UNIT 4

Environmental ethics

1. Explain Environmental ethics: Issues and possible solutions?

1        It has been realized empirically that all the major religions and their diverse religious associations share the belief that humans are stewards of the environment and its resources. Therefore, they would account for the way they led their lives, including how they treated the biodiversity resources in nature.

2        Religion plays out its role  in environmental conservation  and protection by its beliefs and teachings; it guides the relationship between man and nature, it offers moral framework. The major religions; Christianity, Islam, Judaism, Buddhism and Hinduism have adopted similar approaches or traditions that are geared towards environmental conservation. These are: dominion: humans at the top of Creation and using natural resources as needed. Stewardship: humans having a delegate dominion over Creation and being responsible and accountable for their use of natural resources, empathy: nature is affected by human misbehavior and God and worship: nature gives glory to God and nature is sacred. These approaches correlate and they all complement each other.

3        Each religion through its beliefs expresses concern for the environment and guides its believers towards conservation. The Buddhists believe in oneness and between humanity and nature. If you harm the environment, you harm yourself too; hence taking care of nature is taking care of yourself. Another practice is that of peace and compassion to everyone and everything and ultimately ensuring a balance between human practices and conservation.

4        Christianity, through bible teachings, promotes environmental care through the belief of nature’s divinity and humanity’s responsibility to look after creation/nature. This is also supported by Islam through the teachings of Quran that refer to nature as beautiful and sacred.

5        Hinduism also practices ecosystem protection beliefs and a good example is Mahatma Gandhi who promoted peace and coexistence with fellow humans and nature too, his teachings are extensive and all work towards environmental care.

6        Judaism also, through its teachings, plays a role in ensuring a proper environment. Nature is a central and since God is the owner, we should leave it as we found it. Judaism also discourages unnecessary destruction and destructive human activities.

7        Many religious groups are engaged it restoration and environmental protection activities. This has also led to the development of a new field of study/specialization; Eco-theology, which incorporates the concept of ecosystem management in religious teachings.

8        However, the role of religion and all these efforts and teachings seem to be currently fruitless due to our individual behaviors, it all boils down to your practices and activities, as it is always said, change begins with you.

2.     Explain global warming?

Global warming

Global warming is a Global phenomenon. It refers to a gradual increase in the temperature of the Earth due to trapping of green house gases. A gradual increase in the overall temperature of the earth's atmosphere generally attributed to the greenhouse effect caused by increased levels carbon dioxide, CFCs, and other pollutants. Warming of the climate system is unequivocal, and scientists are 95-100% certain that it is primarily caused by increasing concentrations of greenhouse gases produced by human activities such as the burning of fossil fuels and deforestation. Gases such as CO2, SO2, NO2,CH4, etc. Are the green house gases. Most of these are the polluting gases that are produced by the industries. These gases trap the heat from the sunrays that are reflected from the sun.

Causes of Global Warming 

It is the effect of the process of trapping of Heat due to CO2 which has been going on since times unknown. As we burn fossil fuels like coal, oil and natural gas for energy or cut down and burn forests to create pastures and plantations, carbon accumulates and overloads our atmosphere. Certain waste management and agricultural practices aggravate the problem by releasing other potent global warming gases, such as methane and nitrous oxide.

The major greenhouse gases are water vapour, which causes about 36–70% of the greenhouse effect; carbon dioxide (CO2), which causes 9–26%; methane (CH4), which causes 4–9%;and ozone (O3), which causes 3-7%. Clouds also affect the radiation balance. 

Human activity since the Industrial Revolution has increased the amount of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere, leading to increased radioactive forcing from CO2, methane, troposphere ozone, CFCs and nitrous oxide.

Effects of global warming

• Sea level rise is accelerating. The planet's temperature is rising.
• Dangerous heat waves are becoming more common.The number of large wildfires is growing.
• Extreme storm events are increasing in many areas. More severe droughts are occurring in others. These are having significant and harmful effects on our health, our environment, and our communities.

Prevention Of Global Warming 

The various ways to control Global Warming are:-

• Control of population. But, since it is not possible to control population, the best way to control Global warming is by planting trees - Decrease deforestation/plant forests
• Produce more fuel-efficient vehicles 
• Use of ecofriendly and biodegradable products.
• Improve energy-efficiency in buildings 
• Develop carbon capture and storage processes

3.     Explain Acid rain? Also its sources , causes and effects?

ACID RAIN is a rain or any other form of precipitation that is usually acidic i.e. it has low pH. Acid rain is caused by emissions of sulphur dioxide and nitrogen oxide, which react with water molecules in the atmosphere to produce acids.

Involves deposition of aqueous acids, acidic gases and acidic salts. Acid deposition has 2 parts: wet and dry - Wet deposition refers to acidic rain, fog & snow - Dry deposition refers to acidic gases and particles - Half of the acidity in the atmosphere falls back to earth through dry deposition.

Sources

Acid rain comes from chemical reactions in the atmosphere among oxygen, water and sulfur or nitrogen oxides. When sulfur dioxide dissolves in small droplets of water in clouds, it reacts with the hydrogen and oxygen of the water to form a weak solution of sulfuric acid. Similarly, nitrogen oxides form weak nitric acid in water droplets. The clouds can drift over hundreds of miles carrying their acid droplets. When conditions are right for rain, the droplets grow and fall to the ground. In many areas of the United States, such as the great plains, the acid rain falls mostly on land used for agriculture.

Causes of Acid Rain

The primary cause of acid rain is the emission of harmful gases and emissions by industrial power plants and factories, and to some extent, cars as well. 

Burning of fossil fuels lead to emission of gases that give oxides of sulphur and nitrogen. 

Burning of gasoline and diesel in cars build the amount of acidified water droplets in the atmosphere.

Effects of Acid Rain 

The effects of acid rain are unhealthy and harmful. Buildings, national monuments and bridges tend to deteriorate faster. 

Acid rain has been found to be very hard on trees. It weakens them by washing away the protective film on leaves, and it stunts growth.

The biggest reason to find satisfactory solutions for acid rains is the damage to natural ecosystems. This rain will affect the plants, trees, rivers, lakes, soil and land wherever it may fall on.

Animals and plants that live in such areas are severely affected. Their food sources get diminished, they may develop unhealthy diseases or mutations, or they may even die in extreme cases,

EFFECT ON HUMANS

The pollutants that cause acid rain—sulphur dioxide and nitrogen oxides damage human health. These gases interact in the atmosphere to form fine sulphate and nitrate particles that can be transported long distances by winds and inhaled deep into people's lungs. When we breathe in air pollution, these very fine particulates can easily enter our body, where they can cause breathing problems (asthma), bronchitis and over time even cause skin cancer.

Solutions for acid rain

To solve the acid rain problem, people need to understand how acid rain damages the environment. They also need to understand what changes could be made to the air pollution sources that cause the problem. Use Low Sulphur Coal The amount of sulphur oxides emitted by a power plant can be reduced by burning coal with a very low percentage of sulphur present.

4.     Explain Ozone layer depletion?

The ozone layer in the upper atmosphere absorbs the sun’s ultraviolet radiation, preventing it from reaching the earth’s surface. This layer in the atmosphere protects life on earth from the dangerous UV radiation from the sun. The chemicals called chlorofluorocarbons or CFCs, which were used as refrigerants and aerosol spray propellants, posed a threat to the ozone layer. 

The destruction of the ozone layer is seen to cause increased cases of skin cancer and cataracts. It also causes damage to certain crops and to plankton, thus affecting natures food chains and food webs. This in turn causes an increase in carbon dioxide due to the decrease in vegetation. Protecting the Ozone Layer Ban the use of CFC’s Have to replace with something Current replacements are greenhouse gases and do not eliminate ozone depletion, just slow it down.

5.     Explain Nuclear accidents and holocaust?

A nuclear and radiation accident is defined by the International Atomic Energy Agency as "an event that has led to significant consequences to people, the environment or the facility. Examples include lethal effects to individuals, large radioactivity release to the environment, or reactor core melt." The prime example of a "major nuclear accident" is one in which a reactor core is damaged and large amounts of radiation are released, such as in the Chernobyl Disaster in 1986.

The impact of nuclear accidents has been a topic of debate practically since the first nuclear reactors were constructed. It has also been a key factor in public concern about nuclear facilities. Some technical measures to reduce the risk of accidents or to minimize the amount of radioactivity released to the environment have been adopted. Despite the use of such measures, "there have been many accidents with varying impacts as well near misses and incidents.

The greenhouse effect is a process by which thermal radiation from a planetary surface is absorbed by atmospheric greenhouse gases, and is re-radiated in all directions. Since part of this re-radiation is back towards the surface, energy is transferred to the surface and the lower atmosphere. As a result, the average surface temperature is higher than it would be if direct heating by solar radiation were the only warming mechanism.

Solar radiation at the high frequencies of visible light passes through the atmosphere to warm the planetary surface, which then emits this energy at the lower frequencies of infrared thermal radiation. Infrared radiation is absorbed by greenhouse gases, which in turn re-radiate much of the energy to the surface and lower atmosphere. The mechanism is named after the effect of solar radiation passing through glass and warming a greenhouse, but the way it retains heat is fundamentally different as a greenhouse works by reducing airflow, isolating the warm air inside the structure so that heat is not lost by convection.

The existence of the greenhouse effect was argued for by Joseph Fourier in 1824. The argument and the evidence was further strengthened by Claude Pouillet in 1827 and 1838, and definitively proved experimentally by John Tyndall in 1859, and more fully quantified by Svante Arrhenius in 1896.

If an ideal thermally conductive blackbody was the same distance from the Sun as the Earth is, it would have a temperature of about 5.3°C. However, since the Earth reflects about 30% (or 28%) of the incoming sunlight, the planet's effective temperature (the temperature of a blackbody that would emit the same amount of radiation) is about −18 or −19°C, about 33°C below the actual surface temperature of about 14°C or 15°C. The mechanism that produces this difference between the actual surface temperature and the effective temperature is due to the atmosphere and is known as the greenhouse effect. Earth’s natural greenhouse effect makes life as we know it possible. However, human activities, primarily the burning of fossil fuels and clearing of forests, have greatly intensified the natural greenhouse effect, causing global warming.

6.     Explain Waste water reclamation?

Reclaiming lands that have been laid waste in an extraction or industrial process is "wasteland reclamation." Strip-mining coal produces wastelands. Using chemicals in an industrial process, then dumping the used chemicals either on the land or into a stream creates wastelands or releasing chemicals into the air in an industrial process can create waste lands. When there is no regulation of wastes disposal by the industry can create wastelands. And finally, nuclear accidents can create wastelands.

Environment keeps changing over time naturally and it is also amenable to changes by human beings. Thanks to scientific and technological developments, our ability to alter the environment has increased tremendously, whereas the capacity of environment to cope with those alterations is limited. Nature's bounty and abundance are disappearing at a rapid rate now in many regions of the world including India due to the human alterations of the environment. All this has brought to the fore the need for protection and preservation of environment and the urgency of developing sound environmental policies and programmes. Without them, development would not only be unsustainable but would be tantamount to retrogression. The challenge of creating and maintaining a sustainable environment is probably the single most pressing issue confronting us today and will remain so in the foreseeable future.

The Department of Land Resources, Ministry of Rural Development and Government of India has identified different types of degraded wastelands and has prepared a Wasteland Atlas of India for the year 2000, with the help of Indian Remote Sensing Satellites. According to their estimates, the degraded wastelands accounted for about 20.16 % of India’s total geographical area. The degraded lands include several types of land such as gullied and /or ravinous land, water-logged and marshy land, land affected by salinity and / or alkalinity, degraded pastures / grazing land, degraded notified forest land, mining industrial wastelands, eroded steep slopping land, sandy and desertic lands, and barren rocky /stony wastelands. Whatever the type of degradation, a common characteristic of degraded lands is that their productivity is almost negligible but it could be restored through proper reclamation measures and management.

It is estimated that in India in 1994, about 188 million ha of land, which is 57 per cent of the country’s total geographical area of about 329 million ha, was degraded. Of the 188 million ha of degraded land, about 149 million ha was affected by water erosion, 13.5 million ha by wind erosion, about 14 million ha by chemical deterioration and 11.6 million ha by water-logging (Sehgal and Abrol, 1994). A recent survey by the National Bureau of Soil Survey and Land Use Planning revealed that 66 per cent of India’s total geographical area (around 192 m ha) was at varying stages of degradation (quoted in Haque, 1997).

Land degradation has significant adverse impacts on crop productivity and the environment. Joshi and Jha (1991) in a study of four villages in Uttar Pradesh found that a 50 per cent decline in crop yields over a period of eight years was due to salinity and water -logging caused by the irrigation system.

7.     Explain Consumerism and waste products?

• Consumerism is related to the constant purchasing of new goods, with little attention to their true need, durability, product origin, or the environmental consequences of their manufacture and disposal.
• Consumerism interferes with the sustainable use of resources in a society by replacing the normal common sense desire for an adequate supply of life’s necessities, with and insatiable quest for things that are purchased by larger and larger incomes to buy them.
• Especially in developed countries, landfills are being rapidly filled with cheap discarded products that fail to work within short time and cannot be repaired.
• In many cases, consumer products are made psychologically obsolete by advertising industry long before they actually wear out.
• The inordinate amount of waste that is generated by consumer-oriented societies around the world is now a serious environmental issue.
• Most human activities are related to production and consumption cycle which produce excessive amounts of waste in the form of solid, liquid and gaseous waste products.
• With the advent of and industrial civilization, the highly complex technological processes for production of goods have rapidly increased problems due to inadequate waste disposal.
• With the rapid increase in population, the amount of waste in terms of quantity and quality has increased waste management pressure many-fold in recent years.
• Our health will be affected by dangerous industrial effluents, and be will be smothered by clouds of smoke and unhealthy gases.
  Therefore, the reuse of goods and waste utilization should become a part of the production-consumption cycle.
• For example, it is estimated that the per capita production of domestic waste is many times higher in a developed country hence compared to a developing country.
• Large quantities of solid, liquid and gaseous waste is produced by urban industrial communities in the form of plastic, paper, leather, tin cans, bottles, mineral refuse, and pathological waste from hospitals.
• Dead animals, agricultural wastes, fertilizer and pesticide overuse, and human and animal excreta are essentially rural concerns.
• This attitude towards waste has led to disastrous effects on the environment besides the overexploitation of natural resources.

8.     Explain Water conservation, rain water harvesting, watershed management?

Water conservation can be defined as:

Any beneficial reduction in water loss, use or waste as well as the preservation of water quality.

A reduction in water use accomplished by implementation of water conservation or water efficiency measures; or,

Improved water management practices that reduce or enhance the beneficial use of water. A water conservation measure is an action, behavioral change, device, technology, or improved design or process implemented to reduce water loss, waste, or use. Water efficiency is a tool of water conservation. That results in more efficient water use and thus reduces water demand. The value and cost-effectiveness of a water efficiency measure must be evaluated in relation to its effects on the use and cost of other natural resources (e.g. Energy or chemicals).

The goals of water conservation efforts include as follows:

Sustainability. To ensure availability for future generations, the withdrawal of fresh water from an ecosystem should not exceed its natural replacement rate.

Energy conservation. Water pumping, delivery, and waste water treatment facilities consume a significant amount of energy. In some regions of the world over 15% of total electricity consumption is devoted to water management.

Habitat conservation. Minimizing human water use helps to preserve fresh water habitats for local wildlife and migrating water flow, as well as reducing the need to build new dams and other water diversion infrastructure.

Rain water harvesting

Rain water harvesting is the accumulating and storing of rainwater for reuse before it reaches the aquifer. It has been used to provide drinking water, water for livestock, water for irrigation, as well as other typical uses. Rainwater collected from the roofs of houses and local institutions can make an important contribution to the availability of drinking water. It can supplement the subsoil water level and increase urban greenery. Water collected from the ground, sometimes from areas which are especially prepared for this purpose, is called Storm water harvesting. In some cases, rainwater may be the only available, or economical, water source. Rainwater harvesting systems can be simple to construct from inexpensive local materials, and are potentially successful in most habitable locations. Roof rainwater may not be potable and may require treatment before consumption. As rainwater rushes from your roof it may carry pollutants, such as mercury from coal burning buildings, or bird faces. Although some rooftop materials may produce rainwater that would be harmful to human health as drinking water, it can be useful in flushing toilets, washing clothes, watering the garden and washing cars; these uses alone halve the amount of water used by a typical home. Household rainfall catchment systems are appropriate in areas with an average rainfall greater than 200 mm (7.9 in) per year, and no other accessible water sources (Skinner and Cotton, 1992). Overflow from rainwater harvesting tank systems can be used to refill aquifers in a process called groundwater recharge; though this is a related process, it must not be confused with rainwater harvesting.

Watershed management

Watershed management is the study of the relevant characteristics of a watershed aimed at the sustainable distribution of its resources and the process of creating and implementing plans, programs, and projects to sustain and enhance watershed functions that affect the plant, animal, and human communities within a watershed boundary. Features of a watershed that agencies seek to manage include water supply, water quality, drainage, storm water runoff, water rights, and the overall planning and utilization of watersheds. Landowners, land use agencies, storm water management experts, environmental specialists, water use purveyors and communities all play an integral part in the management of a watershed.

9.     Explain Resettlement and rehabilitation of people; its problems and concerns?

Development projects that displace people involuntarily generally give rise to severe economic, social, and environmental problems: production systems are dismantled; productive assets and income sources are lost; people are relocated to environments where their productive skills may be less applicable and the competition for resources greater; community structures and social networks are weakened; kin groups are dispersed; and cultural identity, traditional authority, and the potential for mutual help are diminished. Involuntary resettlement may cause severe long-term hardship, impoverishment, and environmental damage unless appropriate measures are carefully planned and carried out.

The World Bank was the first multilateral lending agency to adopt a policy for Resettlement and Rehabilitation (R&R).

The treatment of resettlement issues beyond hydropower and irrigation projects to all types of investment operations. It emphasizes the need for:

• Minimizing involuntary resettlement;
• Providing people displaced by a project with the means to improve, or at least restore, their former living standards, earning capacity, and production levels;
• Involving both resettles and hosts in resettlement activities;
• A time-bound resettlement plan; and
• Valuation and compensation principles for land and other assets affected by the project.

A full EA is required if a project is likely to have significant adverse impacts that may be sensitive, irreversible, and diverse. The impacts are likely to be comprehensive, broad, sector-wide, or precedent-setting. Impacts generally result from a major component of the project and affect the area as a whole or an entire sector.

• Dams and reservoirs; Forestry production projects;
• Industrial plants (large-scale) and industrial estates;
• Irrigation, drainage, and flood control (large-scale);
• Land clearance and leveling;
• Mineral development (including oil and gas);
• Port and harbor development;
• Reclamation and new land development;
• Resettlement and all projects with potentially major impacts on people;
• River basin development;
• Thermal and hydropower development; and
• Manufacture, transportation, and use of pesticides or other hazardous and/or toxic materials.

The impacts are not as sensitive, numerous, major, or diverse as category A impacts; remedial measures can be more easily designed. Preparation of a mitigation plan suffices for many category B projects. Few category B projects would have a separate environmental report. Examples of Category B projects are:

• Agro-industries (small-scale);
• Electrical transmission;
• Aquaculture and mariculture;
• Irrigation and drainage (small-scale);
• Renewable energy;
• Rural electrification;
• Tourism;
• Rural water supply and sanitation;
• Watershed projects (management or rehabilitation); and
• Rehabilitation, maintenance, and upgrading projects (small-scale).

10. Explain Population growth?

There is strong evidence that the growth of the world population poses serious threats to human health, socioeconomic development and the environment. It has taken only 12 years for the world population to grow from 5 billion to today's 6 billion.

Some 10 000 years ago, when only about 5 million people inhabited the Earth, few biological systems were seriously damaged by human activity. Today, however, the world faces an environmental dilemma. Current demands are depleting many of the Earth's natural resources and ecological services. Within the next 50 years, it is likely that those life-supporting systems will somehow have to accommodate 3 billion more people as well as support desperately needed advances in living standards for those in poverty, particularly the 3 billion people now living on about $2 a day.

The impact of humans on their environment is related to population size, per capita consumption and the environmental damage caused by the technology used to produce what is consumed. The exploitation of technology and the high consumption pattern of people in Japan, Europe, the United States and Canada have a greater adverse impact per capita on the world's environment than that of a subsistence farmer in Bangladesh, for example. Although they represent 20% of the world's population, the 1.2 billion people living in developed countries consume an estimated 67% of all resources and generate 75% of all waste and pollution.

There are many important interactions between population growth, consumption, environmental degradation and health. Human activity has already transformed an estimated 10% of the Earth's surface from forest or rangeland into desert. The productive capacity of 25% of all agricultural lands, an area equal to the size of India and China combined, has already been degraded. Unproductive land and food scarcity currently contribute to malnutrition among 1 billion people, with infants and children suffering the most serious health consequences.

Environmental degradation, declining food security and uncontrolled epidemics of communicable diseases have slowed, and even reversed, the demographic transition to low death rates in some poor countries. In contrast to developed countries, where cardiovascular diseases and cancer are the leading causes of death, in poor countries infectious diseases cause 45% of all deaths.