discussion chapter.
Methods and materials
This chapter should provide a straightforward description of how you conducted the research. All the materials and methods used during your research are to be described in this section in detail. The amount of detail should be enough for another researcher to replicate your work.
Results / Findings
You will need to check the preferred style of reporting in your field. Decisions about style of presentation may need to be made about the following:
Will you begin with an initial overview of the results, followed by the detail? Alternatively, you may decide to move immediately into the detail of the results
In which order you will present the detailed results?
What balance, in terms of word space, do you want to achieve across the spread of results that you have?
Discussion
In this section you discuss how your research relates and compares to the previous findings of your predefined subject. You can refer back to the argument that you provided for your research in the literature review. You should then discuss what your own research has added in this context. It is important to show that you appreciate the limitations of your research, and how these may affect your findings. You can report on the implications of your findings for theory, research, and practice.
Conclusion
The conclusion should be short and precise and shouldn't include new information or arguments. It is essentially a summary of your research. Here you will draw ‘conclusions’ from the main points that have emerged and what they mean for your field.
References
This section needs to include all your references in the required referencing style. As you edit and rewrite your dissertation you will probably gain and lose references. It is important to check that each source cited in the text appears in your reference list. You must also check that all the references in your reference list appear within the text.
Appendices
Include in the appendices those items that a reader would want to see, but which would disrupt the flow if placed within the main text. Make sure to check if the appendices are included within the word limit. Also ensure you reference the Appendices within the main text where necessary.
Acknowledgements
This section should include the people who have helped you in the various stages of composing the paper. Read the acknowledgements in other dissertations in your field. This will give you an idea of the ways in which previous students have acknowledged the different kinds of help they have received
Q15) What are technical proposals? What are its characteristics and types?
A15) A technical proposal is a document which is used to introduce a new product to the receiver(s). It consists of the product execution plans of the organization, how the product can benefit the readers and also contains the technical details of the product.
A technical proposal should be concise and should be able to explain the complex details of a product easily. It should also be able to attract potential customers by ensuring them that your organisation is the one they want to make deals with.
A technical proposal is curated for various purposes but the main objectives are to offer sales of product or services, or to offer the undertaking of a project which can be practical or theoretical in nature. It can also be an offer to solve a technical problem.
A technical proposal can be written for various purposes including:
Characteristics
There are some basic characteristics that all technical proposals are likely to contain, which are summarised below. These characteristics can be tailored depending upon the requirement of the receiver(s).
The fundamental characteristics of a technical proposal include:
1. A well-stated definition of the problem or requirement
It should first and foremost describe the problem or the need of your product in the market. It should also describe why the problem or need has occurred in the first place and what shall be the consequences if the problem remains unsolved.
2. A clearly stated proposal to solve the problem
The proposal should contain means and methods of solving the problem stated earlier. If you are offering a product or service, it should clearly state how the product or service will meet the requirements of the recipient and guarantee satisfaction. It should also discuss how the solution will be implemented.
3. Awareness of alternative proposals
It should always contain a plan B. Meaning, if the first offer should get refused by the recipient there should be plans for other ways to convince them
4. An evaluation of the benefits of your proposal
A technical proposal will always try to impose the positive effects of your proposal, for example, cost benefits or sustainability. A detailed account of how your product or service will benefit the receiving organisation financially and how durable the project or undertaking will be is a basic feature that is included in all technical proposals.
5. Possible counter arguments to your proposal
The customer is to be made aware of all the possible arguments that one could make against your offering, then the counter-arguments against those should be included to emphasize the reliability of your product or service.
6. A careful analysis of your audience
A technical proposal is carefully crafted taking the requirements, convictions and prejudices of the readers into account.
And the information and details presented in the proposal are always in accordance with the audience’s knowledge base and background.
7. A reasonable, sensible tone and style
The use of irony and sarcasm are to be avoided as much as possible. Provide arguments and counter-arguments for your proposal but always keep in mind that your key points should be positive regarding your product or service.
The appeal to the recipient should be based on intellect and reason rather than emotion. (Although appealing to the emotions subtly is likely to be necessary at times as part of the persuasive tone – see persuasive writing).
All proposals can be divided into four broad categories viz. Internal, external, solicited and unsolicited proposals:
1. Internal, external: An internal proposal is a proposal written to someone within the organisation itself (a business, a government agency, etc.). Internal proposals are mostly semi-formal and contain less information (such as qualifications) since the communication is internal and there is a sense of familiarity. An external proposal is written to an individual or organisation which is outside the scope of one's own organisation. Technical proposals are mostly external proposals.
These proposals me be solicited or unsolicited as discussed below.
2. Solicited, unsolicited: A proposal which is specifically requested by the reception is called a solicited proposal. Companies often send out requests for proposals (RFPs) through the mail or publish them in various news sources. A proposal which is provided on one's own volition and is not requested by the recipient is known as a solicited proposal. It is a basic requirement to convince the recipient regarding the existence of a problem or the need of a product before starting the main part of an unsolicited proposal. Technical proposals, more often than not, are unsolicited proposals.
Most technical proposals can be classified into 4 main types:
Research Technical Proposal
In research technical proposals a specific research topic is discussed at length. It proposes the strategies for implementation of a particular research along with its objectives. The results of the research are also discussed in the proposal if they are obtained.
Academic technical proposal
Academically inclined proposals include solutions to academic problems such as classroom automation or surveys. These proposals are always concise, formal and well organised.
Business technical proposal
Business technical proposals are proposals which supplement offers towards improving the various business processes. It could be an introduction to any new technical software or products to save the cost and time of the business and provide sustainability. It is very detailed about the specifications of the product or services it offers.
Government technical proposal
These proposals are curated with government undertakings in mind. They are formal in tone and provide a detailed cost analysis and benefits of dealing with your organisation.
Q16) What are the phases of an information development life cycle?
A16) The information design and development life cycle, is a multistep, iterative, and structured process that encompasses the activities of planning, analysis, designing, building, testing, deploying, and maintaining an information system. The information design and development life cycle are a long-term embedded concept in software engineering and in the world of Information Technology.
When talking about an information system, we must recognize that it includes both hardware and software configurations, which are why it encompasses these two components and usually covers these 7 phases: planning, analysis, design, development, testing and integration, implementation, and maintenance. The system development life cycle helps alleviate the complexity of developing a system information system from scratch, within a framework of structured phases that help shape the project and manage it easily.
These are the main system development life cycle phases:
