Unit - 3

Question Bank

1. What are some commonly misspelt words in the English language?

Commonly misspelt English words are some of the most used words that are unintentionally misspelt by users in day to day writing. Although it is difficult to determine which words are more prone to spelling mistakes, words with double consonants, multiple connected vowels, and long arduous words are more commonly misspelt compared to other words.

Below are some of the most commonly misspelt words in the English Language:

The first column represents the correct spelling of the word followed by the mistake commonly made by writers and the last column represents the misspelt form of the word used.

2.     What are clichés? Give examples.

Clichés are those words or phrases which have been used repeatedly over time and because of this overuse they have lost their impact.

The word cliché can be traced to its French origin, which is why you'll often see it with an accent over the "e," but you can also write it as "cliche" in English. When printing presses were used, the cast iron plate that reproduced the words, phrases, or images was called a stereotype. The noise that casting plate made sounded like "cliché," meaning click, to French printers, so this onomatopoeia word became printer's jargon for the stereotype. Thus, cliché came to mean a word or phrase that gets repeated often.

Just because a phrase is overused doesn't mean it's a cliché, and because a phrase is a cliché doesn't mean it isn't true. A cliché will convey meaning but often loses its point along the way through over-usage. Below are some common English Clichés:

Common Cliché Sayings

     All that glitters isn't gold

     Don't get your knickers in a twist

     All for one, and one for all

     Kiss and make up

     He has his tail between his legs

     And they all lived happily ever after

     Cat got your tongue?

     Read between the lines

     Someone woke up on the wrong side of the bed

     We're not laughing at you we're laughing with you

Clichés that Describe Time

     Only time will tell

     In the nick of time

     Lost track of time

     Lasted an eternity

     Just a matter of time

     A waste of time

     Time flies

     In a jiffy

     The time of my life

Clichés that Describe People

     As old as the hills

     Fit as a fiddle

     Without a care in the world

     A diamond in the rough

     Brave as a lion

     Weak as a kitten

     Had nerves of steel

     Ugly as sin

Clichés that Describe Life, Love, and Emotions

     Opposites attract

     Every cloud has a silver lining

     Don't cry over spilled milk

     The calm before the storm

     Laughter is the best medicine

     Love you more than life itself

     Scared out of my wits

     Frightened to death

     All is fair in love and war

     All's well that ends well

     Haste makes waste

     The writings on the wall

     Time heals all wounds

     What goes around comes around

     When life gives you lemons, make lemonade

     Head over heels in love

     Gut-wrenching pain

     Heart-stopping fear

3.     What are redundancies in English? Explain with the help of examples.

Redundancies refer to the use of two or more words together that carry the same meaning thus making them repetitious and unnecessary. Redundant words often make communication longer but definitely not better and therefore, must be strictly avoided. In some specific contexts however, some of these phrases may serve a purpose. Although more often than not, these phrases weigh down our writing with unnecessary words and jargon.

Below are some common redundancies in the English language, the words in parentheses are to be omitted to make the phrase correct in meaning:

A

(absolutely) essential

(absolutely) necessary

(actual) facts

Advance (forward)

(advance) planning

(advance) preview

(advance) reservations

(advance) warning

Add (an additional)

Add (up)

(added) bonus

(affirmative) yes

(aid and) abet

(all-time) record

Alternative (choice)

A.M. (in the morning)

(and) etc.

(anonymous) stranger

(annual) anniversary

(armed) gunman

(artificial) prosthesis

Ascend (up)

Ask (the question)

Assemble (together)

Attach (together)

ATM (machine)

Autobiography (of his or her own life)

B

Bald(-headed)

Balsa (wood)

(basic) fundamentals

(basic) necessities

Best (ever)

Biography (of his--or her--life)

Blend (together)

(boat) marina

Bouquet (of flowers)

Brief (in duration)

(brief) moment

(brief) summary

(burning) embers

C

Cacophony (of sound)

Cameo (appearance)

Cancel (out)

(careful) scrutiny

Cash (money)

Cease (and desist)

Circle (around)

Circulate (around)

Classify (into groups)

(close) proximity

(closed) fist

Collaborate (together)

Combine (together)

Commute (back and forth)

Compete (with each other)

(completely) annihilate

(completely) destroyed

(completely) eliminate

(completely) engulfed

(completely) filled

(completely) surround

(component) parts

Confer (together)

Connect (together)

Connect (up)

Confused (state)

Consensus (of opinion)

(constantly) maintained

Cooperate (together)

Could (possibly)

Crisis (situation)

Curative (process)

(current) incumbent

(current) trend

D

Depreciate (in value)

Descend (down)

(desirable) benefits

(different) kinds

Disappear (from sight)

Drop (down)

During (the course of)

Dwindle (down)

E

Each (and every)

Earlier (in time)

Eliminate (altogether)

Emergency (situation)

(empty) hole

Empty (out)

(empty) space

Enclosed (herein)

(end) result

Enter (in)

(entirely) eliminate

Equal (to one another)

Eradicate (completely)

Estimated at (about)

Evolve (over time)

(exact) same

(exposed) opening

Extradite (back)

F

(face) mask

Fall (down)

(favorable) approval

(fellow) classmates

(fellow) colleague

Few (in number)

Filled (to capacity)

(final) conclusion

(final) end

(final) outcome

(final) ultimatum

(first and) foremost

(first) conceived

First (of all)

Fly (through the air)

Follow (after)

(foreign) imports

(former) graduate

(former) veteran

(free) gift

4.     What are the two types of articles? Explain definite and indefinite articles?

Articles are words that precede a noun and define the specificity of that noun. In other words, they imply how specific a particular noun is.

There are two types of Articles in the English language, Definite and Indefinite Articles.

1. Definite Article

The definite article is the word ‘the’. This article is only used when a particular place, thing or activity is being referred to. It limits the meaning to one particular thing or activity.

For example, in the sentence “I won’t be attending the party this weekend.” ‘The’ is used before the noun party therefore it refers to a specific party which the subject is talking about. The definite article can be used with both singular and plural words.

Uses of “The”:

1. The definite article can be used to make general things specific, for example, “Please pass me a pen.” when changed to “Please pass me the pen.” Changes the meaning of the sentence entirely. In the former the subject requests for a pen in general whereas in the latter he refers to a specific pen.
2. ‘The’ is used by geographical areas such as rivers, mountains, seas, oceans etc.

“The Middle East”, “The Atlantic Ocean”, “The Himalayas”

c.      Unique things always requite the article ‘the’

“The Sun”, “The Moon”

d.     Musical instruments use ‘the’

“He plays the cello.”

e.     Countries generally don’t use articles in front but if their names are plural they use the article ‘the’

“The Netherlands”, “The United States of America”

f.        Abbreviations and classes of people always use the article ‘the’

“The U.N” “The Poor” “The British” “The IMF”

2.     Indefinite Article

The Indefinite Article is of two types, namely, ‘a’ and ‘an’. The word ‘a’ is used when it precedes a word that starts with a consonant and the word ‘an’ is used when it precedes a word that starts with a vowel. Unlike the Definite Article, the Indefinite Articles refer to a general idea and not a particular one. The Indefinite Article only appears with singular nouns. For example, in the sentences “I would like a good book to read.” Or “I am craving for an apple pie.” The subject talks about books or apple pies in general rather than a specific book or apple pie.

Uses of ‘a’ and ‘an’:

1. Uncountable nouns cannot use either ‘a’ or ‘an’. For example advice is an uncountable noun, therefore a sentence such as “Can you give me an advice.” Does not make sense. Rather “Can you give me some advice.” Is more appropriate.
2. Jobs use Indefinite Articles

“I want to become a teacher” “My dream is to become an actor”

c.      There are a couple of exceptions to the overall rule of employing ‘a’ before words that start with consonants and ‘an’ before words that begin with vowels. The first letter of the word honour, for instance, may be a consonant, but it’s unpronounced. In spite of the way it is spelled, the word honour begins with a vowel. Therefore, we use an. For example, consider the following sentences:
My mother is a honest woman.
My mother is an honest woman.

d.     When the first letter of a word is a vowel but is pronounced with a consonant sound, the article 'a' must be used. For example:

She is an United States senator.

She is a United States senator.

5.     Explain the rules associated with articles.

     The use of A/An with plural Or uncountable noun:

a fact = OK (singular)

a facts = INCORRECT (plural)

An information = INCORRECT (uncountable)

An advice = INCORRECT (uncountable)

a piece of advice = OK (“piece” is countable)

a pants / a glasses / a scissors = INCORRECT (plural)

a pair of pants/glasses/scissors = OK (“pair” is countable)

a rice = INCORRECT (uncountable)

a grain of rice = OK (“grain” is countable)

a work = INCORRECT (uncountable)

a job / a task / a project = OK (countable)

     The articles ‘A’ and ‘An’ always follow the sound, not the letter

a university (pronounced like you – ni – ver – si – ty)

An umbrella (pronounced like um – brel – la)

a hat (h is not silent)

An hour (h is silent)

An X-ray (pronounced like ex – ray)

An NGO (pronounced like en – gee – oh)

a non-governmental organization (when we say the full words, they start with the N sound)

     The use of A and An without a noun following it.

I am a Japanese. = INCORRECT (“Japanese” is an adjective, not a noun)

I am Japanese. = OK

He is an intelligent. = INCORRECT (“intelligent” is an adjective, not a noun)

He is intelligent. = OK

He is an intelligent man. = OK (now it’s OK because we have the noun “man” after “an intelligent”)

     The use of "The" for Singular or Plural and for Countable or Uncountable nouns, when something specific is being talked about (Not General)

I love pasta. (general)

I love the pasta at that restaurant. (specific)

That store sells furniture. (general)

The furniture in my living room is all new. (specific)

Vegetables are good for you. (general)

The vegetables at the market are always fresh. (specific)

I need advice. (general)

The advice you gave me was very helpful. (specific)

     Use of the article "The" for proper nouns:

• NAMES OF CONTINENTS/COUNTRIES*/STATES/CITIES/STREETS:

We’re traveling around Asia for three months.

I’d like to visit Russia.

Paris is my favourite city in Europe.

Have you ever been to California?

They live on Rosewood Avenue.

*Exceptions: the United States (the U.S.), the United Kingdom (the U.K.), the Philippines, the Czech Republic, the Central African Republic, the Marshall Islands

• COMPANIES & UNIVERSITIES*

My uncle works at Samsung.

Microsoft reported high profits this quarter.

She graduated from Harvard.

New York University is very large.

*Exceptions: If the university’s name BEGINS with “university,” then use “the”:

The University of Pennsylvania, the University of Miami

• LANGUAGES & HOLIDAYS

I’m studying Spanish.

He speaks Italian.

My whole family gets together at Christmas.

The office will be closed on New Year’s Day.

     "The" can be used while referring for certain places:

• DO NOT USE THE WITH INDIVIDUAL LAKES OR MOUNTAINS:

Mount Everest is the highest mountain the world.

We went sailing on Lake Ontario.

• USE THE WITH OCEANS, RIVERS, VALLEYS, DESERTS, MOUNTAIN RANGES, POINTS ON GLOBE:

The Pacific Ocean

The Amazon River

The San Fernando Valley

The Sahara Desert

The Swiss Alps, the Rocky Mountains

The North/South Pole, the Equator

• DO NOT USE THE WITH THE FOLLOWING PLACES:

I’m going home.

She’s at work.

He’s in jail.

We attend church.

My kids went to bed.

My brother’s in high school.

My sister’s in college.

• USE THE WITH THE FOLLOWING PLACES:

I went to the bank.

Let’s go to the movies.

He gets home from the office around 7.

My grandfather’s in the hospital.

I’ll stop by the post office after lunch.

I caught a taxi to the airport.

I’ll pick you up at the train station.

6.     What are the various types of prepositions?

A preposition is a word that connects the noun/pronoun in a sentence to the other parts of the sentence such as the verbs and adjectives. It determines the relationship between the nouns, pronouns and the other words in a sentence.

They help one understand the relationships of logic, space and sequence between the different parts of a sentence.

Below are few examples of prepositions commonly used in the English language:

1. I just came back from the U.S.
2. The book is inside the drawer.
3. The kid threw a stone into the lake.

A preposition cannot be plural or possessive. Sometimes prepositions can also act as nouns, verbs and adverbs.

Types of Prepositions

1. Prepositions of Time:

These prepositions indicate when something happens, will happen or has happened in any point in time.

Prepositions of time include at, on, in, before, during, after.

Examples:

1. John was born on the 7th of August.
2. David left his job in 2012.
3. Amy ate lots of fruits during her pregnancy.

2.     Prepositions of Place:

These prepositions usually indicate the position of a particular thing or person. The three most common prepositions of time are on, at and in.

These prepositions may also indicate the time along with place but depending on their use it can be easily ascertained what they are referring to.

Examples:

1. The ball is in the court.
2. The clothes are on the top shelf.
3. I was at the supermarket just yesterday.

3.     Prepositions of Direction or Movement:

Prepositions of movement indicate the direction in which a person or an object is moving.

‘To’ is the most commonly used preposition of movement.

Examples:

1. I went to shop for groceries but all the shops were closed.
2. He took his dog to the park.

The other prepositions of direction or movement are across, though, over, down, up, past, around.

4.     Prepositions of Manner:

Prepositions of manner describe the way in which things take place or means by which things happen.

Prepositions of manner include by, in, like, with, on.

Examples:

1. I like travelling by car.
2. She went to the school in a taxi.
3. Jacob sings like a professional.
4. He reacted with pity when he saw the poor cat.

5.     Preposition of Agents or Instruments:

Preposition of Agents or Instruments describe the action conducted by a person or object on another person or object.

Most common prepositions of these types are by and with.

Examples:

1. The song was recorded by James.
2. He cuts his hair with a clipper.

6.     Prepositions of Possession:

Prepositions of Possession indicate the owing or owning of an object. It also can be used when something is own to someone. Prepositions of possession include of, with and to.

Examples:

1. This is the car of my niece.
2. He said he saw a man with a green umbrella.
3. This jacket belongs to my grandfather.

7.     What are some common types of errors with the use of prepositions?

The use of prepositions in sentences can be a difficult task. Propositions are sometimes short and very common (e.g., at, in and on), and may have several uses depending on the context, which can make it difficult to know which preposition to use.

Below are some common errors to avoid with prepositions:

1. Temporal Errors

The use of 'in' and 'at' depends on the time of the day. For example, in sentences we always use the preposition “in” with “morning,” “afternoon,” and “evening.” But the preposition 'at' is used when talking about the night:

• Helen goes running in the morning.
• Tim goes running in the afternoon.
• Shirley goes running in the evening.
• Bob goes running at night.

b.     Spatial Errors (In and at vs. To)

The preposition 'to' can be used to discuss journeys (e.g., “I’m going to Tasmania”). But if the word “arrive,” is present in a sentence we use “in” or “at” to describe reaching a destination. For instance:

• She arrived in Tasmania just after lunch.
• He arrived at the restaurant five minutes late.

The use of “in” or “at” typically depends on the destination:

The preposition “in” for cities, countries or other large areas. While the preposition “at” is used for specific places (e.g., a library, a bar, or someone’s house).

c.      Time, Days, Months, and Years (At, On, and In)

Different prepositions are used in different contexts while referring to time in days, months and years.

If a time of the day is being referred, the correct term is “at”:

• The party starts at 9pm.

If a specific day or date is being referred, we use “on”:

• The party is on Saturday.

While referring to a month or year, the correct preposition is “in”:

• We’re having a party in April.

d.     Helping verbs

With auxiliary verbs such as “should” or “must.”, the preposition "of" is used.

• Exception: I should of gone to bed earlier. ✗

However, this is an error. The correct word here isn’t even a preposition.

Rather, the verb “have,” must be used which sounds a bit like “of” when spoken (hence the confusion). Thus, it should say:

I should have gone to bed earlier. ✓

e.     Present Continuous Tense

If something has been happening from a long time, we use “for” when referring to a length of time (e.g., a period of hours, days, or months):

• I’ve been writing for six hours.

But if a specific time is used as a point of reference, we use “since”:

• I’ve been writing since breakfast.

The difference here is that the first refers to a measure of time, while the second refers to a fixed point in the past when the activity began.

f.        Talking About and Discussing

“Talking” and “discussing” are similar activities, so people often treat these words as interchangeable. However, only the preposition “about” must be used after “talking.” For example:

• We’re talking about extreme sports. ✓
• We’re discussing extreme sports. ✓
• We’re discussing about extreme sports. ✗

8.     What are the eight parts of speech in English grammar?

The English language is basically comprised of eight parts of speech that construct a complete sentence: noun, pronoun, verb, adjective, adverb, preposition, conjunction, and interjection. These parts of speech determine how a word functions in meaning as well as grammatically within the sentence.

The use of the words defines their place and meaning in a sentence.

1. Noun

Nouns, also called naming words, refer to any person, place, animal, thing or idea. Nouns can be singular or plural, concrete or abstract. There are two types of nouns:

1. Proper noun- These nouns start with capital letters and refer to the name of a particular place or thing. Ex – Barack Obama, Himalaya mountains.
2. Common noun- These nouns start with lower case letter and refer to the names of general places or things. Ex – man, teacher, letter

2.     Pronoun

A pronoun is a word used in place of the noun.

A pronoun which substituted in place of a specific noun is called an antecedent. Pronouns can be further defined by their various types: personal pronouns describe specific persons or things; possessive pronouns imply ownership; relative pronouns introduce a subordinate clause; and demonstrative pronouns identify, point to, or refer to nouns.

Ex - Me, she, her, mine, theirs.

3.     Adjective

An adjective is a word that describes the quality or quantity possessed by a noun. It answers the questions like which one, what kind or how many. It is a word used to modify or describe the noun or a pronoun.

Ex - Young boy, Pretty girl, Huge elephant, One thousand sea shells.

4.     Adverb

An adverb is a word that modifies or describes a verb, an adjective, or another adverb, but never a noun. When, where, how, why, under what conditions, or to what degree are the types of questions that are answered by an adverb. Adverbs often end in -ly.

Ex- Very long letter, quickly disappear out of sight.

5.     Preposition

Prepositions are words placed before a noun or a pronoun in order to modify the meaning of other words in a sentence. The prepositional phrase almost functions as an adjective or an adverb.

Ex- The boy received a number of sweets from the teacher.

6.     Verb

A verb is a word that expresses the state of being or work being done by the subject. There are main verbs and there are also helping verbs known as auxiliary verbs. Verbs can also be used to express tense.

Ex – She vanished in the darkness.

7.     Conjunction

A conjunction is a word that joins words, phrases or clauses and establishes a relationship between them. And, but, or, nor, for, so, yet are some examples of conjunctions.  

8.     Interjection

An interjection is a word which is used to express emotion. They are usually followed by exclamation points.

Ex. Oh dear! Wow! Oh my God!

9.     What do you understand by subject-verb agreement? Explain in detail.

A subject – verb concord refers to the agreement formed between the subject and verb in a sentence which makes the sentence meaningful and sound structurally correct.

Below are the rules of a Subject-Verb concord:

Being able to find the right title and action will help you correct the mistakes of the action agreement.

Basic Rule.  A singular subject (he, Bill, car) takes a singular verb (goes, shiny), and the plural subject takes a plural verb.

For example: The list of items is /are on the table.

If you know that a list is a topic, then you will choose it for the Verb.

• Rule 1. The subject will come before the sentence you begin. This is an important rule for understanding subjects/lessons.  The word of is the culprit in many, perhaps most, subject-verb mistakes.
  Funny writers, speakers, readers and the audience can miss the most common mistake in the following sentence:

Incorrect: The bouquet of yellow roses lends color and aroma to the room.

Correct: A bouquet of flowers of yellow roses lends. . . (borrowing a bouquet of flowers, not roses lend)

• Rule 2. Two related topics linked by, or, either/ or, or neither / nor require one action.

Examples:

My aunt or my uncle is arriving by train today.
Neither Juan nor Carmen is available.
Either Kiana or Casey is helping today with stage decorations.

• Rule 3. The verb in an or, either / or, or neither / nor sentence agrees with the noun or pronoun next to it.

Examples:

Neither the plates nor the serving bowl goes on that shelf.
Neither the serving bowl nor the plates go on that shelf.

This rule can lead to traffic congestion. For example, if I'm one of two (or more) subjects, it could lead to this unusual sentence:

Awkward: Neither she, my friends, nor I am going to the festival.

If possible, it is better to rearrange such correct sentences in the language but be negative.

Better: Neither she, I, nor my friends attend the festival.

Or

She, my friends, and I are not going to the festival.

• Rule 4. As a general rule, use a plural action for two or more subjects if they are linked by.

Example: A car and a bicycle are my mode of transportation.

But note the exceptions:

• Exceptions:
  Breaking and entering is against the law.
  The bed and breakfast was charming.

In those sentences, breaking and entering and the bed and breakfast are complicated nouns.

• Rule 5a. Sometimes a subject is separated from a verb by words such as once, and, and besides, not, etc. These words and phrases are not part of the title. Ignore them and use only one action when the subject is alone.

Examples:

The politician, along with the newsmen, is expected shortly.
Excitement, as well as nervousness, is the cause of her shaking.

• Rule 5b. Parents are not part of the topic.

Example: Joe (and his trusty mutt) was always welcome.

If this seems difficult, try rewriting the sentence.

• Rule 6. In sentences that begin here or there, the actual subject follows the verb.

Examples:

There are four hurdles to jump.
There is a high hurdle to jump.
Here are the keys.

• NOTE:
  The word existence, some consensus exists, leads to bad habits in illegal sentences such as There are a lot of people here today, because it's easier to say "there" than "there is." Take care never to use an article on a plural subject.

• Rule 7. Use the unit-by-unit action, time periods, currency, etc., when considered a unit.

Examples:

Three miles is too far to walk.
Five years is the maximum sentence for that offense.
Ten dollars is a high price to pay.
BUT
Ten dollars (i.e., dollar bills)  were scattered on the floor.

• Rule 8. In words that indicate parts - e.g., many, many, all, all - Regulation 1 given earlier in this section is reversed, and we are guided by the noun in the background. If the noun is one after the other, use one action. If plural, use the plural verb.

Examples:

A lot of the pie  has disappeared.
A lot of the pies  have disappeared.
A third of the city  is unemployed.
A third of the people  are unemployed.
All of the pie  is gone.
All of the pies are gone.
Some of the pie  is missing.
Some of the pies are missing.

• NOTE:
  In recent years, the SAT test service has considered none of it very important. However, according to Merriam-Webster's Dictionary of English  Usage: "Obviously no one has been united and plural since Old English and still is. The idea that it is compiled only is a myth of an unknown origin that probably originated in the 19th century. If it seems to you, use one verb; if there seems to be a plural, use a plural verb. Both are accepted without serious criticism. " When none is clearly intended to mean "not one," it is followed by a singular verb.

• Rule 9. With collective nouns such as group, jury, family, audience, population, the action may be singular or plural, depending on the author's intent.

Examples:

All of my family has arrived OR have arrived.
Most of the jury  is here OR are here.
A third of the population  was not in favor OR were not in favor of the bill.

• NOTE:
  Anyone using a collective verb with a collective pronoun should be aware of the accuracy - and also disagree. It should not be done with care. The following is the kind of error sentence that a person sees and doesn't hear much these days:

The staff decides how they want to vote.

Careful speakers and writers can avoid sharing their singular and plural to work in one sentence.

Consistent: The staff are deciding how they want to vote.

Rewriting such sentences is recommended whenever possible. The preceding sentence will read better like:

The staff members are deciding how they want to vote.

• Rule 10. The word instead consisted of statements expressing desire or contradicting the truth:

For example: If Joe were here, you would be sorry.

Shouldn't Joe be followed by him, not, given that Joe is alone? But Joe is not here, so we say it wasn't. The sentence indicates the state of injection, which is used to express things that are logical, wishful, rational, or controversial. The general motive reflects a few lessons and what we often think of as pluralism.

Examples:

I wish it were Friday.

He requested that she raise his hand.

In the first example, a wish statement is presented, not a fact; So, it's been something, which we often think of as a mathematical act, used with it. (Technically, one article in a reunion: it was Friday.)

Usually, he used to sound awful to us. However, in the second example, when an application is presented, the subjunctive mood is correct.

• Note: The punctuation condition is lost in spoken English but should be used in formal speech and writing.

10. What is noun-pronoun agreement? Explain in detail.

Noun-Pronoun agreement refers to the correspondence of a pronoun with its antecedent in number (singular, plural), person (first, second, third), and gender (masculine, feminine, neuter).

Typically, one of the basic principles of pronoun concord (also known as noun-pronoun agreement or pronoun-antecedent agreement) is that a singular pronoun refers to a singular noun while a plural pronoun refers to a plural noun.

Below are the rules related to pronoun concord:

Singular Noun, Singular Pronoun:
 

When writing a sentence, using the same word more than once can be repetitive.

Example: Francine edited her paper because her paper was full of errors.

• Rather than repeating "paper" twice, it is possible to use a pronoun.

Revision: Francine edited her paper because it was full of errors.

• Since "paper" is singular (there is only one), use the singular pronoun ("it") to replace it.

Remember to find the exact subject of the sentence to find out whether a pronoun should be singular or plural. See our web page on subject-verb agreement for more on singular and plural subjects.

For example: Each student should find his or her  own note taking strategy.

• Since the subject is singular ("each "), the pronoun ("his or her") must also be singular.

For example: Neither Bob and Alex do not believe he will win this award.

• Since the subject is singular ("neither"), the pronoun ("he") must also be singular.

For example: A community group of teachers is meeting tonight to see if it can find a way to help students improve their SAT scores.

• Since the subject is singular  ("community group"), the pronoun ("it") must also be singular.

Singular “They"

Recently, a number of popular and popular books have begun to accept the use of the word "them" as a singular pronoun, meaning that the authors use "they" to associate with the target topics in an attempt to avoid male pronouns. Although the pronoun "they" is a plural noun in some style references, APA encourages authors to use "they" as a singular pronoun for the purpose of accepting gender differences.

According to the APA-style blog, "when people come together and do not change their gender (including age, gender, and other communities) use their unity as their pronoun, the authors rightly use the singular when" writing about them ".

With this in mind, when authors write specifically about an individual or group of people who like singular "they," authors should also use the single "they."

When appropriate, we recommend authors explicitly explain that they have used the singular "they" to follow the identities of the people they are interviewing.

In addition, authors can often avoid the issue of gender-neutral pronouns by updating a sentence to make the subject plural:

Original sentence: A teacher should carefully choose opportunities for development that address their gaps in knowledge.

Plural Noun, Plural Pronoun:

When the subject of a sentence is plural, the pronoun in the sentence becomes plural as well.

For example: When students arrive on the first day of school, students need help finding the right classroom.

• Since " students " is a plural, use a plural pronoun to replace it.

Revision: When students arrive on the first day of school, they need help finding the right classroom.
Remember to find the exact subject of the sentence to find out whether a pronoun should be singular or plural. See our web page on subject- verb agreement for more on single-subject articles.

For example: When a manager or employee disagrees, they should discuss the situation.

• Since the subject has a plural ("a  manager or employee"), the pronoun ("they") must also be plural.

Example: The professor hopes that students review their notes carefully.

• Since the subject is plural ("students "), the pronoun ("their") must also be plural.

For example: Both Smith (2016) and Taylor (2017) believe that their results will lead to social change.

• Since the subject is plural ("both"), the pronoun ("their") must also be plural.

Pronoun Ambiguity:
Although pronouns are useful to help writers avoid repetition, they should be used sparingly to understand the meaning of the sentence. Look at this sentence:

For example: When Jeff and Brian joined the team members, they were shocked.

• The pronoun here ("they") is unclear - to whom? Was the team nervous? Were Jeff and Brian nervous? In this example, because the pronoun "they" makes sense, choosing a noun instead of a pronoun will help clarify it.

11. What are modifiers?

Modifiers are words that provide additional information about nouns, pronouns, verbs, and themselves to make those things more definite.

Modifiers can be classified into two main types: adjectives and adverbs.

MODIFYING WORD

A modifying word refers to the adjectives and adverbs that modify a word in a sentence and are defined by it respectively.

The modifier is an Adjective when the modified word is a  noun.

Example:

• An outstanding choice for a sovereign summer holiday.
• These huge apartments are along an inland waterway in a quiet residential area.
• The friendly resort of Blue eyes with its stunning white sandy beach is only a short walk away.

An adjective modifies a noun. The physical and other qualities of the noun are expressed by the adjective (huge, quiet, friendly) and also the writer’s opinion or attitude (outstanding, stunning). The residual adjective classifies the area, tells us what type of area it is.

The modifier is an Adverb, if the modified word is a verb or adjective or any other adverb,

Example:

• The car in front of us was a police car.
• You were getting really impatient.
• They were going very slowly.
• They inspected the car thoroughly.
• Then you decided to overtake.

Here the adverbials add information about the noun car, the adjective impatient, the adverb slowly, the action inspected the car and the clause you decided.

Thus, knowing types of adjectives and adverbs will be an added advantage in correcting the sentences.

12. What are misplaced modifiers? How can they be identified?

Many phrases really load the sentences with information by supplying extra significance, tying loose strands together, and clearing up area of uncertainty. But, if the phrases and clauses aren’t correctly placed, things can get undisciplined and confusing.

A key to precise sentence construction is the proper placement of modifiers within a sentence:

Only one word or a group of words must be modified by a modifying phrase or clause, and should be placed as close as possible to the word(s) it modifies.

Incorrect: There is a clay figurine in the museum that is thousand years old.

In the given sentence the word museum is modified by using the clause ‘that is thousand years old’.

Correct: There is a clay figurine that is thousand years old in the museum.

Two kinds of problematic modifiers that exist in placement tests, they are known as misplaced modifiers and dangling modifiers.

Identifying Misplaced Modifiers

1.  MISPLACED MODIFIERS

Many sentences in the first glance appear to be correct, but in the second reading, become confusing and unorganized due to misplaced modifiers.

Adverbs and prepositional phrases are the two most commonly misplaced modifiers. They include - however, only, just, even, almost, never, etc.

A. Adverbs with Verbs

In the adverb forms and adverbial forms, the adverb can be moved within a sentence to modify verb, adjective, or another adverb along with the noun phrases.

Example:

Consider these three sentences each having the word just in a different position:

• Jenny was just allowed to go back to work.
• Jenny was allowed to just go back to work.
• Just Jenny was allowed to go back to work.

As it can be seen the placement of the modifier 'just' completely changes the meaning in each of the three sentences.

The first sentence means that Jerry was recently allowed to go back to work.

The second sentence means that Jerry was only allowed to go back to work and nowhere else.

The third sentence means that only Jerry and no one else was allowed to go back to work.

When we’re writing, it’s important to put the modifier in the correct position to convey your intended meaning. Therefore, it is essential to note that the placement of one little adverb can dramatically change the meaning of a sentence.

B. Prepositional Phrase

In case of the ‘adverbial forms’, the prepositional phrase can modify (pro)noun, adjective or adjectival phrase, and verb as adverbial phrase.

Consider this example:

• He saw a house on the top of the hill with the help of telescope.
• He saw a house with the help of telescope on the top of the hill.
• He saw a house on the top with the help of telescope of the hill.
• With the help of telescope, he saw a house on the top of the hill.

To fix the error first try to answer for ‘He did what, where, with what’

With the help of telescope, he saw a house on the top of the hill is correct.

Sentence 1 to 3 positions the telescope with hill, house, top where ideology is incorrect.

C) Adjective Clause

As mentioned and dealt with adjective, it becomes our intention to identify the incorrect appearance of adjective or unintended meaning of adjectives.

Example

• My wife, which was bought in Mumbai city, wore her new scarf around her neck.
• My wife wore her new scarf, which was bought in Mumbai city, around her neck.
• My wife wore her new scarf around her neck, which was bought in Mumbai city.
• My wife wore, which was bought in Mumbai city, her new scarf around her neck.

To correct the error sketch the idea in brief – who or what was bought in Mumbai city

It is obvious that one can’t buy a wife or her neck, hence the correct modifying phrase should be placed near scarf. Therefore, the correct sentence would be ‘My wife wore her new scarf, which was bought in Coimbatore city, around her neck’.

2. DANGLING MODIFIERS

A dangling modifier is a modifier which is always incomplete, in terms of clauses, participles or infinitive phrases

A. Incomplete Clauses

It is necessary to turn a phrase into clause, to make it clear which word(s) are modified. Always suspect an ‘ing’ word of dangling if it’s near the front of a sentence.

Example 1:

Incorrect: While in my meeting, my mother called me.

Here the subject or the doer of the action is missing. Bring the subject, sequence the action and correction happens.

Correct: While I was in my meeting, my father called me.

Example 2:

Incorrect: Running fast to catch the train, my iphone fell out of my pocket.

Sketch the meaning, seems as if iphone is running fast to catch the train.

Correct: While I was running fast to catch the train, my iphone fell out of my pocket.

B.  Dangling Participles

A participle that modifies unintended (pro)noun.

Example 1:

Incorrect: We were excited to see a pasture of wildflowers walking through the park.

Are the wildflowers walking through the park?

Correct: Walking through the park, we were excited to see a pasture of wildflowers.

Example 2:

Incorrect: After having declined the dessert, the waiter brought us the bill.

Hint word ‘us’, the doer is missing.

Correct: Having declined the dessert, we asked the waiter to bring us our bill.

Example 3:

Incorrect: Feeling better, the doctor said I could return to school.

Who was feeling better, the doctor or the speaker?

Correct: The doctor said, I who was feeling better could return to school.

C.  Dangling Infinitives

An infinitive (to + verb), when serving as an adjective, that modifies an intended (pro)noun.

Example:

Incorrect: To recover from the accident, the doctor suggested some rest.

Who is recovering the doctor or the speaker?

Correct: According to the doctor, I need some rest to recover from the accident.

Unit - 3

Question Bank

1. What are some commonly misspelt words in the English language?

Commonly misspelt English words are some of the most used words that are unintentionally misspelt by users in day to day writing. Although it is difficult to determine which words are more prone to spelling mistakes, words with double consonants, multiple connected vowels, and long arduous words are more commonly misspelt compared to other words.

Below are some of the most commonly misspelt words in the English Language:

The first column represents the correct spelling of the word followed by the mistake commonly made by writers and the last column represents the misspelt form of the word used.

2.     What are clichés? Give examples.

Clichés are those words or phrases which have been used repeatedly over time and because of this overuse they have lost their impact.

The word cliché can be traced to its French origin, which is why you'll often see it with an accent over the "e," but you can also write it as "cliche" in English. When printing presses were used, the cast iron plate that reproduced the words, phrases, or images was called a stereotype. The noise that casting plate made sounded like "cliché," meaning click, to French printers, so this onomatopoeia word became printer's jargon for the stereotype. Thus, cliché came to mean a word or phrase that gets repeated often.

Just because a phrase is overused doesn't mean it's a cliché, and because a phrase is a cliché doesn't mean it isn't true. A cliché will convey meaning but often loses its point along the way through over-usage. Below are some common English Clichés:

Common Cliché Sayings

     All that glitters isn't gold

     Don't get your knickers in a twist

     All for one, and one for all

     Kiss and make up

     He has his tail between his legs

     And they all lived happily ever after

     Cat got your tongue?

     Read between the lines

     Someone woke up on the wrong side of the bed

     We're not laughing at you we're laughing with you

Clichés that Describe Time

     Only time will tell

     In the nick of time

     Lost track of time

     Lasted an eternity

     Just a matter of time

     A waste of time

     Time flies

     In a jiffy

     The time of my life

Clichés that Describe People

     As old as the hills

     Fit as a fiddle

     Without a care in the world

     A diamond in the rough

     Brave as a lion

     Weak as a kitten

     Had nerves of steel

     Ugly as sin

Clichés that Describe Life, Love, and Emotions

     Opposites attract

     Every cloud has a silver lining

     Don't cry over spilled milk

     The calm before the storm

     Laughter is the best medicine

     Love you more than life itself

     Scared out of my wits

     Frightened to death

     All is fair in love and war

     All's well that ends well

     Haste makes waste

     The writings on the wall

     Time heals all wounds

     What goes around comes around

     When life gives you lemons, make lemonade

     Head over heels in love

     Gut-wrenching pain

     Heart-stopping fear

3.     What are redundancies in English? Explain with the help of examples.

Redundancies refer to the use of two or more words together that carry the same meaning thus making them repetitious and unnecessary. Redundant words often make communication longer but definitely not better and therefore, must be strictly avoided. In some specific contexts however, some of these phrases may serve a purpose. Although more often than not, these phrases weigh down our writing with unnecessary words and jargon.

Below are some common redundancies in the English language, the words in parentheses are to be omitted to make the phrase correct in meaning:

A

(absolutely) essential

(absolutely) necessary

(actual) facts

Advance (forward)

(advance) planning

(advance) preview

(advance) reservations

(advance) warning

Add (an additional)

Add (up)

(added) bonus

(affirmative) yes

(aid and) abet

(all-time) record

Alternative (choice)

A.M. (in the morning)

(and) etc.

(anonymous) stranger

(annual) anniversary

(armed) gunman

(artificial) prosthesis

Ascend (up)

Ask (the question)

Assemble (together)

Attach (together)

ATM (machine)

Autobiography (of his or her own life)

B

Bald(-headed)

Balsa (wood)

(basic) fundamentals

(basic) necessities

Best (ever)

Biography (of his--or her--life)

Blend (together)

(boat) marina

Bouquet (of flowers)

Brief (in duration)

(brief) moment

(brief) summary

(burning) embers

C

Cacophony (of sound)

Cameo (appearance)

Cancel (out)

(careful) scrutiny

Cash (money)

Cease (and desist)

Circle (around)

Circulate (around)

Classify (into groups)

(close) proximity

(closed) fist

Collaborate (together)

Combine (together)

Commute (back and forth)

Compete (with each other)

(completely) annihilate

(completely) destroyed

(completely) eliminate

(completely) engulfed

(completely) filled

(completely) surround

(component) parts

Confer (together)

Connect (together)

Connect (up)

Confused (state)

Consensus (of opinion)

(constantly) maintained

Cooperate (together)

Could (possibly)

Crisis (situation)

Curative (process)

(current) incumbent

(current) trend

D

Depreciate (in value)

Descend (down)

(desirable) benefits

(different) kinds

Disappear (from sight)

Drop (down)

During (the course of)

Dwindle (down)

E

Each (and every)

Earlier (in time)

Eliminate (altogether)

Emergency (situation)

(empty) hole

Empty (out)

(empty) space

Enclosed (herein)

(end) result

Enter (in)

(entirely) eliminate

Equal (to one another)

Eradicate (completely)

Estimated at (about)

Evolve (over time)

(exact) same

(exposed) opening

Extradite (back)

F

(face) mask

Fall (down)

(favorable) approval

(fellow) classmates

(fellow) colleague

Few (in number)

Filled (to capacity)

(final) conclusion

(final) end

(final) outcome

(final) ultimatum

(first and) foremost

(first) conceived

First (of all)

Fly (through the air)

Follow (after)

(foreign) imports

(former) graduate

(former) veteran

(free) gift

4.     What are the two types of articles? Explain definite and indefinite articles?

Articles are words that precede a noun and define the specificity of that noun. In other words, they imply how specific a particular noun is.

There are two types of Articles in the English language, Definite and Indefinite Articles.

1. Definite Article

The definite article is the word ‘the’. This article is only used when a particular place, thing or activity is being referred to. It limits the meaning to one particular thing or activity.

For example, in the sentence “I won’t be attending the party this weekend.” ‘The’ is used before the noun party therefore it refers to a specific party which the subject is talking about. The definite article can be used with both singular and plural words.

Uses of “The”:

1. The definite article can be used to make general things specific, for example, “Please pass me a pen.” when changed to “Please pass me the pen.” Changes the meaning of the sentence entirely. In the former the subject requests for a pen in general whereas in the latter he refers to a specific pen.
2. ‘The’ is used by geographical areas such as rivers, mountains, seas, oceans etc.

“The Middle East”, “The Atlantic Ocean”, “The Himalayas”

c.      Unique things always requite the article ‘the’

“The Sun”, “The Moon”

d.     Musical instruments use ‘the’

“He plays the cello.”

e.     Countries generally don’t use articles in front but if their names are plural they use the article ‘the’

“The Netherlands”, “The United States of America”

f.        Abbreviations and classes of people always use the article ‘the’

“The U.N” “The Poor” “The British” “The IMF”

2.     Indefinite Article

The Indefinite Article is of two types, namely, ‘a’ and ‘an’. The word ‘a’ is used when it precedes a word that starts with a consonant and the word ‘an’ is used when it precedes a word that starts with a vowel. Unlike the Definite Article, the Indefinite Articles refer to a general idea and not a particular one. The Indefinite Article only appears with singular nouns. For example, in the sentences “I would like a good book to read.” Or “I am craving for an apple pie.” The subject talks about books or apple pies in general rather than a specific book or apple pie.

Uses of ‘a’ and ‘an’:

1. Uncountable nouns cannot use either ‘a’ or ‘an’. For example advice is an uncountable noun, therefore a sentence such as “Can you give me an advice.” Does not make sense. Rather “Can you give me some advice.” Is more appropriate.
2. Jobs use Indefinite Articles

“I want to become a teacher” “My dream is to become an actor”

c.      There are a couple of exceptions to the overall rule of employing ‘a’ before words that start with consonants and ‘an’ before words that begin with vowels. The first letter of the word honour, for instance, may be a consonant, but it’s unpronounced. In spite of the way it is spelled, the word honour begins with a vowel. Therefore, we use an. For example, consider the following sentences:
My mother is a honest woman.
My mother is an honest woman.

d.     When the first letter of a word is a vowel but is pronounced with a consonant sound, the article 'a' must be used. For example:

She is an United States senator.

She is a United States senator.

5.     Explain the rules associated with articles.

     The use of A/An with plural Or uncountable noun:

a fact = OK (singular)

a facts = INCORRECT (plural)

An information = INCORRECT (uncountable)

An advice = INCORRECT (uncountable)

a piece of advice = OK (“piece” is countable)

a pants / a glasses / a scissors = INCORRECT (plural)

a pair of pants/glasses/scissors = OK (“pair” is countable)

a rice = INCORRECT (uncountable)

a grain of rice = OK (“grain” is countable)

a work = INCORRECT (uncountable)

a job / a task / a project = OK (countable)

     The articles ‘A’ and ‘An’ always follow the sound, not the letter

a university (pronounced like you – ni – ver – si – ty)

An umbrella (pronounced like um – brel – la)

a hat (h is not silent)

An hour (h is silent)

An X-ray (pronounced like ex – ray)

An NGO (pronounced like en – gee – oh)

a non-governmental organization (when we say the full words, they start with the N sound)

     The use of A and An without a noun following it.

I am a Japanese. = INCORRECT (“Japanese” is an adjective, not a noun)

I am Japanese. = OK

He is an intelligent. = INCORRECT (“intelligent” is an adjective, not a noun)

He is intelligent. = OK

He is an intelligent man. = OK (now it’s OK because we have the noun “man” after “an intelligent”)

     The use of "The" for Singular or Plural and for Countable or Uncountable nouns, when something specific is being talked about (Not General)

I love pasta. (general)

I love the pasta at that restaurant. (specific)

That store sells furniture. (general)

The furniture in my living room is all new. (specific)

Vegetables are good for you. (general)

The vegetables at the market are always fresh. (specific)

I need advice. (general)

The advice you gave me was very helpful. (specific)

     Use of the article "The" for proper nouns:

• NAMES OF CONTINENTS/COUNTRIES*/STATES/CITIES/STREETS:

We’re traveling around Asia for three months.

I’d like to visit Russia.

Paris is my favourite city in Europe.

Have you ever been to California?

They live on Rosewood Avenue.

*Exceptions: the United States (the U.S.), the United Kingdom (the U.K.), the Philippines, the Czech Republic, the Central African Republic, the Marshall Islands

• COMPANIES & UNIVERSITIES*

My uncle works at Samsung.

Microsoft reported high profits this quarter.

She graduated from Harvard.

New York University is very large.

*Exceptions: If the university’s name BEGINS with “university,” then use “the”:

The University of Pennsylvania, the University of Miami

• LANGUAGES & HOLIDAYS

I’m studying Spanish.

He speaks Italian.

My whole family gets together at Christmas.

The office will be closed on New Year’s Day.

     "The" can be used while referring for certain places:

• DO NOT USE THE WITH INDIVIDUAL LAKES OR MOUNTAINS:

Mount Everest is the highest mountain the world.

We went sailing on Lake Ontario.

• USE THE WITH OCEANS, RIVERS, VALLEYS, DESERTS, MOUNTAIN RANGES, POINTS ON GLOBE:

The Pacific Ocean

The Amazon River

The San Fernando Valley

The Sahara Desert

The Swiss Alps, the Rocky Mountains

The North/South Pole, the Equator

• DO NOT USE THE WITH THE FOLLOWING PLACES:

I’m going home.

She’s at work.

He’s in jail.

We attend church.

My kids went to bed.

My brother’s in high school.

My sister’s in college.

• USE THE WITH THE FOLLOWING PLACES:

I went to the bank.

Let’s go to the movies.

He gets home from the office around 7.

My grandfather’s in the hospital.

I’ll stop by the post office after lunch.

I caught a taxi to the airport.

I’ll pick you up at the train station.

6.     What are the various types of prepositions?

A preposition is a word that connects the noun/pronoun in a sentence to the other parts of the sentence such as the verbs and adjectives. It determines the relationship between the nouns, pronouns and the other words in a sentence.

They help one understand the relationships of logic, space and sequence between the different parts of a sentence.

Below are few examples of prepositions commonly used in the English language:

1. I just came back from the U.S.
2. The book is inside the drawer.
3. The kid threw a stone into the lake.

A preposition cannot be plural or possessive. Sometimes prepositions can also act as nouns, verbs and adverbs.

Types of Prepositions

1. Prepositions of Time:

These prepositions indicate when something happens, will happen or has happened in any point in time.

Prepositions of time include at, on, in, before, during, after.

Examples:

1. John was born on the 7th of August.
2. David left his job in 2012.
3. Amy ate lots of fruits during her pregnancy.

2.     Prepositions of Place:

These prepositions usually indicate the position of a particular thing or person. The three most common prepositions of time are on, at and in.

These prepositions may also indicate the time along with place but depending on their use it can be easily ascertained what they are referring to.

Examples:

1. The ball is in the court.
2. The clothes are on the top shelf.
3. I was at the supermarket just yesterday.

3.     Prepositions of Direction or Movement:

Prepositions of movement indicate the direction in which a person or an object is moving.

‘To’ is the most commonly used preposition of movement.

Examples:

1. I went to shop for groceries but all the shops were closed.
2. He took his dog to the park.

The other prepositions of direction or movement are across, though, over, down, up, past, around.

4.     Prepositions of Manner:

Prepositions of manner describe the way in which things take place or means by which things happen.

Prepositions of manner include by, in, like, with, on.

Examples:

1. I like travelling by car.
2. She went to the school in a taxi.
3. Jacob sings like a professional.
4. He reacted with pity when he saw the poor cat.

5.     Preposition of Agents or Instruments:

Preposition of Agents or Instruments describe the action conducted by a person or object on another person or object.

Most common prepositions of these types are by and with.

Examples:

1. The song was recorded by James.
2. He cuts his hair with a clipper.

6.     Prepositions of Possession:

Prepositions of Possession indicate the owing or owning of an object. It also can be used when something is own to someone. Prepositions of possession include of, with and to.

Examples:

1. This is the car of my niece.
2. He said he saw a man with a green umbrella.
3. This jacket belongs to my grandfather.

7.     What are some common types of errors with the use of prepositions?

The use of prepositions in sentences can be a difficult task. Propositions are sometimes short and very common (e.g., at, in and on), and may have several uses depending on the context, which can make it difficult to know which preposition to use.

Below are some common errors to avoid with prepositions:

1. Temporal Errors

The use of 'in' and 'at' depends on the time of the day. For example, in sentences we always use the preposition “in” with “morning,” “afternoon,” and “evening.” But the preposition 'at' is used when talking about the night:

• Helen goes running in the morning.
• Tim goes running in the afternoon.
• Shirley goes running in the evening.
• Bob goes running at night.

b.     Spatial Errors (In and at vs. To)

The preposition 'to' can be used to discuss journeys (e.g., “I’m going to Tasmania”). But if the word “arrive,” is present in a sentence we use “in” or “at” to describe reaching a destination. For instance:

• She arrived in Tasmania just after lunch.
• He arrived at the restaurant five minutes late.

The use of “in” or “at” typically depends on the destination:

The preposition “in” for cities, countries or other large areas. While the preposition “at” is used for specific places (e.g., a library, a bar, or someone’s house).

c.      Time, Days, Months, and Years (At, On, and In)

Different prepositions are used in different contexts while referring to time in days, months and years.

If a time of the day is being referred, the correct term is “at”:

• The party starts at 9pm.

If a specific day or date is being referred, we use “on”:

• The party is on Saturday.

While referring to a month or year, the correct preposition is “in”:

• We’re having a party in April.

d.     Helping verbs

With auxiliary verbs such as “should” or “must.”, the preposition "of" is used.

• Exception: I should of gone to bed earlier. ✗

However, this is an error. The correct word here isn’t even a preposition.

Rather, the verb “have,” must be used which sounds a bit like “of” when spoken (hence the confusion). Thus, it should say:

I should have gone to bed earlier. ✓

e.     Present Continuous Tense

If something has been happening from a long time, we use “for” when referring to a length of time (e.g., a period of hours, days, or months):

• I’ve been writing for six hours.

But if a specific time is used as a point of reference, we use “since”:

• I’ve been writing since breakfast.

The difference here is that the first refers to a measure of time, while the second refers to a fixed point in the past when the activity began.

f.        Talking About and Discussing

“Talking” and “discussing” are similar activities, so people often treat these words as interchangeable. However, only the preposition “about” must be used after “talking.” For example:

• We’re talking about extreme sports. ✓
• We’re discussing extreme sports. ✓
• We’re discussing about extreme sports. ✗

8.     What are the eight parts of speech in English grammar?

The English language is basically comprised of eight parts of speech that construct a complete sentence: noun, pronoun, verb, adjective, adverb, preposition, conjunction, and interjection. These parts of speech determine how a word functions in meaning as well as grammatically within the sentence.

The use of the words defines their place and meaning in a sentence.

1. Noun

Nouns, also called naming words, refer to any person, place, animal, thing or idea. Nouns can be singular or plural, concrete or abstract. There are two types of nouns:

1. Proper noun- These nouns start with capital letters and refer to the name of a particular place or thing. Ex – Barack Obama, Himalaya mountains.
2. Common noun- These nouns start with lower case letter and refer to the names of general places or things. Ex – man, teacher, letter

2.     Pronoun

A pronoun is a word used in place of the noun.

A pronoun which substituted in place of a specific noun is called an antecedent. Pronouns can be further defined by their various types: personal pronouns describe specific persons or things; possessive pronouns imply ownership; relative pronouns introduce a subordinate clause; and demonstrative pronouns identify, point to, or refer to nouns.

Ex - Me, she, her, mine, theirs.

3.     Adjective

An adjective is a word that describes the quality or quantity possessed by a noun. It answers the questions like which one, what kind or how many. It is a word used to modify or describe the noun or a pronoun.

Ex - Young boy, Pretty girl, Huge elephant, One thousand sea shells.

4.     Adverb

An adverb is a word that modifies or describes a verb, an adjective, or another adverb, but never a noun. When, where, how, why, under what conditions, or to what degree are the types of questions that are answered by an adverb. Adverbs often end in -ly.

Ex- Very long letter, quickly disappear out of sight.

5.     Preposition

Prepositions are words placed before a noun or a pronoun in order to modify the meaning of other words in a sentence. The prepositional phrase almost functions as an adjective or an adverb.

Ex- The boy received a number of sweets from the teacher.

6.     Verb

A verb is a word that expresses the state of being or work being done by the subject. There are main verbs and there are also helping verbs known as auxiliary verbs. Verbs can also be used to express tense.

Ex – She vanished in the darkness.

7.     Conjunction

A conjunction is a word that joins words, phrases or clauses and establishes a relationship between them. And, but, or, nor, for, so, yet are some examples of conjunctions.  

8.     Interjection

An interjection is a word which is used to express emotion. They are usually followed by exclamation points.

Ex. Oh dear! Wow! Oh my God!

9.     What do you understand by subject-verb agreement? Explain in detail.

A subject – verb concord refers to the agreement formed between the subject and verb in a sentence which makes the sentence meaningful and sound structurally correct.

Below are the rules of a Subject-Verb concord:

Being able to find the right title and action will help you correct the mistakes of the action agreement.

Basic Rule.  A singular subject (he, Bill, car) takes a singular verb (goes, shiny), and the plural subject takes a plural verb.

For example: The list of items is /are on the table.

If you know that a list is a topic, then you will choose it for the Verb.

• Rule 1. The subject will come before the sentence you begin. This is an important rule for understanding subjects/lessons.  The word of is the culprit in many, perhaps most, subject-verb mistakes.
  Funny writers, speakers, readers and the audience can miss the most common mistake in the following sentence:

Incorrect: The bouquet of yellow roses lends color and aroma to the room.

Correct: A bouquet of flowers of yellow roses lends. . . (borrowing a bouquet of flowers, not roses lend)

• Rule 2. Two related topics linked by, or, either/ or, or neither / nor require one action.

Examples:

My aunt or my uncle is arriving by train today.
Neither Juan nor Carmen is available.
Either Kiana or Casey is helping today with stage decorations.

• Rule 3. The verb in an or, either / or, or neither / nor sentence agrees with the noun or pronoun next to it.

Examples:

Neither the plates nor the serving bowl goes on that shelf.
Neither the serving bowl nor the plates go on that shelf.

This rule can lead to traffic congestion. For example, if I'm one of two (or more) subjects, it could lead to this unusual sentence:

Awkward: Neither she, my friends, nor I am going to the festival.

If possible, it is better to rearrange such correct sentences in the language but be negative.

Better: Neither she, I, nor my friends attend the festival.

Or

She, my friends, and I are not going to the festival.

• Rule 4. As a general rule, use a plural action for two or more subjects if they are linked by.

Example: A car and a bicycle are my mode of transportation.

But note the exceptions:

• Exceptions:
  Breaking and entering is against the law.
  The bed and breakfast was charming.

In those sentences, breaking and entering and the bed and breakfast are complicated nouns.

• Rule 5a. Sometimes a subject is separated from a verb by words such as once, and, and besides, not, etc. These words and phrases are not part of the title. Ignore them and use only one action when the subject is alone.

Examples:

The politician, along with the newsmen, is expected shortly.
Excitement, as well as nervousness, is the cause of her shaking.

• Rule 5b. Parents are not part of the topic.

Example: Joe (and his trusty mutt) was always welcome.

If this seems difficult, try rewriting the sentence.

• Rule 6. In sentences that begin here or there, the actual subject follows the verb.

Examples:

There are four hurdles to jump.
There is a high hurdle to jump.
Here are the keys.

• NOTE:
  The word existence, some consensus exists, leads to bad habits in illegal sentences such as There are a lot of people here today, because it's easier to say "there" than "there is." Take care never to use an article on a plural subject.

• Rule 7. Use the unit-by-unit action, time periods, currency, etc., when considered a unit.

Examples:

Three miles is too far to walk.
Five years is the maximum sentence for that offense.
Ten dollars is a high price to pay.
BUT
Ten dollars (i.e., dollar bills)  were scattered on the floor.

• Rule 8. In words that indicate parts - e.g., many, many, all, all - Regulation 1 given earlier in this section is reversed, and we are guided by the noun in the background. If the noun is one after the other, use one action. If plural, use the plural verb.

Examples:

A lot of the pie  has disappeared.
A lot of the pies  have disappeared.
A third of the city  is unemployed.
A third of the people  are unemployed.
All of the pie  is gone.
All of the pies are gone.
Some of the pie  is missing.
Some of the pies are missing.

• NOTE:
  In recent years, the SAT test service has considered none of it very important. However, according to Merriam-Webster's Dictionary of English  Usage: "Obviously no one has been united and plural since Old English and still is. The idea that it is compiled only is a myth of an unknown origin that probably originated in the 19th century. If it seems to you, use one verb; if there seems to be a plural, use a plural verb. Both are accepted without serious criticism. " When none is clearly intended to mean "not one," it is followed by a singular verb.

• Rule 9. With collective nouns such as group, jury, family, audience, population, the action may be singular or plural, depending on the author's intent.

Examples:

All of my family has arrived OR have arrived.
Most of the jury  is here OR are here.
A third of the population  was not in favor OR were not in favor of the bill.

• NOTE:
  Anyone using a collective verb with a collective pronoun should be aware of the accuracy - and also disagree. It should not be done with care. The following is the kind of error sentence that a person sees and doesn't hear much these days:

The staff decides how they want to vote.

Careful speakers and writers can avoid sharing their singular and plural to work in one sentence.

Consistent: The staff are deciding how they want to vote.

Rewriting such sentences is recommended whenever possible. The preceding sentence will read better like:

The staff members are deciding how they want to vote.

• Rule 10. The word instead consisted of statements expressing desire or contradicting the truth:

For example: If Joe were here, you would be sorry.

Shouldn't Joe be followed by him, not, given that Joe is alone? But Joe is not here, so we say it wasn't. The sentence indicates the state of injection, which is used to express things that are logical, wishful, rational, or controversial. The general motive reflects a few lessons and what we often think of as pluralism.

Examples:

I wish it were Friday.

He requested that she raise his hand.

In the first example, a wish statement is presented, not a fact; So, it's been something, which we often think of as a mathematical act, used with it. (Technically, one article in a reunion: it was Friday.)

Usually, he used to sound awful to us. However, in the second example, when an application is presented, the subjunctive mood is correct.

• Note: The punctuation condition is lost in spoken English but should be used in formal speech and writing.

10. What is noun-pronoun agreement? Explain in detail.

Noun-Pronoun agreement refers to the correspondence of a pronoun with its antecedent in number (singular, plural), person (first, second, third), and gender (masculine, feminine, neuter).

Typically, one of the basic principles of pronoun concord (also known as noun-pronoun agreement or pronoun-antecedent agreement) is that a singular pronoun refers to a singular noun while a plural pronoun refers to a plural noun.

Below are the rules related to pronoun concord:

Singular Noun, Singular Pronoun:
 

When writing a sentence, using the same word more than once can be repetitive.

Example: Francine edited her paper because her paper was full of errors.

• Rather than repeating "paper" twice, it is possible to use a pronoun.

Revision: Francine edited her paper because it was full of errors.

• Since "paper" is singular (there is only one), use the singular pronoun ("it") to replace it.

Remember to find the exact subject of the sentence to find out whether a pronoun should be singular or plural. See our web page on subject-verb agreement for more on singular and plural subjects.

For example: Each student should find his or her  own note taking strategy.

• Since the subject is singular ("each "), the pronoun ("his or her") must also be singular.

For example: Neither Bob and Alex do not believe he will win this award.

• Since the subject is singular ("neither"), the pronoun ("he") must also be singular.

For example: A community group of teachers is meeting tonight to see if it can find a way to help students improve their SAT scores.

• Since the subject is singular  ("community group"), the pronoun ("it") must also be singular.

Singular “They"

Recently, a number of popular and popular books have begun to accept the use of the word "them" as a singular pronoun, meaning that the authors use "they" to associate with the target topics in an attempt to avoid male pronouns. Although the pronoun "they" is a plural noun in some style references, APA encourages authors to use "they" as a singular pronoun for the purpose of accepting gender differences.

According to the APA-style blog, "when people come together and do not change their gender (including age, gender, and other communities) use their unity as their pronoun, the authors rightly use the singular when" writing about them ".

With this in mind, when authors write specifically about an individual or group of people who like singular "they," authors should also use the single "they."

When appropriate, we recommend authors explicitly explain that they have used the singular "they" to follow the identities of the people they are interviewing.

In addition, authors can often avoid the issue of gender-neutral pronouns by updating a sentence to make the subject plural:

Original sentence: A teacher should carefully choose opportunities for development that address their gaps in knowledge.

Plural Noun, Plural Pronoun:

When the subject of a sentence is plural, the pronoun in the sentence becomes plural as well.

For example: When students arrive on the first day of school, students need help finding the right classroom.

• Since " students " is a plural, use a plural pronoun to replace it.

Revision: When students arrive on the first day of school, they need help finding the right classroom.
Remember to find the exact subject of the sentence to find out whether a pronoun should be singular or plural. See our web page on subject- verb agreement for more on single-subject articles.

For example: When a manager or employee disagrees, they should discuss the situation.

• Since the subject has a plural ("a  manager or employee"), the pronoun ("they") must also be plural.

Example: The professor hopes that students review their notes carefully.

• Since the subject is plural ("students "), the pronoun ("their") must also be plural.

For example: Both Smith (2016) and Taylor (2017) believe that their results will lead to social change.

• Since the subject is plural ("both"), the pronoun ("their") must also be plural.

Pronoun Ambiguity:
Although pronouns are useful to help writers avoid repetition, they should be used sparingly to understand the meaning of the sentence. Look at this sentence:

For example: When Jeff and Brian joined the team members, they were shocked.

• The pronoun here ("they") is unclear - to whom? Was the team nervous? Were Jeff and Brian nervous? In this example, because the pronoun "they" makes sense, choosing a noun instead of a pronoun will help clarify it.

11. What are modifiers?

Modifiers are words that provide additional information about nouns, pronouns, verbs, and themselves to make those things more definite.

Modifiers can be classified into two main types: adjectives and adverbs.

MODIFYING WORD

A modifying word refers to the adjectives and adverbs that modify a word in a sentence and are defined by it respectively.

The modifier is an Adjective when the modified word is a  noun.

Example:

• An outstanding choice for a sovereign summer holiday.
• These huge apartments are along an inland waterway in a quiet residential area.
• The friendly resort of Blue eyes with its stunning white sandy beach is only a short walk away.

An adjective modifies a noun. The physical and other qualities of the noun are expressed by the adjective (huge, quiet, friendly) and also the writer’s opinion or attitude (outstanding, stunning). The residual adjective classifies the area, tells us what type of area it is.

The modifier is an Adverb, if the modified word is a verb or adjective or any other adverb,

Example:

• The car in front of us was a police car.
• You were getting really impatient.
• They were going very slowly.
• They inspected the car thoroughly.
• Then you decided to overtake.

Here the adverbials add information about the noun car, the adjective impatient, the adverb slowly, the action inspected the car and the clause you decided.

Thus, knowing types of adjectives and adverbs will be an added advantage in correcting the sentences.

12. What are misplaced modifiers? How can they be identified?

Many phrases really load the sentences with information by supplying extra significance, tying loose strands together, and clearing up area of uncertainty. But, if the phrases and clauses aren’t correctly placed, things can get undisciplined and confusing.

A key to precise sentence construction is the proper placement of modifiers within a sentence:

Only one word or a group of words must be modified by a modifying phrase or clause, and should be placed as close as possible to the word(s) it modifies.

Incorrect: There is a clay figurine in the museum that is thousand years old.

In the given sentence the word museum is modified by using the clause ‘that is thousand years old’.

Correct: There is a clay figurine that is thousand years old in the museum.

Two kinds of problematic modifiers that exist in placement tests, they are known as misplaced modifiers and dangling modifiers.

Identifying Misplaced Modifiers

1.  MISPLACED MODIFIERS

Many sentences in the first glance appear to be correct, but in the second reading, become confusing and unorganized due to misplaced modifiers.

Adverbs and prepositional phrases are the two most commonly misplaced modifiers. They include - however, only, just, even, almost, never, etc.

A. Adverbs with Verbs

In the adverb forms and adverbial forms, the adverb can be moved within a sentence to modify verb, adjective, or another adverb along with the noun phrases.

Example:

Consider these three sentences each having the word just in a different position:

• Jenny was just allowed to go back to work.
• Jenny was allowed to just go back to work.
• Just Jenny was allowed to go back to work.

As it can be seen the placement of the modifier 'just' completely changes the meaning in each of the three sentences.

The first sentence means that Jerry was recently allowed to go back to work.

The second sentence means that Jerry was only allowed to go back to work and nowhere else.

The third sentence means that only Jerry and no one else was allowed to go back to work.

When we’re writing, it’s important to put the modifier in the correct position to convey your intended meaning. Therefore, it is essential to note that the placement of one little adverb can dramatically change the meaning of a sentence.

B. Prepositional Phrase

In case of the ‘adverbial forms’, the prepositional phrase can modify (pro)noun, adjective or adjectival phrase, and verb as adverbial phrase.

Consider this example:

• He saw a house on the top of the hill with the help of telescope.
• He saw a house with the help of telescope on the top of the hill.
• He saw a house on the top with the help of telescope of the hill.
• With the help of telescope, he saw a house on the top of the hill.

To fix the error first try to answer for ‘He did what, where, with what’

With the help of telescope, he saw a house on the top of the hill is correct.

Sentence 1 to 3 positions the telescope with hill, house, top where ideology is incorrect.

C) Adjective Clause

As mentioned and dealt with adjective, it becomes our intention to identify the incorrect appearance of adjective or unintended meaning of adjectives.

Example

• My wife, which was bought in Mumbai city, wore her new scarf around her neck.
• My wife wore her new scarf, which was bought in Mumbai city, around her neck.
• My wife wore her new scarf around her neck, which was bought in Mumbai city.
• My wife wore, which was bought in Mumbai city, her new scarf around her neck.

To correct the error sketch the idea in brief – who or what was bought in Mumbai city

It is obvious that one can’t buy a wife or her neck, hence the correct modifying phrase should be placed near scarf. Therefore, the correct sentence would be ‘My wife wore her new scarf, which was bought in Coimbatore city, around her neck’.

2. DANGLING MODIFIERS

A dangling modifier is a modifier which is always incomplete, in terms of clauses, participles or infinitive phrases

A. Incomplete Clauses

It is necessary to turn a phrase into clause, to make it clear which word(s) are modified. Always suspect an ‘ing’ word of dangling if it’s near the front of a sentence.

Example 1:

Incorrect: While in my meeting, my mother called me.

Here the subject or the doer of the action is missing. Bring the subject, sequence the action and correction happens.

Correct: While I was in my meeting, my father called me.

Example 2:

Incorrect: Running fast to catch the train, my iphone fell out of my pocket.

Sketch the meaning, seems as if iphone is running fast to catch the train.

Correct: While I was running fast to catch the train, my iphone fell out of my pocket.

B.  Dangling Participles

A participle that modifies unintended (pro)noun.

Example 1:

Incorrect: We were excited to see a pasture of wildflowers walking through the park.

Are the wildflowers walking through the park?

Correct: Walking through the park, we were excited to see a pasture of wildflowers.

Example 2:

Incorrect: After having declined the dessert, the waiter brought us the bill.

Hint word ‘us’, the doer is missing.

Correct: Having declined the dessert, we asked the waiter to bring us our bill.

Example 3:

Incorrect: Feeling better, the doctor said I could return to school.

Who was feeling better, the doctor or the speaker?

Correct: The doctor said, I who was feeling better could return to school.

C.  Dangling Infinitives

An infinitive (to + verb), when serving as an adjective, that modifies an intended (pro)noun.

Example:

Incorrect: To recover from the accident, the doctor suggested some rest.

Who is recovering the doctor or the speaker?

Correct: According to the doctor, I need some rest to recover from the accident.