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Hard Rock. Tunnelling finished hard rock always involves blasting. The jumbo changes by the face of the tunnel, and drills mounted to the jumbo make several holes in the rock. Workers usually use two basic techniques to modern a tunnel. In the full-face method, they excavate the whole diameter of the tunnel at the same time. Once the top heading has advanced some distance into the rock, workers begin excavating below the floor of the top heading; this is a bench. The top-heading-and-bench method is that engineers use by heading tunnel to gauge the constancy of the rock before moving with the project. Utility tunnels are used for routing steam, chilled water, electrical power or cables, buildings passage of people, and equipment. Special tunnels, wildlife crossings, are built to document wildlife to cross human-made barriers safely. When sufficient depth reached, a reinforced concrete floor is to complete the tunnel shell. With the drill-and-blast method, a drilling jumbo is used to drill a pattern of holes in the rock the tunnel's path. Carefully planned of dynamite are injected in the drilled holes. Tunnels in the underground roads used for transportation. They used to carry freights, and passengers, sewage, etc. Tunnels are more economical than open cuts beyond sure depths. Tunnelling is a protocol that permits the secure movement of data from one network to another network. Tunnelling involves allowing private network communications to be sent crossways a public network, such as the Internet, through a process called encapsulation. Geotechnical engineering is the branch of civil engineering concerned with the engineering behaviour of earth materials. Geotechnical engineering is important in civil engineering, but also applications in military, mining, petroleum, and other engineering disciplines that are worried about construction occurring on the surface or within the ground. Geotechnical engineering uses principles of soil mechanics, and rock mechanics to examine subsurface conditions, and materials; determine the relevant physical/mechanical, and chemical properties. These materials appraise the stability of natural slopes, and man-made soil deposits; measure risks posed by site conditions, design earthworks, and structure foundations, and monitor site conditions, earthwork, and foundation construction. Geotechnical engineering is also connected to coastal, and ocean engineering. Coastal engineering can include the design, and construction of wharves, marinas, and jetties. Ocean engineering can include foundation, and anchor systems for offshore structures such as oil platforms. Geotechnical engineering holds the fields of soil mechanics, and rock mechanics, and has applications in the fields of geology, geophysics, hydrology, and other linked sciences. Foundations built for above-ground structures contain shallow and deep foundations. Retaining structures include earth-filled dams, and retaining walls. Earthworks contain embankments, tunnels, dikes, and levees, channels, reservoirs, deposition of hazardous waste, and sanitary landfills. Geotechnical engineers are extensively complex in earthen, and concrete dam projects, appraising the subsurface conditions at the dam site, and the side slopes of the reservoir, the seepage conditions under, and around the dam, and the constancy of the dam under a range of normal, and extreme loading conditions. Karl von Terzaghi. Karl von Terzaghi was an Austrian mechanical engineer, geotechnical engineer, and geologist called as the "father of soil mechanics, and geotechnical engineering" In geotechnical engineering, soils are measured as a three-phase material composed of rock or mineral particles, water, and air. The voids of soil, the seats in between mineral particles, contain the water, and air. The engineering properties of soils are pretentious by four main factors: the predominant size of the mineral particles, the type of mineral particles, the grain size distribution, and the qualified quantities of mineral, water, and air present in the soil matrix. Fine particles (fines) are clear as particles less than 0.075 mm in diameter Soil mechanics is a discipline of civil engineering that forecasts the soil performance characteristics utilizing the engineering techniques of dynamics, fluid mechanics, and other technologies. Soil mechanics includes the study of soil composition, strength, consolidation, and the use of hydraulic principles to deal with subjects concerning sediments, and other deposits. Soil mechanics is one of the major sciences for resolving problems connected to geology, and geophysical engineering. Soil mechanics studies are very significant for civil engineers because based on the findings of soil mechanics studies, engineering structures are constructed. The type of construction, type of equipment to be used, type of foundation, support material, and many other features of construction works are largely affected by the soil mechanics studies. Essentially, we study soil formation modes, physical, and chemical properties of soil, dynamic filling of soils, permeability, consolidation, etc. Soil mechanics studies how, and how much soils distort, how soils resist deformation and estimate their strength under different boundary conditions, and different loading conditions. Loads of any civil engineering structure (such as bridges, pipelines, infrastructures, buildings. Soil mechanics studies are very significant for civil engineers because based on the findings of soil mechanics studies, engineering structures are constructed. Basically, we study soil creation modes, physical, and chemical properties of soil, dynamic loading of soils, permeability, consolidation, etc. There are three basic types of soil: sand, silt, and clay. But most soils are collected from a combination of the different types. Soil is directly used to make building materials, such as cement, and brick, as well as indirectly used to grow the plants used to brand building materials such as wood boards, and insulation threads. Historically, many homes and other structures were complete from soil or soil that was caked, and dried into blocks. Soil mechanics is used to analyzing the deformations of, and flow of fluids within a natural, and man-made structures that are supported on or made of soil, or structures that are suppressed in soils. Examples applications are building, and bridge foundations, retaining walls, dams, and suppressed pipeline systems. Foundations are classified as shallow and deep foundations. Types of foundations under shallow, and deep foundations for building construction, and their uses are explained as the below: Compared to geology, it is that branch of mechanics concerned with the reply of rock, and rock masses to the force fields of their physical environment. Rock mechanics is a theoretical, and applied science of the mechanical behavior of rock, and rock masses; it is that branch of mechanics concerned with the response of rock, and rock masses to the force fields of the physical environment. Rock mechanics is worried about the application of the principles of engineering mechanics to the design of structures built-in or of rock. The structure include-but not limited to- a drill hole, a mining shaft, a tunnel, a reservoir dam, a source component, or a building. Rock mechanics is used in many engineering disciplines but chiefly used in Mining, Civil, Geotechnical, Transportation, and Petroleum Engineering. Rock mechanics forms part of the much broader subject of geo-mechanics, which is anxious with the mechanical responses of all geological materials, including soils. Rock mechanics, as applied in engineering geology, mining, petroleum, and civil engineering practice. It is anxious with the application of the principles of engineering mechanics to the design of the rock structures produced by mining, drilling, reservoir production, or civil construction activity such as tunnels, mining shafts, underground excavations, etc. It also comprises the design of reinforcement systems, such as rock bolting patterns. Rock mass classification systems are used for various engineering design, and stability analysis. These are founded on empirical relations between rock mass parameters, and engineering applications, such as tunnels, slopes, foundations, and excavation. It also provides tools to control the relative, and absolute ages of rocks found in a given location, and also to define the histories of those rocks. By uniting these tools, geologists are able to chronicle the geological history of the Earth as a whole, and also to demonstrate the age of the Earth. Geology provides the main evidence for plate tectonics, the evolutionary history of life, and the Earth's past climates. Geologists use a wide variety of methods to understand the Earth's structure, and evolution, including fieldwork, rock description, geophysical techniques, chemical analysis, physical experiments, and numerical modeling. In practical terms, geology is important for mineral, and hydrocarbon exploration, and exploitation, assessing water resources, understanding of natural hazards, the remediation of environmental problems, and as long as insights into past climate change. Geology is a major academic discipline, and it plays a vital role in geotechnical engineering. Geology is the study of the Earth – how it works, and its 4.5-billion-year history. Geologists study approximately of society's most important problems, such as energy, water, and mineral resources; the environment; climate change; and natural hazards like landslides, earthquakes, and floods. In many cases, geologists also study modern soils, rivers, landscapes, and glaciers; examine past, and current life, and biogeochemical pathways, and use geophysical methods to investigate the subsurface. Sub-specialties of geology may distinguish endogenous, and exogenous geology. Individual footing or an isolated footing is the common type of foundation used for building construction. This foundation is constructed for a single column, and also called a pad foundation. The shape of individual footing is square or rectangle and is second hand when loads from the structure are carried by the columns. Size is calculated founded on the load on the column, and the safe bearing capacity of the soil. The rectangular isolated footing is designated when the foundation experiences moments due to the eccentricity of loads or due to horizontal forces. For example, consider a column with a vertical load of 200 kN, and a safe bearing capacity of 100 kN/m2 then the area of the footing required will be 200/100 = 2m2. So, for a square footing, the length, and width of the footing is 1.414 m x 1.414 m. A combined footing is constructed when two or more columns are close sufficient, and their isolated footings overlap each other. It is a combination of isolated footings, but their structural design varies. The shape of this footing is a rectangle and is used when loads from the structure are carried by the columns. Spread footings are whose base is wider than a typical load-bearing wall foundation. The wider base of this footing type spreads the weight from the building structure completed more area, and provides better stability. Spread footings and wall footings are used for separate columns, walls, and bridge piers where the bearing soil layer is within 3m (10 feet) from the ground surface. Soil bearing capacity must be sufficient to support the weight of the structure finished the base area of the structure. These not be used on soils where there is any possibility of a ground flow of water above bearing layer of soil which results in scour or liquefaction. Raft or mat foundations are the types of foundation which are spread crossways the entire area of the building to support heavy structural loads from columns, and walls. The use of mat foundation is for columns, and walls foundations anywhere the loads from the structure on columns, and walls are very high. This is used to prevent differential settlement of individual footings, thus intended as a single mat (or combined footing) of all the load-bearing elements of the structure. It remains suitable for expansive soils whose bearing capacity is less for the suitability of spread footings, and wall footings. Drilled shafts, also called caissons, is a type of deep foundation, and has an action comparable to pile foundations, but are high-capacity cast-in-situ foundations. It resists loads from structure finished shaft resistance, toe resistance, and/or combination of both of these. The construction of drilled shafts or caissons is done by means of an auger. Drilled shafts or caisson foundation is not suitable when deep deposits of soft clays and loose, water-bearing granular soils exist. It is also not suitable for soils caving formations are difficult to stabilize, soils made up of boulders, artesian aquifer exists. Pile foundation is a type of deep foundation which is used to transfer heavy loads from the structure to a hard rock strata abundant deep below the ground level. Pile foundations are used to transfer heavy loads of structures done columns to hard soil strata which is much below ground level where shallow foundations such as spread footings, and mat footings cannot be used. This is also used to prevent uplift of the structure due to adjacent loads such as earthquakes, and wind forces.
Unit – 8
Geotechnical Engineering
Q1) What is the Basics of rock mechanics & tunnelling?
A1)
Q2) Explain Geotechnical Engineering.
A2)
Q3) Explain Basics of soil mechanics.
A3)
Q4) What are the Various types of foundations?
A4)
1) Shallow foundation:
1) Individual footing or isolated footing
2) Combined footing
3) Strip foundation
4) Raft or mat foundation
2) Deep Foundation
1) Pile foundation
2) Drilled Shafts or caissons
Q5) Define Rock mechanics.
A5) Rock mechanics is a theoretical, and practical science of the mechanical behavior of rock, and rock masses.
Q6) Describe Geology.
A6) Geology describes the structure of the Earth on, and underneath its surface, and the procedures that have shaped that structure.
1) Field methods
2) Petrology
3) Structural geology
4) Stratigraphy
Q7) What are the types of Shallow Foundations?
A7)
1) Individual Footing or Isolated Footing:
2) Combined Footing:
3) Spread footings or Strip footings, and Wall footings:
4) Raft or Mat Foundations:
Q8) What is Drilled Shafts or Caisson Foundation?
A8)
Q9) Define Pile Foundation.
A9) Pile Foundations:
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