Unit – 1

Introduction

Q. 1) Write a short note on “Automata “?

Ans: Automata

●      The term "Automata" is derived from the Greek word "αὐτόματα" which means "self-acting". An automaton (Automata in plural) is an abstract self-propelled computing system that automatically follows a predetermined operation sequence.

●      The primary reason behind the development of the automata theory was the development of methods to explain and analyses the complex behavior of separate systems.

●      It is the analysis of abstract machines and the problems of computation that can be solved by these machines.

●      The automaton is called the abstract machine.

Q. 2) Define ‘Alphabet’, ‘Language and grammar’ in Automata?

Ans: Alphabet

Definition − An alphabet is any finite set of symbols.

Example − ∑ = {a, b, c, d} is an alphabet set where ‘a’, ‘b’, ‘c’, and ‘d’ are symbols.

Language

Definition − A language is a subset of ∑* for some alphabet ∑. It can be finite or

Infinite.

Example − If the language takes all possible strings of length 2 over ∑ = {a, b}, then

L = {ab, aa, ba, bb}

Grammar

Simplifying Context Free Grammars

A context free grammar (CFG) is in Chomsky Normal Form (CNF) if all production

Rules satisfy one of the following conditions:

A non-terminal generating a terminal (e.g.; X->x)

A non-terminal generating two non-terminals (e.g.; X->YZ)

Start symbol generating ε. (e.g.; S->ε)

Consider the following grammars,

G1 = {S->a, S->AZ, A->a, Z->z}

G2 = {S->a, S->aZ, Z->a}

The grammar G1 is in CNF as production rules satisfy the rules specified for CNF. However, the grammar G2 is not in CNF as the production rule S->aZ contains terminal followed by non-terminal which does not satisfy the rules specified for CNF.

Q. 3) Derive ‘Chomsky hierarchy of language’ ?

Ans: Chomsky hierarchy of languages

The Chomsky Hierarchy describes the class of languages that the various machines embrace. The language group in Chomsky's Hierarchy is as follows :

1. Type 0 known as Unrestricted Grammar.
2. Type 1 known as Context Sensitive Grammar.
3. Type 2 known as Context Free Grammar.
4. Type 3 Regular Grammar.

Fig 1: Chomsky hierarchy

The above diagram shows the hierarchy of chomsky. Each language of type 3 is therefore also of type 2, 1 and 0 respectively. Similarly, every language of type 2 is also of type 1 and type 0 likewise.

●      Type 0 grammar -

Type 0 grammar is known as Unrestricted grammar. The grammar rules of these types of languages are unregulated. Turing machines can model these languages efficiently.

Example:

1. BAa → aa 
2. P → p 

●      Type 1 grammar -

Type 1 grammar is known as Context Sensitive Grammar. Context-sensitive grammar is used to describe language that is sensitive to context. The context-sensitive grammar follows the rules below:

●      There may be more than one symbol on the left side of their development rules for context-sensitive grammar.

●      The number of left-hand symbols does not surpass the number of right-hand symbols.

●      The A → ε type rule is not permitted unless A is a beginning symbol. It does not occur on the right-hand side of any rule.

●      The Type 1 grammar should be Type 0. Production is in the form of V →T in type1

Type 2 Grammar is called Context Free Grammar. Context free languages are the languages which can be represented by the CNF (context free grammar) Type 2 should be type 1. The production rule is:

A → α

Type 3 Grammar is called Regular Grammar. Those languages that can be represented using regular expressions are regular languages. These languages may be NFA or DFA-modelled.

Type3 has to be in the form of -

V → T*V / T*

Example:

A → xy 

Q. 4) What do you mean by ‘production and derivation’?

Ans: Productions

A production, if its left side occurs on its right side, is called recursive. Production S→aS, for example, is recursive. A manufacturing A → α is recursive indirectly. If a sentence form that includes A is derived from A, then suppose we have the following grammar:

S → b/aA

A → c/bS

Due to the following derivations, the S → aA and A→ bs productions are both indirectly recursive:

S ⇒ aA ⇒ abS,

A ⇒ bS ⇒ baA

A grammar is recursive if either a recursive or indirectly recursive production is included in it.

Derivation

Derivation is a sequence of the laws of development. Via these production laws, it is used to get the input string. We have to take two decisions during parsing. That are like the following:

●      The non-terminal that is to be replaced must be determined by us.

●      We have to determine the law of development by which the non-terminal would be substituted.

We have two options to assess which non-terminal with the production rule is to be put.

1. Left most derivation

The input is scanned and replaced with the development rule from left to right in the left-most derivation. So, we read the input string from left to right in the left-most derivation.

2.     Right most derivation

The input is scanned and replaced with the production rule from right to left in the right-most derivation. So, we read the input string from right to left in the right - most derivations.

Q. 5) Proof the theorem DFA and NFA?

Ans: DFA and NFA Theorem proof -

Let's formally state the theorem we are proving before continuing:

Theorem :

Let the language L ⊆ Σ*  be recognised by NFA N = ( Σ , Q, q0, F, δ) and assume L.

A DFA D= (Σ, Q ', q'0, F', δ ') exists that also accepts L. (L(N)= L(D)).

We are able to prove by induction that D is equal to N by allowing each state in the DFA D to represent a set of states in the NFA N. Let's define the parameters of D: before we start proofing,

●      Q’ is equal to the powerset of Q, Q’ = 2Q

●      q’0 = {q0}

●      F’ is the set of states in Q’ that contain any element of F, F’ = {q ∈ Q’|q ∩ F ≠ Ø}

●      δ’ is the transition function for D.  δ’(q ,a ) = Up∈ q δ(p , a)for q ∈ Q’ and a ∈ Σ

It's worth more explaining, I think δ '. Note that in the set of states Q 'in D, each state is a set of states from Q in N itself. Determine the transition δ (p,a) for each state p in state q in Q 'of D (p is a single state from Q). The union of all δ(q, a) is δ(q,a) .

Now we will demonstrate  δ’(q0’ , x) =δ’(q0 , x) that for every x  i.e L(D) = L (N)

Q. 6) Describe ‘Regular Grammars and construct an FA from RE ’?

Ans: Regular grammars

Regular expressions and finite automata have equivalent expressive power:

●      For every regular expression R, there is a corresponding FA that accepts the

Set of strings generated by R.

●      For every FA , A there is a corresponding regular expression that generates the set of strings accepted by A.

The proof is in two parts:

1. An algorithm that, given a regular expression R, produces an FA A such that

L(A) == L(R).

2. An algorithm that, given an FA A, produces a regular expression R such that

L(R) == L(A).

Our construction of FA from regular expressions will allow “ epsilon transitions ” (a transition from one state to another with epsilon as the label). Such a transition is always possible, since epsilon (or the empty string) can be said to exist between any two input symbols. We can show that such epsilon transitions are a notational convenience; for every FA with epsilon transitions there is a corresponding FA without them.

Constructing an FA from an RE

We begin by showing how to construct an FA for the operands in a regular

Expression.

●      If the operand is a character c, then our FA has two states, s0 (the start state)

And sF (the final, accepting state), and a transition from s0 to sF with label c.

●      If the operand is epsilon, then our FA has two states, s0 (the start state) and

SF (the final, accepting state), and an epsilon transition from s0 to sF.

●      If the operand is null, then our FA has two states, s0 (the start state) and sF

(the final, accepting state), and no transitions.

Given FA for R1 and R2, we now show how to build an FA for R1R2, R1|R2, and

R1*. Let A (with start state a0 and final state aF) be the machine accepting L(R1)

And B (with start state b0 and final state bF) be the machine accepting L(R2).

●      The machine C accepting L(R1R2) includes A and B, with start state a0, final

State bF, and an epsilon transition from aF to b0.

●      The machine C accepting L(R1|R2) includes A and B, with a new start state

c0, a new final state cF, and epsilon transitions from c0 to a0 and b0, and

From aF and bF to cF.

●      The machine C accepting L(R1*) includes A, with a new start state c0, a new

Final state cF, and epsilon transitions from c0 to a0 and cF, and from aF to a0,

And from aF to cF.

Q. 7) What are the properties of ‘Regular language’ ?

Ans: Properties of regular languages

Regular languages are closed under a wide variety of operations.

❏      Union and intersection

Pick DFAs recognizing the two languages and use the cross-product construction to build a DFA recognizing their union or intersection.

❏      Set complement

Pick a DFA recognizing the language, then swap the accept/non- accept markings on its states.

❏      String reversal

Pick an NFA recognizing the language. Create a new final state, with epsilon transitions to it from all the old final states. Then swap the final and start states and reverse all the transition arrows.

❏      Set difference

Rewrite set difference using a combination of intersection and set complement.

❏      Concatenation and Star

Pick an NFA recognizing the language and modify.

❏      Homomorphism

A homomorphism is a function from strings to strings. What makes it a homomorphism is that its output on a multi-character string is just the concatenation of its outputs on each individual character in the string. Or, equivalently, h(xy) = h(x)h(y) for any strings x and y. If S is a set of strings, then h(S) is {w : w = h(x) for some x in S}.

To show that regular languages are closed under homomorphism, choose an arbitrary regular language L and a homomorphism h. It can be represented using a regular expression R. But then h(R) is a regular expression representing h(L). So h(L) must also be regular.

Notice that regular languages are not closed under the subset/superset relation. For

Example, 0 * 1 *  is regular, but its subset {O n 1 n  : n >= 0} is not regular, but its subset {01, 0011, 000111} is regular again.

Q. 8) Define theorem and application of pumping lemma with example?

Ans: Theorem -

Let L be a regular language. Then a constant c' exists such that for every string w in L

|w| ≥ c

We are able to split w into three strings, w=xyz, so that

●      |y| > 0

●      |xy| ≤ c

●      For all k ≥ 0, the string xyKz is also in L

Application of Pumping Lemma

It is important to apply Pumping Lemma to show that certain languages are not normal. It can never be used to illustrate the regularity of a language.

●      If L is regular, it satisfies Pumping Lemma.

●      If L does not satisfy Pumping Lemma, it is non-regular.

Method for demonstrating that a language L is not regular

●      We have to assume that L is regular.

●      The pumping lemma should hold for L.

●      Use the pumping lemma to obtain a contradiction −

●      Select w such that |w| ≥ c

●      Select y such that |y| ≥ 1

●      Select x such that |xy| ≤ c

●      Assign the remaining string to z.

●      Select k such that the resulting string is not in L.

Therefore , L is not regular.

Example :

Prove that L = {aibi | i ≥ 0} is not regular.

Sol :

●      At first, we assume that L is regular and n is the number of states.

●      Let w = anbn. Thus |w| = 2n ≥ n.

●      By pumping lemma, let w = xyz, where |xy| ≤ n.

●      Let x = ap , y = aq , and z = arbn , where p + q + r = n, p ≠ 0, q ≠ 0, r ≠ 0. Thus |y| ≠ 0.

●      Let k = 2. Then xy2z = apa2qarbn.

●      Number of as = (p + 2q + r) = (p + q + r) + q = n + q

●      Hence, xy2z = an+q bn . Since q ≠ 0, xy2z is not of the form anbn .

●      Thus, xy2z is not in L.

Hence L is not regular.

Q. 9) Describe ‘Minimization of finite automata’ ?

Ans: Minimization of finite automata

It is possible to create infinitely many finite state automata for a given regular language L to accept L. The answer is that there will be a loop in the transition diagram centred on a given DFA M1 . To have more states and L(M1) = L(M2) = L, we can create a new DFA M2 . And we can create a DFA M3 with even more states and L(M3) = L from DFA  M2.

For instance, given a DFA M1, we can create a DFA M2 to have more states and

L(M1) = L(M2) = L.

Example : The following two DFA's are identical to M1 and M2 . The collection above the alphabet Σ = {0,1}  is accepted by {0n |  n>0} both machines .

Fig : DFA diagram

Machine M2 states q1 , q2 and  q3  are identical, we can combine these three states in one state as  qt  in machine M1.

The state qg and qh of the M2 machine are identical, these two states can be combined in one state as  qf  in the M1 machine.

Q. 10) What do you mean by nondeterministic finite automata (NFA) and equivalence with DFA ?

Ans: Nondeterministic finite automata (NFA)

In NDFA, for a particular input symbol, the machine can move to any combination of the states in the machine. In other words, the exact state to which the machine moves cannot be determined. Hence, it is called Non-deterministic Automaton. As it has a finite number of states, the machine is called Non- deterministic Finite Machine or Non- deterministic Finite Automaton.

It has a finite number of states.

Q → Finite non-empty set of states.

∑ → Finite non-empty set of input symbols.

∂ → Transitional Function.

q0 → Beginning state.

F → Final State

Transition function can be defined as:

δ: Q x ∑ →2Q

Equivalence of DFA and NFA

It would seem superficially that deterministic and non-deterministic finite state automata are totally distinct beasts. However, it turns out that they are equivalent. There is a DFA for every language recognised by an NFA that recognises that language and vice versa.

The NFA to DFA conversion algorithm is relatively simple, even though the resulting DFA is substantially more complicated than the original NFA. I will illustrate this equivalence after the hop and also go through a brief example of converting an NFA to an equivalent DFA.

DFA and NFA Theorem proof -

Let's formally state the theorem we are proving before continuing:

Theorem :

Let the language L ⊆ Σ*  be recognised by NFA N = ( Σ , Q, q0, F, δ) and assume L.

A DFA D= (Σ, Q ', q'0, F', δ ') exists that also accepts L. (L(N)= L(D)).

We are able to prove by induction that D is equal to N by allowing each state in the DFA D to represent a set of states in the NFA N. Let's define the parameters of D: before we start proofing,

●      Q’ is equal to the powerset of Q, Q’ = 2Q

●      q’0 = {q0}

●      F’ is the set of states in Q’ that contain any element of F, F’ = {q ∈ Q’|q ∩ F ≠ Ø}

●      δ’ is the transition function for D.  δ’(q ,a ) = Up∈ q δ(p , a)for q ∈ Q’ and a ∈ Σ

It's worth more explaining, I think δ '. Note that in the set of states Q 'in D, each state is a set of states from Q in N itself. Determine the transition δ (p,a) for each state p in state q in Q 'of D (p is a single state from Q). The union of all δ(q, a) is δ(q,a) .

Now we will demonstrate δ’(q0’ , x) =δ’(q0 , x) that for every x  i.e L(D) = L (N)