Unit 1

Fundamentals of Technical Communication

Communication is only complete if the message received by the recipient is interpreted in the same way as was intended by the sender. But due to the presence of a wide number of factors the message may be destroyed. These factors act as barriers to effective communication. It is essential to locate and eradicate these factors in order to allow free flowing communication.

Some of the barriers that block communication are listed below:

2.     Psychological Barriers- The psychological state of the receiver plays a significant role when processing information. Factors such as personal issues, worries and stress might affect the receiver’s ability to decode information as they might be preoccupied with their own concerns.

Anger on the sender’s end is also an example of a psychological barrier, while angry one tends to convey thoughts one doesn’t mean only to regret later. Shyness, anxiety and depression may also act as barriers.

3.     Interpersonal Barriers- There are six ways in which people can distance themselves from one another:

4.     Physical Barriers- Physical barriers such as noise, physical distance between the speaker and receiver, conditions of the topography, poor lighting, speech impediment, hearing disability also affect effective communication.

5.     Perceptual Barriers- The difference in how individuals perceive things also play a role in communication. People often find themselves unable to accept messages that go against their upbringing and values. Here even though the communication is effective, the feedback suffers. A similar situation might be perceived differently by different individuals and therefore might create disagreement.

6.     Cultural Barriers- Different cultures possess different norms of social interactions and communication. Something deemed appropriate in one culture might not be the same in another. Body language and gestures play a vital role in non-verbal communication which might suffer due to cultural differences.

7.     Inattention- One of the most common barriers towards effective communication is inattention, the receiver might simply be uninterested or might be daydreaming while the message is being conveyed to him.

8.     Organizational Barriers- Organisational policies should be clear to avoid misinterpretations. Expressly stated policies are better understood than implicit policies. As implicit policies are subject to interpretation of behaviour of top managers, people may be subjective in interpretation. Different people can draw different meaning of behavioural gestures which obstructs the effective flow of communication. Strict rules and regulations make observance to these rules also rigid. People lose creativity in transmitting messages. Choice of channels, medium and dimension of communication can be against the willingness of people and, thus, stand in the way of effective communication. Too many levels in the organisational hierarchy can delay processing of information. Information can be filtered, particularly in case of upward communication as negative information is generally not transmitted.

2.     What is downward and upward communication in an organization?

In a corporate structure, internal communication follows a hierarchical organization. Data can stream in four ways in an association: downward, upward, horizontally, and diagonally. The size, nature, and structure of the organization decides how and in which direction the information will flow. In more settled and conventional organizations, a great part of the correspondence streams in a vertical—downward and upward—heading. In informal firms, generally the information will flow horizontally and diagonally. This, obviously, is an element of the practically flat hierarchical progressive system.

Informal correspondences, for example, those conveyed in the organizational grapevine, show up in the both kinds of organizations.

Downward Communication Flows

Downward correspondence is when organization's managers and administrators share information with lower-level employees. In most cases the information transferred in a downward direction does not require a response. An instance might be a declaration of another CEO or notice of a merger with a different firm. Different types of higher-level downward communication incorporate speeches, web journals, digital broadcasts, and recordings. The most widely recognized ways of downward communication are daily mandates of office managers or line administrators to employees. These can even be in the form of instruction manuals or organization handbooks.

Downward correspondence conveys information that assists with notifying the workforce about key authoritative changes, new objectives, or procedures; give performance feedback at the hierarchical level; organize activities; present an official policy; or improve employee morale of consumer relations.

Upward Communication Flows

Data moving from lower-level employees to elevated level representatives is upward communication (also known as vertical communication). For instance, upward communication happens when employees report to an administrator or when team leaders report to an office manager. Things commonly conveyed upward incorporate progress reports, proposals for new projects, spending evaluations, complaints and grievances, proposals for upgrades, and scheduling concerns. In some cases a downward communication prompts a response form a higher level in the hierarchical structure, for example, when an administrator requests a suggestion for a new part or to gauge when an unfinished project will be finished.

A significant objective of managers in organisations today is to energize unconstrained or wilful upward communication from employees without the need to ask first. A few organizations go as far as to organize competitions and give prizes to the most inventive and innovative solutions and recommendations. Before employees are able to provide innovative solutions however, they must be able to trust the management that it would now hijack or sabotage their contributions. A few associations have even introduced "informant" hotlines that will let representatives report perilous, unethical, or criminal operations namelessly to maintain a strategic distance from conceivable counter by higher-ups in the organization.

3.     Describe what you mean by horizontal and diagonal communication.

Horizontal correspondence includes the trading of data across divisions at a similar level in an association (i.e., peer to peer communication). The reason for most horizontal communication is to co-ordinate events and activities and request assistance. Individuals at a similar level in the association can cooperate to deal with issues or issues in a informal and casual basis. The manager of the production division can work with the purchase administrator to quicken or postpone the shipment of materials. The fund supervisor and stock administrators can be circled in with the goal that the association can achieve the maximum profit by the coordination. Communication between two workers who report to the same supervisor is additionally a case of horizontal communication. A few issues with horizontal communication can emerge on the off chance that one manager is reluctant or unmotivated to share data, or considers endeavours to be work commonly as compromising his position (regional conduct). For a situation like that, the administrator at the next level of the hierarchy should convey downward to fortify the organization's value of co-operation.

Diagonal communication is the exchange of data among the various departments of the organisation. For instance, if the VP of sales sends an email to the VP of manufacturing asking when an item will be accessible for delivery, this is a case of horizontal communication. But if a sales representative communicates with the director of manufacturing, that would be an example of diagonal communication. At whatever point correspondence moves between different departments division, the sender's manager ought to be made a part of the loop. An administrator might be placed in a humiliating position and seem awkward in the event that he doesn't know about everything occurring in his department. Trust might be lost and careers harmed if key communication protocols are not followed properly.

4.     Define Technical writing style. What is the scope of technical writing?

Technical style of writing is a complex form of communication that requires extensive knowledge of the technical concepts within manuals and instructional documents. Technical writers take complicated information and create materials that are easy to read for different audiences.

Technical writers create documents, user guides and other written materials for technical products and services. They use their technical writing skills to communicate, provide easily digestible instruction manuals to help audiences understand specialized topics, such as how to use complex features of software programs and applications. Technical writers may work for one company or provide freelance services for multiple organizations.

Scope of Technical Writing Style

Technical writing involves drafting and writing technical communications used in occupational fields. The scope of technical writing extends to the following industries:

5.     What are the various kinds of technical documents?

Technical writing deals with different types of documents and documentation, including report and policy writing. It is vital to multiple fields of human endeavor including science, technology, business, and industry. Different types of technical style of works include:

2.     Technical Reports: In addition to instructions and guidelines, many technical products include information on the product's history, evolution, or structural or operational revisions. Technical writers organize the information and edit it for brevity and accuracy.

3.     Feasibility Studies and Corporate Reports: Feasibility studies and corporate reports (such as annual financial reports) require precise research and presentation of facts that can be easily comprehended by several levels of employees, executives, and shareholders. These reports normally include graphs and charts for comparative purposes in the areas of economics, timelines, and social or business practicality along with narratives to explain the visual aids.

4.     Research Results: Products such as pharmaceuticals or medical devices are accompanied by documentation of findings and interpretations based on laboratory testing or field research. Exemplary attention to detail is vital to the presentation of research results since this type of technical writing frequently includes facts on drug interactions, side effects, and other important health-related concerns.

5.     Policies and Procedures: Both large and small companies have policy and procedures guidelines to govern their organization and employee handbooks to help protect themselves against lawsuits from employees who might claim they weren't aware of certain rules and regulations. Technical writers present these instructions in clear, non-discriminatory terms and understandable language.

6.     Business Plans: These documents require highly technical financial and operational research. They include projections on expenditures, possible losses, and profit margins along with a competitive analysis, marketing strategies, and detailed background information on the professional background and financial stability of the owner(s).

7.     White Papers: White papers are guides to making decisions and solving problems that are created by an organization for an external audience. They explore specific problems, presenting authoritative solutions that readers are encouraged to adopt. White papers are used in many industries and business types to explain an issue and to recommend a particular solution, product, technology, or methodology.

8.     Case Studies: Case studies provide written analyses of real-life situations. They can be about individuals, groups, organizations, clinical practices, decisions, or events which reflect study of the subject over a defined period. They attempt to identify patterns in data about the topic from which generalizations can be made and trends can be identified. Case studies often appear in scientific journals, though they also have their place in business and industry.

9.     Literature Reviews: A literature review can be either a standalone document or included as part of a primary report. They summarize and provide details about previously conducted research and findings on a topic, emphasizing research milestones, conflicting results, and what remains to be discovered through further research.

10. Proposals: Proposals are specifically written as a call to action to get an individual or a group to do something. Real life examples include proposals to receive grants, do projects, purchase products, or consider specific improvements to an organization, product, methodology, or service.

6.     Provide some methods for improving technical writing skill.

Writing is the core skill of a technical writer but by no means the only skill.  Below are the fundamental methods for technical style of writing and ways to enhance them:

1. Writing Abilities

As a technical writer, you must be able to write in a clear and compelling way. Technical writing is a little different from other writing in that it’s not meant to be entertaining, not many people read technical writing for fun. It’s to-the-point and this is important.

Great technical writing is focused on the requirement of the audience and it should be tailored to their specific context. Technical writing must emphasize the channel of communication between you as the writer and your intended audience.

2. Capacity for Empathy

Empathy is one of the core technical writing skills. Empathy is a skill and hence, can be developed.

Empathy is your ability to put yourself in someone else’s shoes and imagine what it is like to be them. It may be one of the most important skills for a technical writer to have.

Use your empathetic abilities to guide your writing and recreate your user’s mindset and situation. One of the most important tasks of a technical writer is often to be a bridge between users and the rest of the company.

Step outside your own biases to experience someone else’s perspective. Build empathy by really trying to imagine what it is like to be your user.

Ask yourself, what causes them pain? What makes them happy?

3. Research Skills

Research skills are the most fundamental skills found in a good technical writer’s skillset, which is the ability to gather and interpret information. A technical writer must be able to critically review the information, and decide what’s worth including in writing.

You must formulate a potential question or framework before beginning research. You should be able to assign the correct weight of importance to the different types of data you encounter, and be able to interpret the meaning of what’s in front of you. How does new intel relate into the larger context?

Ask yourself, how can I find out the answer to this question? What do I know already? What is missing?

4. Problem Solving/Troubleshooting Skills

Finding problems and fixing them is part of the documentation process. Technical writers are experts at using search engines to find out answers. Problem solving means finding innovative ways to tackle a problem and come up with a suitable solution.

Problems are the foundation of the technical writer’s role – if you find a problem, you must document it. You have to be able to anticipate potential problems for users and provide a solution in your documentation.

Sometimes the problem is so great it actually constitutes a bug in the software or problem with the product itself.  Another key skill for technical writers is being able to distinguish between normal quirks and serious flaws.

5. Interviewing Subject Matter Experts

Interviewing Subject Matter Experts for documentation is an important skill to be possessed by all technical writers.

Interviews can be divided into several stages:

You have to be able to identify the information you need from the SME and elicit that information in a polite, respectful way. You need the skills to put someone at ease, but also to keep them on track for the interview.

6. Networking & Communication Skills

Building relationships with colleagues makes the job of a technical writer much easier. A technical writer is the bridge between the user and the rest of the company.

It’s the technical writer’s job to know about everyone’s role at the company. You never know when you might need to call on someone for their input for documentation.

You need the confidence to go after the information that you need and asking for favours and getting people to do things is easier if you lay the groundwork beforehand

To improve networking and communication, a technical writer must give five minutes of their time and foster community connections. Identify key influencers within the company who may be able to get you access to other colleagues, and befriend them.

7. Editing Skills

Editing documents an essential part of a technical writer’s job. Most technical writing is more about editing than it is actual writing. The editing process involves the rectification of grammar, spelling, and overall presentation of your documentation.

Even though one could benefit from a professional proof-reader, one can also learn to proofread by themselves.

A writer can get too close to his or her work during the writing process. If you can, leave your documentation for a day before you review it for editing. If you’re pushed for time, change the font or colour of the document can help you see it with fresh eyes.

8. Technical Proficiency

The type and level of technical skill you need will vary, depending upon the technical writer. The more important part of a technical writer's job is translating that functionality into clear and useful help documentation.

Various tasks may require different levels of technical proficiency, and some technical writing roles will even require an engineering degree. Many technical jobs also require development experience.

9. Visual Presentation Skills

Technical writers may also specialize in producing technical illustration, but the more general technical writer can still benefit from developing his or her design skills.

A lot of documentation now-a-days is internet-based, and the internet is a naturally visual medium. Being able to include a diagram or attractive picture with your documentation can help with comprehension and take it to the next level. Video formats are often considered to be better.

You need to be mindful of presenting your written and visual content in an accessible way for screen readers, but visual content can go a long way to engaging your audience.

7.     Describe the layout of an effective paragraph.

A paragraph is a group of related sentences that support one central idea. Generally, the paragraphs have three parts: the topic sentence, the body sentences, and the conclusion or sentence of the bridge to the next paragraph or paragraph. Paragraphs indicate where the division of a research book begins and ends, and, thus, helps the reader to see the order of the text and to understand its main points.

Business documents - such as letters, emails, reminders and reports - use categories to distinguish different types of information, ideas, and ideas. The sections written in the business format are organized in an orderly, professional and well-organized manner. When writing a business document, we have to look at how the paragraph will appear on the page, the organization of the section and its placement throughout the article. We have to agree on the way our categories are organized. We should use short language and simple style to keep the reader focused on our message.

Structure and Writing Style

Most of the subsections in the book revolve around the formation of three general sections of each section of the research paper, and, by extension, a comprehensive research paper, with an introduction, a body of facts and analysis, and a conclusion. You can see this structure in stages as it relates, describes, compares, compares or analyses information. Each section of the paragraph plays an important role in conveying the meaning you desire to the reader.

Introduction (The Topic Sentence):

Writers don’t get a second chance to make a first impression. The first sentence or topic sentence of the paragraph will give readers a first impression of the argument, the writing style, and the overall quality of the work. A vague, random presentation, full of errors, a wall, or a developing introduction may create a negative impression. On the other hand, a short, fun, and well-written introduction will start readers not thinking too much about writer's analytical skills, writing, and the paper.

Introduction is an important road map throughout the paper. It conveys a wealth of information to readers. Can let them know what the topic is, why it's important, and how it is planned to continue the discussion. In most academic disciplines, introduction should contain a thesis that will enhance the main argument.

Introduction should also give the reader a sense of the types of information to use to make that argument with the general organization of the paragraphs and pages to follow. After reading introduction, readers should not have any major surprises in store when reading the main body of the paper.

Ideally, introduction will make readers want to read the paper. The introduction should spark the interest of readers, making them want to read the rest of the paper. Opening up with a compelling story, an interesting question, or a clear example can get readers to see why the topic is important and serves as an invitation for them to join you in informative discussions (remember, however, that these strategies will not be appropriate for all papers and advice).

The body: follows the introduction; discusses regulatory logic, uses facts, arguments, analyses, examples, and other information.

8.     What are the important factors to be kept in mind while constructing a paragraph?

Paragraph content:

Each section has to deal with one main idea. Introduce the main idea to a common statement in the first paragraph of a paragraph. Follow this topic sentence with a few sentences that support the main idea. This may contain informative information or debate to defend your view. Wrap up the paragraph with a summary sentence. If the class is running too long, you risk losing the student's attention. Instead, arrange the long section into two or more sections.

Paragraph Order:

A business document, such as a report or letter, begins with a paragraph that informs the title of the book. This is followed by one or more sections that develop the lesson. The concluding paragraph summarizes the information you provided or asked the student to take some action. For example, a letter outlining the reasons for an ad campaign may begin with an introductory paragraph introducing the campaign, followed by three sections each explaining the unique purpose of the campaign and a concluding paragraph asking the reader to approve the campaign. If the document is long, use headers to separate large sections.

Paragraph Style:

The style of writing a paragraph can be formal or informal depending upon the context in which the paragraph is to be written. For example, while writing a fictional paragraph, an informal style would suffice. Here the tone may be friendly, the text may be personal or impersonal. While writing paragraphs for articles, the reader may be directly addressed. Business texts are written in formal style. Your writing may be read by third parties and kept by the company for many years, so avoid personal comments. Keep your writing up to date using gender-neutral language, as well as grammar and spelling. Keep your sentences short and to the point. Avoid clichés, contraction and slang.

9.     What are the techniques for writing a good paragraph?

Below are the Techniques of writing a good paragraph:

• Unified - All sentences in one paragraph should be accompanied by a single control point [usually expressed in paragraph heading].

• Obviously related to the research problem — All sentences should refer to the central idea, or thesis, of the paper.

• Coherent - Sentences should be organized correctly and should follow a detailed development plan.

• Well-Developed - All the ideas discussed in the section should be adequately explained and supported by evidence and data that work together to explain the concept that governs the section.

There are many different ways you can organize a category. However, the organization you choose will depend on the regulatory vision of the sector. Methods of classification in academic writing include:

• Narrative: Tell a story. Go in chronological order, from beginning to end.

• Descriptive: Provide specific information about how something looks or feels. Sort by location, chronological, or topic.

• Procedure: Explain step by step how the object works. Maybe you are following in order - first, second, and third.

• Classification: Divide into groups or describe different parts of a topic.

4.     Devote one paragraph to one idea

One paragraph should develop one idea. This will help you see two important issues you will have to correct:

(1) The ideas in the paragraph which do not relate to the main idea – this means their position should be changed; and

(2) you have several sentences with the same main idea – this means you have to remove repetitive content.

5.     Use of Active Voice

It is advisable to change all of the passive sentences into active voice (the exclusions may be the methodology section in scientific papers). Active voice improves clarity of sentences and makes the paper more engaging. Scientists and engineers might use passive voice to avoid the use of personal pronouns. However, all scientific and engineering journals now encourage authors to use I and We. You should also use personal pronouns – they do not make the writing biased; on the contrary, they make authors assume responsibility for their inferences and decisions.

However, students should try avoiding personal pronouns, but this does not mean you should use passive voice. When you look critically at your writing, you will see that in many cases the passive tone is not necessary and you can simply reverse it to active with no loss in meaning.

6.     Use semicolons, colons, dashes and parentheses to effectively combine and separate ideas

Proper use of punctuation will provide more clarity to your ideas and will help you organize them better.

Semicolons can solve the issue of two short sentences following each other. They also help to separate an idea from the previous one while holding some form of connection. For example: “A short sentence may emphasize and make a reader pause; several short sentences in a row break this connection.” Colons help to cut clutter when enumerating. Dashes and parentheses can both be used to put a clause aside and ease reading. However, use them carefully, as dashes emphasize what they separate, while parentheses – deemphasize it (actually, what is found in the parenthesis can be simply skipped by a reader).  

10. What are the organizing principles of paragraphs in documents? What do you mean by unity, coherence and emphasis?

Paragraph Unity means that the sentences in a paragraph should be united as a whole. It means that all the sentence a paragraph should be directly supportive of the topic sentence.

They unity of a paragraph can only be said to be established when all the sentences in that paragraph connect to the main idea. Many times while writing, the topic may be ambiguous, insufficient materials or resources may be available, or the purpose might be indefinite, which can lead to a diversified paragraph lacking unity.

Unity in a paragraph always starts with the topic sentence. Every paragraph must contain one single, controlling idea which must be expressed in its topic sentence, which is usually the first sentence of the paragraph. A paragraph must be then written in such a way that it is unified around this main idea, with the supporting sentences providing detail and discussion. In order to write a good topic sentence, think about your main theme and all the points you want to make in your paragraph. Decide which are the driving points, and then write the main one as your topic sentence.

Paragraph Coherence means that each and every sentence in a paragraph are linked together in a continuous line of thought and are organised in such a way so as to form a unity of idea. The sentences in a paragraph must always connect to each other and should work together as a whole with no gaps in the logical process.

Using transition words is one of the best methods of achieving coherence. These words act as bridges that connect sentences. Transition words that show order (first, second, third); spatial relationships (above, below) or logic (furthermore, in addition, in fact) are very useful for connecting sentences. Also, in writing a paragraph, using only one tense throughout and using only one perspective for descriptions are important ingredients for coherency.

There are some techniques which may be helpful with forming coherence in the paragraph:

The third most important requirement of a well-constructed paragraph is Emphasis. Emphasis in literal terms means “force” or “stress.” You may have a fairly well structured, coherent and unified paragraph but it might be lacking emphasis which is a common mistake among writers. Emphasis means that the main idea of the paragraph must be stressed in every sentence. A paragraph must not seem like a mass of useless details and unnecessary explanations. By keeping the same subject in every sentence, you can be sure that you are emphasising the main idea, whenever this is possible. In this way you are likely to improve the unity because it will not be so easy to go off the track. You are much less likely to introduce unrelated ideas if you are not changing subjects.

There are some techniques which might be useful in emphasising the paragraphs main idea:

You can establish emphasis by position, by repetition by climactic order.

11. What are the different kinds of sentence structures?

There are mainly four types of sentence structures in English language –

A simple sentence consists of only a subject and a verb. It may also contain an object but it will always have only one independent clause.

Examples: They Studied.

                    I used the shaver.

                    He will not fight.

An independent Clause is a group of words containing a noun and a verb which expresses a complete thought.

2.     Compound Sentence:

Compound sentences are sentences which comprise two or more independent clauses these clauses are often combine using a semi-colon or an appropriate conjunction.

Examples: I took my umbrella to work today but it did not rain.

                    He organized his files by tags; then, he updated his reference list.

                   She tried to write a good review and she succeeded in her efforts.

3.     Complex Sentence:

A complex sentence is a type of structure that consists of at least one independent clause and one dependent clause/subordinate clause. Dependent clause is a group of words that contain a subject and a verb but they do not express a complete thought.

In a compound sentence, a dependent clause will usually refer to the subject (who, which) the sequence/time (since, while), or the causal elements (because, if) of the independent clause.

Examples:  Because he did his work so diligently, he was praised by                    everyone in the room.

                           Jake cried because he couldn’t hit the ball.

He studied for hours and hours with no interest in the subject whatsoever.

4.     Complex-Compound Sentence:

The complex-compound sentence is the combination of complex and compound sentence structures. A complex compound sentence will contain at least two independent clauses and at least one subordinate clause.

Examples:  She did not mean to hurt him, but he wouldn’t listen to reason, so she had no choice.

                     Bill tried to apologize to the manager but she ignored him, so he quit the job.

                     I’m not wrong for thinking this way because I have been hurt in the past as I was a naïve young boy.

12. What is reading comprehension? Describe the difficulties associated with reading comprehension.

Reading is the cognitive process of decoding symbols to derive meaning from them. It is the ability to understand text, decode its meaning and compare with what the reader already knows.

Knowledge of grammar and vocabulary are very essential to be a good reader. Attention span, the ability to understand the meaning of a word from context, the ability to co-relate thoughts and ideas, the ability to follow the flow of words, and the ability to identify various literary devices are the fundamental skills required for efficient reading.

An efficient reader is like a bus driver who knows when to go slow, when to accelerate speed, how to negotiate hair-pin bends on roads etc. An efficient reader knows there are different levels of comprehension too as these are different reading materials. To become an efficient reader, one should be able to employ different study techniques Reading is an act of communication between writer and reader. It is an act in which the reader grasps the information the writer passes on to him.

Comprehension is the correct association of meanings with word symbols. It is the selection of the correct meaning suggested by the text It is a thinking process. It is thinking through reading.

Some common difficulties are:

13. What are the different kinds of reading comprehension?

Reading for the main idea:

Pupils should develop skills to identify the main idea or the central idea in what they read. This skill is necessary to get the main idea, identify the theme and get the implied meanings of the paragraph.

Activities to identify the main idea:

Reading for detains:

Along with reading for and stating the main idea the pupils must learn to read for details.

 Activities to accomplish reading for details ask the pupils to;

Reading for organization:

Good readers will understand the organisation of what is being read. They arrange the ideas in logical order. The key helps to recall the information is organization. Reading the content areas depends upon proficiency in organisation skills. A Good reader knows how paragraphs are organized.

Activities that help pupils learn in a logical order what they are reading:

Reading for summarising and outline:

Summaries help to pressure the essential facts and ideas in capsule form. They retain important information. So the pupils should develop summarizing skill. Outlining is another way of organisation. It is closely related to summarising activities to develop summarizing skills. Summarise a message to be sent as a telegram. Selecting the main idea from the choices you give them. Do exercise for writing an outline. Read a small poem and select the best summary from the choices you give them.

14. What are some methods for improving reading comprehension skills?

Reading comprehension is a skill, and like other skills it can be improved over time. With reading comprehension, practice is the mantra, the more you read the better you'll be at understanding a text. Below are the seven main strategies which will help you hone your comprehension skills:

1. Improve your vocabulary

The basic unit of a sentence is a word. Therefore, it is necessary to first understand the meaning of words in order to understand the meaning of sentences and ultimately the subtle meanings within the text. To improve your vocabulary, you can:

2. Come up with questions about the text you are reading

If you ask yourself questions while reading a text, it will help you get more invested and allow you to get a deeper understanding of the text. It will also allow you to explore themes, motifs and other components of text that you otherwise wouldn’t inquire about. The following are examples of questions you could pose as you read:

The more specific your questions, the more likely you will gain further insight into the text and its meaning.

3. Use context clues

Using context clues is a great way to understand what you are reading even if you don’t know all the vocabulary being used. Context clues can be found in the words and sentences surrounding the word that you aren’t familiar with. To use context clues, you can focus on the key phrases or ideas in a sentence and deduce the main idea of a sentence or paragraph based on this information. You can also look for nearby words that are synonyms or antonyms of the word you don’t know.

4. Look for the main idea

Identifying the main idea of a paragraph or article can help you determine the importance of the article. Understanding why the author has written what he has written will help you develop a deeper understanding of the text. While reading, pause after every paragraph and try to decipher the central idea behind the paragraph. Then, try to use your own words and describe the paragraph for further understanding.

5. Write a summary of what you read

Summarisation is a great way to increase your knowledge of what you have read. Summarizing requires you to decide what is important in the text and then put it in your own words. Summarizing allows you to determine if you truly understand what you have read and better remember what you have read in the long term.

6. Break up the reading into smaller sections

Breaking up a text into small sections is a great way of understanding the text more easily if the text is complicated. For example, you could read two paragraphs at a time and then pause to quickly summarize what you just read in your mind. Breaking up what you are reading can help you feel less overwhelmed and give you a better chance of truly comprehending the information in the text.

7. Pace yourself

Set realistic goals for yourself while reading by pacing yourself and allowing yourself some room to breathe. Literary texts require a deep understanding of the subject matter and pacing will be especially helpful for understanding literary texts. Set a goal for yourself that you know you can meet each day. For example, instead of trying to read a full hefty book in two days, try reading 4 chapters in one day. This allows you to reach your goals and also provides adequate time for you to process what you are reading between each session.

15. Describe a few fundamental reading strategies that can help you improve reading skills.

Below are some fundamental reading strategies:

1. Previewing: Previewing refers to take a quick glance at a text before actually reading it. It enables readers to understand the organizational structure of a text. Previewing includes the process of skimming through the text and looking at the headings, table of contents (if any) and typographical cues to get the general idea of what the text is about.

2. Contextualizing: Contextualizing refers to the process of placing the text in its appropriate historical, biographical and cultural background. When one reads a text they often tend to look at it through the lenses of one's won background, leading to a misjudged or biased reading of the text.  Contextualizing helps one eradicate this problem by understanding the scenario and purpose for which the text was written.

3. Questioning: Asking questions while reading a text helps one remember and understand what they have read up to that moment. Questions should be asked after the end of each paragraph and they should deal with the general gist of that paragraph and not with little details contained inside it.

4. Reflecting: While reading, one's personal beliefs or opinions may be challenged by the text. Here it is important to reflect on one's unconscionably held beliefs and values and how the text affects them. As one is reading the text for the first time, an X should be marked in the margin at each point where they feel a personal challenge to their attitudes, beliefs, or status. A brief note should be made in the margin about what one feels or about what in the text created the challenge. After marking, the text should be read again to find out any patterns one has regarding personal beliefs.

5. Outlining and summarizing: Summarizing a text is a great way to ascertain if one has grasped the intended meaning of the text. While outlining deals with the general overview of the text, summarizing is the process of writing down what one has understood about the central idea of the text in their own words thereby forming a new text in itself.

Although summarizing begins with outlining, it always ends with creating its own independent text. Outlining focuses on a close analysis of each paragraph, however, summarizing requires creative synthesis. Outlining and summarizing shows how reading critically can lead to deeper understanding of any text.

6. Evaluating an argument: Evaluating involves the process of testing the logic of a text, its credibility and emotional impact. Writers make assumptions which they want the readers to accept as true, although a critical reader must always evaluate and question what he reads. One should not accept the details within a text as they are presented before him, he should always be prepared to question and assess the text at every step. This will help the reader to grasp any hidden meanings within the text.

7. Comparing and contrasting related readings: Comparing the text one reads with other texts helps the reader to get a better understanding of the text. Sometimes authors refer to similar incidents but with different perspectives. Comparing various texts helps the reader shine new light on a particular subject letting him explore it more deeply. This might also lead to a change in the readers opinions regarding the topic.

16. Write a short note on the topic “Language as a tool of communication”.

Language involves both the ability to comprehend spoken and written words and to create communication in real time when we speak or write. Most languages are oral, generated through speaking. Speaking involves a variety of complex cognitive, social, and biological processes including operation of the vocal cords, and the coordination of breath with movements of the throat, mouth, and tongue.

The use of language changes considerably depending upon the channel of communication. For example, it is easier to use multiple independent and subordinate clauses along with complicated vocabulary while writing but it becomes difficult to do the same while speaking. When speaking one tends to use a simpler form of the language.

There are certain elements of a language which only come into play while speaking such as pronunciation, intonation, word stress and accent. If one is already familiar with a certain language, learning the proper spoken form of another language can be a difficult task as it would involve re-structuring one’s whole biological structure of speaking.

For non-native English speakers, the influence of their first language can be a very big problem when it comes to pronunciation. If up to later age, the sole language we speak is our mother tongue, tons of the speech patterns get set in the human brain. Each language has peculiar sounds and combinations of consonants and vowels. If we start speaking multiple languages from infancy, we easily retain the pliability of uttering sounds from different language systems. Our brains can be easily trained for various sounds from different languages. But if we don't receive that training in our childhood, our brains get familiar with the sounds on just one language and at a later stage it becomes very difficult to coach the brain for a completely different audio system needed for the second language.

Spoken language usually involves of more use of personal pronouns, shorter thought units than written language that are easier to follow, more repetition of words and phrases to emphasise ideas, use of colloquial words and contractions to create a lively conversational tone, use of familiar vocabulary to ensure that the listener understands what the speaker is saying and fewer references to previously stated information.

17. Differentiate between general and technical communication.

There are a number of differences between technical communication and general communication. They are as follows:

Technical communication deals with only technical information which is specific to one’s field of study or vocation. General communication deals with no specific information and can include formal and informal content ranging from formal letters to day to day chit-chat.

2.     Format:

Technical communication is direct, formal and well-organised. In spoken form technical communication involves clear and concise speech that involves the communication of only the information that is to be transferred with no outside digressions. General communication can be formal or informal, it does not need to be well-organised and it is not usually direct.

3.     Audience:

Technical communication is always conducted with the audience in mind and is formulated in such a way that it addresses a specific audience.  For example, a seminar for Engineering students. General communication is not always designed for a specific audience, for example in a public speaking event, the speaker addresses to all the people present at the event disregarding their backgrounds.

4.     Personal Involvement:

There is no place for personal feelings and emotions during a technical correspondence. One simply puts their thoughts and ideas forth and expects a similar feedback. There is no need and no point of expressing one’s feelings regarding a technical subject. Personal feelings and emotions play a vital role in general communication such as in day-to-day matters where emotions along with reason is required to deal with various situations.

5.     Information:

Technical information always deals with facts and practical information. There is no place for fiction in a technical correspondence. General information may deal with facts or fiction. Imagination and fictitious information are a common element in general correspondence.

6.     Objectivity:

Since technical information deals with facts, the communication process it is always impartial and subjective. General communication can be biased and is usually objective in nature.

7.     Purpose:

Technical communication is always carried out with a specific objective. This objective can be to either inform or to elicit a certain response or to force/request the receiver to perform an action. General communication is often carried out with no specific purpose. It can be a casual conversation between co-workers or a series of letters between two old friends. It won’t necessarily require a response or action from the receiver.

8.     Tools of communication:

Technical communication often employs the use of various communicational tools such as electronic presentations, tables, charts, graphs, diagrams, pictures etc. General communication rarely needs these tools and is most commonly carried out in simple oral or written manner.

18. Define technical communication. What are its basic features?

The term “Technical Communication” may be broadly defined as the use of language to convey thoughts dealing with a specific field or Industry. Technical communication can be considered to be “transactional” in nature, it carries a specific purpose to be carried out between the sender and receiver, a transaction of information that may be useful for practical purposes. Effective in communication allows one to collect, organize, convey and instruct new thoughts and ideas. Technical communication is generally tailor made towards the audience or the individual to whom the information is to be conveyed. Communication can either be verbal or non-verbal, oral or written.

Technical Communication comes in many different forms that include not just oral and written methods but also various types of correspondence based on technology, dependent upon the audience, situation and purpose.

One must be thoroughly familiar with all styles of correspondence in order to facilitate effective communication. The channel of communication intrinsically depends upon the purpose and the central idea of the message to be conveyed. For example, it is feasible to acquire information or provide information using a formal phone call or an email whereas while conveying bad news to a particular individual a face-to-face conversation is considered rather apt.

Communication made among persons to convey their personal information, message or thought are personal communication; but exchange of information, facts and ideas relating to a specific field may be termed as “Technical Communication”. Technical Communication refers to the communication relating to technical activity which means providing goods and services to the consumers with a view to earning profit.

It is a process through which information, facts, ideas, orders, advices, decisions, etc. are conveyed, sent or exchanged between/among the persons associated with a specific area of expertise. Thus, Communication relating to trade, science, law, finance, administration, management, etc. of a business enterprise may be termed as ‘Technical Communication’.

Below are the six main features of technical communication:

Documents and presentations are always created with the receiver in mind. Technical communication is used to provide direct information regarding specific topics with no digressions. It is essential to create an audience profile before initiating conversation. Technical conversations are direct and to the point therefore, it has no place for ambiguity or obscurity.

2.     Problem Solving

Technical communication is generally carried out in order to resolve an issue or problem. It only deals with information which is relevant to the problem at hand and works towards finding resolution. Analysis and synopsis are two important elements with regards to problem solving.

3.     Reflects on Goals and Culture

Technical communication is done with a common goal in mind. It respects the culture of an organisation and works towards the goal with the basic principle of being culturally appropriate. Words and phrases specific to an environment are used during discussions or discourses.

4.     Is a Collaborative Effort

Forms of technical communication such as documents, projects, proposal, reports or letters are often a result of a team of communicators. Any informational document requires a number of people working on it. Even when a project is to be finished by a single person, the way they acquire technical information is always dependent on a number of sources.

5.     Use of Designing Features in Written Technical Communication

Documents often use various design features such as colour, typography, spacing and indenting, etc. to make the document look more attractive and professional. Apart from that design features allow the reader to navigate the document with greater efficiency and help them understand the document more easily.

6.     Use of Technology and Terminology

The terminology used during a technical conversation is of the specific field it is carried out in. Words and phrases used during technical communication process are often only understood by the people who are involved in it. Technological tools such as computers are often involved in technical communications. Presentations and graphical representation of various topics are extremely relevant to technical communication.