Unit 2

Basic Writing Skills

1. Give some useful techniques for writing precisely.

By the term 'text' we refer to a passage consisting of different sentences written in continuous prose. It could be just a paragraph. When we read the paragraph, we can understand what is said and we can be able to follow the thinking of the writer. If we are not able to follow we can say that the concerned paragraph lacks cohesion and coherence.

Precise writing promotes two types of skills namely discourse skill and coherence.

It is a skill of presenting ideas and arguments of the writer logically. If this skill is developed we come to know what is coherence and cohesion. Every line has a logical link with the previous one in the text or paragraph which is called the link between sentences in a paragraph. They are:

i)    topical

Ii)  grammatical

Iii)     logical.

This type of link or inter connectedness is known as cohesion. Topical cohesion is lexical in nature. Logical cohesion is known as coherence.

i) Topical cohesion

In a text only one topic is dealt with. It has collocation of related make use of words. Whenever we are writing on a particular topic we appropriate register. So register is the term used to denote the variety of language which depends on its particular use. But using proper register is a hall mark of advanced mastery of the language. Hence it is sufficient to learn collocation rather than register. Topically connected words and its repetition is seen in the text. Synonyms are freely used.

Ii) Grammatical cohesion:

Here sentences can be interconnected by grammar. Grammatical relationship can be brought about by the use of pronouns appositives etc.

Iii) Logical cohesion or Coherence:

A sentence in a text should be logically connected. Logical cohesive is achieved by the use of certain words and expressions. There are a about a dozen logical devices used to promote cohesion.

• Addition: We add one sentence to another by using linguistic markers like and, besides, in addition, moreover, further, again etc.

e.g:    He has a car. In addition, he owns a bike

• Amplification: Amplification means adding details to the text. It is more or less like addition. The same linguistic markers are used here also.

e.g:    He came to see me moreover he brought good news.

• Comparison: Here the first sentence states something. Similar idea is expressed in the second sentence. Markers used are similarly and likewise.

e.g:    Rama got his degree. Similarly, Gopal also got his degree

• Contrast: The second sentence strikes a contrast with the first sentence making use of linguistic markers like 'but, however, whereas, etc.

e.g.:     He is poor but he is kind.

• Concession: The second sentence makes a concession on the basis of the sentence. The linguistic markers used are through, although, even though.

e.g.:    He is poor. Though he is poor he is kind.

• Condition: The second sentence puts forth a condition-based idea with reference he first sentence if, unless, as long as are used.

e.g.: If you work hard, you will pass.

• Cause and effect: The first sentence states the cause or reason. The second sentence covers the effect of that cause. As a result, therefore are used as refers to the linguistic markers.

e.g.: He is suffering from fever. Therefore, he has not come to school.

• Enumeration: The sentence making, use of this device draw up a list. The markers used are 'first, to begin, finally' etc.

e.g.: He was persistently asking me for a loan. Finally, he went away.

• Exemplification: The second sentence gives an example for what is stated in the first sentence. The linguistic markers used are for example, for instance, etc.

e.g.: The government has implemented a number of good schemes.

For example adult education has been given great importance.

• Temporal Relationship: The second sentence refers to a time factor connected to the first sentence. 'before, after, during, meanwhile etc. are used.

e.g.: We were discussing the problem.

Meanwhile the problem has worsened.

• Conclusion: The second sentence arises at a conclusion based on the idea expressed in the first sentence. The markers used are" to conclude, to sum up, in brief etc.

e.g.: He has no clear alibi, to conclude he is the culprit.

• Reformulation: The second sentence 'remarks the first sentence. The markers used are in the other words, he is dishonest etc.

2.     What are the three stages of precise writing?

Below are the three stages of precise writing:

1. Planning

Planning is the "generating ideas" part of the writing process when one works to determine the topic and the position or point-of-view for a target audience. Planning should be offered with the time necessary for an individual to create a plan or develop an outline to organize materials for the final product.

Planning Methods/ Techniques for the Planning Stage

There are a number of ways that one can tackle the planning stage of the writing process. Following are a few of the most common methods and strategies that one can use.

Brainstorming - Brainstorming is the process of coming up with as many ideas as possible about a topic without being worried about the feasibility or whether an idea is realistic or not. A list format is often the easiest to organize.

Freewriting - The free write strategy is when one writes whatever comes into their mind about the topic at hand for a specific amount of time, like 10 or 15 minutes. In a free write, one should not worry about grammar, punctuation, or spelling. Instead, they should try and come up with as many ideas as they possibly can to help them when they get to the writing process.

Mind Maps - Concept maps or mind-mapping are great strategies to use during the planning stage. Both are visual ways to outline information. There are many varieties of mind maps that can be quite useful as one work in the planning stage. Webbing is a great tool that has one write a word in the middle of a sheet of paper. Related words or phrases are then connected by lines to this original word in the centre. They build on the idea so that one has a wealth of ideas that are connected to this central idea.

Drawing/Doodling – Some individuals respond well to the idea of being able to combine words with drawings as they think about what they want to write in the planning stage. This can open up creative lines of thought.

Asking Questions - One often comes up with more creative ideas through the use of questioning. The point of asking questions to oneself is that these questions can help uncover a deeper understanding of the topic before the drafting process begins.

Outlining - One can employ traditional outlines to help them organize their thoughts in a logical manner. One would start with the overall topic and then list out their ideas with supporting details. It is helpful to point out that the more detailed their outline is from the beginning, the easier it will be to write on the topic.

2. Drafting

Drafting is the second step in any writing process. While drafting, the writer organizes his ideas into complete thoughts and translates them into sentences and paragraphs. The writer organizes his ideas in a way that allows the reader to understand his message.  He does this by focusing on which ideas or topics to include in the piece of writing.

While drafting, the writer must compose an introduction to the piece and develop a conclusion for the material presented.  At the end of this step of the writing process, the writer will have completed a “rough draft.” or the First draft of the text.

Below is the drafting process in detail:

Drafting: Stage 1

Follow your plan

Write your first draft using the plan and argument you have already prepared. If you stick to your plan, your first draft should be quite quick to write.

If new ideas occur to you, make notes in a separate document and insert them later, making sure they fit with your plan.

One point per paragraph

Focus on making sure each paragraph contains a point that elaborates on a different aspect of your argument. You will usually make your point in the first sentence of a paragraph. This is often called the topic sentence.

Signposting

As you draft, you might like to include section headings to help keep you on track. You can take them out later. Provide your reader with signposts so they can follow your line of argument without the headings.

At the end of a paragraph, indicate how your point leads on to the next one. Alternatively, use the first few words of the new paragraph to show how it links to the previous one.

Drafting: Stage 2

Check your argument

Now, check what you've written: your argument and how it is structured. Have you answered the question, and all parts of the question? Are the main points clear?

Check that your sections are in the best order for the argument to flow well. You can read through your topic sentences to see this.

You may need to expand one area and reduce another, and substitute quotes or references. But make sure you stick to roughly the right word count.

Keep track of changes by renaming your document as Draft 2. You could put the parts you take out in a ‘spare text' document in case you realise later that you need any of them.

Introduction and conclusion

Once you are happy with the main body of the text, check that your introduction and conclusion reflect what you have written.

3. Editing

Editing is generally considered as correcting grammar and syntax along with punctuation. That's somewhat correct, but only the tip of the iceberg. The editing process involves many sets of eyes and several layers to complete.

It’s important to understand the different types of editing to know what to expect from the process. The revision levels focus on specific individual needs, including stylistic and substantive content. The process of editing consists of four main steps which are to be covered: content and development, line, copy, and proofread.

Steps for Editing:

Step 1: Content and Development Edit

The first step of editing for most documents is content and development editing—reviewing the central content of the text. Developmental editing tackles the following:

• Flow
• Organization
• Chapter (arrangement, length, and number)
• Logic
• Descriptions
• Sentence Structures
• Pacing
• Impact of POV (first, second, third, or combination)

Content and development edits will often lead to reorganization of thought patterns in the text with changing or shuffling minor ideas due to incoherencies.

Step 2: Line Edit

Line edits focus primarily structural patterns of sentences and paragraphs with special attention towards:

• Words or phrases that are repetitious
• Restructuring sentences that are not complete or inaccurate
• Run-on sentences
• Usage of words that clarify meaning
• Enhances tedious wording

A line edit restructures sentences to elevate clarity and flow. Say there are two sentences describing something important, but they don’t quite pull together. During this step, the editor will take the two sentences and formulate them in such a way that they read effortlessly and are in a logical order.

Step 3: Copy Edit

Copy editing is focused on specific grammatical rules including but not limited to:

• Grammar and punctuation
• Spelling nuances (British English versus American English)
• Capitalizing, hyphenating, italicizing
• When to use numbers instead of letters

The copy edit can and must be automated using rules. While editing it is prudent to use two to three references to maintain consistency—specifically, a dictionary and a style manual. Use of dictionaries should be selective to ensure spelling and meaning is correct. Merriam-Webster dictionary is most common.

Step 4: Proofread

The proofread is the final and one of the most important aspects of editing. Proofreading is the last stage of editing and the proof-reader carefully looks for:

• Spelling errors
• Words that sound the same but spelled differently
• Correct usage of quotation and punctuation marks around
• Dialogue
• Missed words (of, and, the)
• Unwanted spaces

Technically proofreading is often considered outside the realm of general editing. An In-depth account of content and flow should be assured before a proofread. While proofreading one isn’t expected to criticize or provide an exhaustive review.

3.     What are the basic organising principles of paragraphs in documents?

Business documents - such as letters, emails, reminders and reports - use categories to distinguish different types of information, ideas, and ideas. The sections written in the business format are organized in an orderly, professional and well-organized manner. When writing a business document, we have to look at how the paragraph will appear on the page, the organization of the section and its placement throughout the article. We have to agree on the way our categories are organized. We should use short language and simple style to keep the reader focused on our message.

Block Status:

The general visual format of the sections in the business document is the block format where the section start is missing. Instead, the entire section is separated on its own and left with a reason, which means it corresponds to the left edge of the paper. A blank line is inserted at the back of each section to distinguish it from the next section or item of a document. Semi-block, where each article's beginning is inserted, is rarely used.

Font:

The sections in the business document are typed in traditional font such as 12-point Times New Roman. Avoid using strange fonts that deviate from your text. Use the same font for the rest of the document, except for titles, which can use either a larger font size or a stronger typeface.

Paragraph content:

Each section has to deal with one main idea. Introduce the main idea to a common statement in the first paragraph of a paragraph. Follow this topic sentence with a few sentences that support the main idea. This may contain informative information or debate to defend your view. Wrap up the paragraph with a summary sentence. If the class is running too long, you risk losing the student's attention. Instead, arrange the long section into two or more sections.

Paragraph Order:

A business document, such as a report or letter, begins with a paragraph that informs the title of the book. This is followed by one or more sections that develop the lesson. The concluding paragraph summarizes the information you provided or asked the student to take some action. For example, a letter outlining the reasons for an ad campaign may begin with an introductory paragraph introducing the campaign, followed by three sections each explaining the unique purpose of the campaign and a concluding paragraph asking the reader to approve the campaign. If the document is long, use headers to separate large sections.

Style:

While the tone can be friendly, business texts are written in formal style. Your writing may be read by third parties and kept by the company for many years, so avoid personal comments. Keep your writing up to date using gender-neutral language, as well as grammar and spelling. Keep your sentences short and to the point. Avoid clichés, contraction and slang.

4.     Provide some techniques for effective paragraph construction.

Below are the Techniques of writing a good paragraph:

1. Before you begin to figure out what the composition of a particular role is going to be, you have to look at what the most important concept you are trying to convey to your student. This is a "controlling concept," or thesis statement in which you name the remainder of the paragraph. In other words, your paragraphs should remind your reader that there is a general relationship between your control concept and the information at each stage. The research problem serves as the seed from which your paper, and your ideas, will grow. The whole process of stage development is a work-in-progress progression from seed theory to full-scale research where there is a direct, family-friendly relationship on paper between all of your control ideas and the stages they come from.

• Unified - All sentences in one paragraph should be accompanied by a single control point [usually expressed in paragraph heading].

• Obviouslyrelated to the research problem — All sentences should refer to the central idea, or thesis, of the paper.

• Coherent - Sentences should be organized correctly and should follow a detailed development plan.

• Well-Developed - All the ideas discussed in the section should be adequately explained and supported by evidence and data that work together to explain the concept that governs the section.

There are many different ways you can organize a category. However, the organization you choose will depend on the regulatory vision of the sector. Methods of classification in academic writing include:

• Narrative: Tell a story. Go in chronological order, from beginning to end.

• Descriptive: Provide specific information about how something looks or feels. Sort by location, chronological, or topic.

• Procedure: Explain step by step how the object works. Maybe you are following in order - first, second, and third.

• Classification: Divide into groups or describe different parts of a topic.

4.     Devote one paragraph to one idea

One paragraph should develop one idea. This will help you see two important issues you will have to correct:

(1) The ideas in the paragraph which do not relate to the main idea – this means their position should be changed; and

(2) you have several sentences with the same main idea – this means you have to remove repetitive content.

5.     Use of Active Voice

It is advisable to change all of the passive sentences into active voice (the exclusions may be the methodology section in scientific papers). Active voice improves clarity of sentences and makes the paper more engaging. Scientists and engineers might use passive voice to avoid the use of personal pronouns. However, all scientific and engineering journals now encourage authors to use I and We. You should also use personal pronouns – they do not make the writing biased; on the contrary, they make authors assume responsibility for their inferences and decisions.

However, students should try avoiding personal pronouns, but this does not mean you should use passive voice. When you look critically at your writing, you will see that in many cases the passive tone is not necessary and you can simply reverse it to active with no loss in meaning.

6.     Use semicolons, colons, dashes and parentheses to effectively combine and separate ideas

Proper use of punctuation will provide more clarity to your ideas and will help you organize them better.

Semicolons can solve the issue of two short sentences following each other. They also help to separate an idea from the previous one while holding some form of connection. For example: “A short sentence may emphasize and make a reader pause; several short sentences in a row break this connection.” Colons help to cut clutter when enumerating. Dashes and parentheses can both be used to put a clause aside and ease reading. However, use them carefully, as dashes emphasize what they separate, while parentheses – deemphasize it (actually, what is found in the parenthesis can be simply skipped by a reader).  

5.     Write a short note on ‘Unity, Coherence and Emphasis’ for meaningful paragraphs.

Paragraph Unity means that the sentences in a paragraph should be united as a whole. It means that all the sentence a paragraph should be directly supportive of the topic sentence.

They unity of a paragraph can only be said to be established when all the sentences in that paragraph connect to the main idea. Many times while writing, the topic may be ambiguous, insufficient materials or resources may be available, or the purpose might be indefinite, which can lead to a diversified paragraph lacking unity.

Unity in a paragraph always starts with the topic sentence. Every paragraph must contain one single, controlling idea which must be expressed in its topic sentence, which is usually the first sentence of the paragraph. A paragraph must be then written in such a way that it is unified around this main idea, with the supporting sentences providing detail and discussion. In order to write a good topic sentence, think about your main theme and all the points you want to make in your paragraph. Decide which are the driving points, and then write the main one as your topic sentence.

Paragraph Coherence means that each and every sentence in a paragraph are linked together in a continuous line of thought and are organised in such a way so as to form a unity of idea. The sentences in a paragraph must always connect to each other and should work together as a whole with no gaps in the logical process.

Using transition words is one of the best methods of achieving coherence. These words act as bridges that connect sentences. Transition words that show order (first, second, third); spatial relationships (above, below) or logic (furthermore, in addition, in fact) are very useful for connecting sentences. Also, in writing a paragraph, using only one tense throughout and using only one perspective for descriptions are important ingredients for coherency.

There are some techniques which may be helpful with forming coherence in the paragraph:

• First is to think of a very clear topic sentence, the topic sentence must contain the central idea of the paragraph.
• Second is to use question and answer pattern in writing down the topic sentence. The question and answer pattern may be in the form of problem-solution or in general to particular to general format.
• Third is by positioning the topic sentence in the paragraph. Topic sentence is usually placed as the first sentence of the paragraph or sometimes it might serve as transitional information before the paragraph. It may also be possible to put the topic sentence in the last sentence of the paragraph if it is not explicitly stated but is being implied.
• Another technique is to structure the paragraph using an ordering pattern such as the question-answer pattern, the problem-solution pattern and the topic-illustration pattern.

The third most important requirement of a well-constructed paragraph is Emphasis. Emphasis in literal terms means “force” or “stress.” You may have a fairly well structured, coherent and unified paragraph but it might be lacking emphasis which is a common mistake among writers. Emphasis means that the main idea of the paragraph must be stressed in every sentence. A paragraph must not seem like a mass of useless details and unnecessary explanations. By keeping the same subject in every sentence, you can be sure that you are emphasising the main idea, whenever this is possible. In this way you are likely to improve the unity because it will not be so easy to go off the track. You are much less likely to introduce unrelated ideas if you are not changing subjects.

There are some techniques which might be useful in emphasising the paragraphs main idea:

You can establish emphasis by position, by repetition by climactic order.

• In establishing emphasis by position, it should be considered that the most significant ideas should be put in the introduction, in the conclusion, or in both parts within the paragraph. The paragraph should be filled with relevant statements not excluding minor details depending upon the need. Ending the paragraph by a summary of recapitulation is also beneficial.
• In establishing emphasis by repetition, the central idea can be repeated by using different words which will stress its importance. This strategy usually impresses the readers most emphatically with what the writer is trying to explain.
• In establishing emphasis by climactic order, the details in the paragraph must be arranged gradually beginning with the simple or least significant and ending with the most complex or most significant.

6.     What are some methods of creating coherence while writing?

Have you ever read something that was difficult to follow, where the author jumped from one idea to another and had no coherence or consistency in connecting words, sentences and paragraphs? That is something you want to avoid in your writing. But how do you do that?

Coherence writing is a logical bridge between words, sentences, and paragraphs. Comprehensive writing uses devices to link ideas within each sentence and paragraph. Key ideas and description can be difficult for the reader to follow when writing is not in line. In this tutorial, you will see some examples and read some tips for making your writing more consistent between words, phrases and paragraphs.

Coherence Between Words:
Between each word, an overlap can be created in parallel. Syntactic structure means using the same grammatical structure between words and sentences. Similarities are very important for words in lists. If you make a list of things that a person likes to do, then each employee on the list should take the same kind of language. For example, if one of the actions in the list takes the 'gaming' form of gerund, the same as 'running', the other items in the list should be in the gerund form.

An informal structure will:
Sara loves jumping, running, and boating.
Instead, the list should be like this:
Sarah loves to jump, run, and walk.

Coherencebetween Sentences:
Cohesion can be formed between sentences by using replication and transition devices. The repetition of words in every sentence helps to repeat the same thoughts between sentences. One way to use repetition to build consensus is to combine the repetition of the same word or phrase at the end of one sentence and at the end of the next sentence to show how thoughts come together. Here is an example of phrases that create reciprocal harmony:

The most important part of the essay is the thesis statement. The thesis statement introduces the contention of the text. Thesis statement also helps to shape the context.

In this example, the repetition of the word 'thesis statement' helps to combine the three sentences. It is a sentence that completes the first sentence and shifts to the next sentence starting with that sentence.

Another way to build consistency between sentences is transformational devices. There are many types of converging devices that show time and help ideas flow smoothly. Change words, such as 'first', 'later', and 'then', are just a few examples of interchange devices that show time to help ideas flow smoothly. Swap devices are like display signs that tell the reader what happened before and where the conversation is going.

CoherenceBetween Categories:
Temporary words can also be used between paragraphs. Words such as:

• Therefore
• However
• Thus
• First
• Later
• After that

It can be used not only between sentences, but between paragraphs to connect them. Other ways to build consistency between categories include paragraph structure and visual consistency. The structure of a related paragraph includes a topic sentence, which focuses on the main idea. The topic sentence usually comes first in the paragraph. The topic sentence is followed by supporting sentences that develop the idea and finally the concluding sentence to put it all together. Temporary words then close the gap between paragraphs, and then the structure begins with another topic sentence in the next paragraph.

Establishing Associations
 

It is important to consider the conjunction when writing at the sentence level. However, cohesion shapes the flow of text and must be established.

There are various ways to ensure consistent cohesion:

• Write sentences that flow with varying lengths and structures, use punctuation, and extend your choice of words.
• Use simple modifications, such as "in addition, additionally, and, therefore, the opposite, in the same token, at the same time, in other words, etc."
• Repeat your keywords but beware of excessive repetition.
• Repeat sentence structures, used as a means of livelihood rather than unity to emphasize the similarities between sentences.
• Ensure consistency regarding them
• Begin each sentence or paragraph with information showing the content of the next sentence.

Academic writing is improved in terms of cohesion. Without unity and cohesion, students will become confused and ultimately disinterested in the subject. Your ideas are then lost and the original purpose of writing is lost.

Strategies for coherent writing:

There are six ways to make a cohesive encounter, which you will find useful while researching your manuscript.
Building relationships is not as difficult as it seems, but you will need the right tools and strategies to achieve it.

Lexis creates cohesion using text templates, hyponyms, and superordinates. The use of lexical chains creates variety in writing and avoids monotony.

• The index creates combinations by using noun phrases (e.g. Yours, theirs, etc.), pronouns (e.g. He, I, etc.), and commentators (e.g. Those, these, etc.).
• Submission, which is to use a different name instead of the previously mentioned name (e.g. "I bought a designer bag today. You did the same.")
• Ellipsis removal or omission because its meaning is defined in context (e.g. "You go to yoga classes in the afternoon. I hope I can too.")
• Related nouns are also called umbrella nouns because they summarize many words in one.
• Suffixes include words that write ideas (e.g. First, next, then, last, etc.)

7.     Why is punctuation important? Explain with the help of examples.

Marks of punctuation play an extremely significant role in giving proper meaning to the language. Use of incorrect mark of punctuation or even wrong position of mark of punctuation can change the meaning of the sentence totally and sometimes even change the sentence to absolute nonsense.

Punctuation is essential for the following reasons:

• Punctuation separates sentences.
• Punctuation shows us when to pause.
• Punctuation shows us where to place emphasis.
• Punctuation clarifies the meaning of the sentence.

Ambiguous, unpunctuated sentences can change the meaning and confuse the reader.

The comma is considered a real villain among marks of punctuation. Incorrect position of comma can give different meaning to sentence depending upon where it is positioned.

Let us see the following sentences:

• Let us eat, daddy.
• Let us eat daddy.

In the primary sentence daddy is being called for dinner. On the other hand, in the next sentence, daddy himself has become a thing to be eaten. Slip of comma in this case has changed the primary sentence to absolute non-sense.

• Hang him, not let him free
• Hang him not, let him free.

In above sentences, just changing comma by one place has entirely misrepresented the meaning of the sentence.

In 1872, incorrect placement of comma cost millions of dollars in import duties to US government. In a tariff act approved in 1872, list of duty-free items added: “Fruit plants, tropical & semi tropical.”

A government officer put the mark of comma at wrong place, which made the sentence read: “Fruit, plants tropical & semi tropical.”

Importers productively contested in the courts that the course as written meant that all tropical & semitropical plants were free from expense of duty.

Next pairs of can also encourage anybody on the subject of right use of marks of punctuation sentences:

• The murderer protested his innocence an hour after he was hanged.
• The murderer protested his innocence. An hour after, he was hanged.

The primary sentence without comma is an absolute nonsense. It means that the murderer protested his innocence after he was hanged!

1. Private- No swimming allowed.
2. Private? No. Swimming allowed.

In the second sentence, addition of a question mark and full stop has transformed personal possessions to public possessions.

• I am sorry you cannot come with us.
• I am sorry. You cannot come with us.

• The butler stood by the door & called the guests’ names.
• The butler stood by the door & called the guests names.

• The criminal, says the judge, should be hanged.
• The criminal says, the judge should be hanged.

Changing the comma by just one place has entirely misrepresented the meaning of the sentence. In the next sentence, it is not the criminal but the judge who should be hanged.

& finally

• The inspector said, “The teacher is a fool.”
• “The inspector,” said the teacher “is a fool.” (Here the inspector is called a fool)

The above given sentences are to show the significance of use of not only correct mark of punctuation, but their right position also.

8.     Describe various clauses in the English language and their use in sentences.

Adjective Clause

As the name suggests, it is a clause that acts as an adjective. These are always dependent. They can't stand on their own as sentences but are instead attached to independent clauses in order to modify nouns.

Take a complex sentence such as "The table that we bought last week is already broken." Here, the clause that we bought last week is an adjective clause that modifies table.

Adjective questions

How can you tell if a clause is an adjective one? It's pretty simple: once you have identified a dependent clause, try to identify the noun it's modifying. Adjective clauses can tell one of several things about that noun:

• What kind?
• How many?
• Which one?

Let us look at the previous example!

• The table that we bought last week is already broken.

In this particular sentence, "that we bought last week" is answering the question "which one?" by telling us which table we're talking about.

Here are a few examples where adjective clauses are in bold and the modified noun - in italics to tell you more about the topic.

• The student who gets the highest grade will receive a prize. (Which one?)
• She gave her extra ticket to the girl whose ticket never arrived. (Which one?)
• They drove by the house where he lives. (Which one?)
• We need to find a car that gets better gas mileage. (What kind?)
• This necklace, which is one of my favorites, will look great with that dress. (What kind?)
• All the cookies that we have are stale. (How many?)

Adjective clause signifiers

You'll notice that all these phrases start with the same few words. These fall into one of two groups: relative pronoun and relative adjective. Looking for these words in sentences can help you locate the needed clauses.

• Relative pronouns: who, whom, whose, that, which.
• Relative adverbs: when, where, why.
• Punctuating adjective clauses

You may also have noticed that in some examples above the adjective clause is set off by commas. How can you tell if it needs to be punctuated or if it can be left alone? The key is to look at what role the clause plays in the sentence. If it's necessary - that is, if the sentence doesn't make sense without it - then you don't need to use commas. By removing the adjective clause from the first example above, we lose a necessary piece of information that changes the meaning of the sentence:

• The student who gets the highest grade will receive a prize. - The student will receive a prize.

On the other hand, when we remove the adjective clause here, the main idea of the sentence remains intact:

• This necklace, which is one of my favourites, will look great with that dress. - This necklace will look great with that dress.

When the adjective clause isn't necessary to the sentence, it should be set apart by commas.

Generally, if the adjective clause is needed to clear up any ambiguity about which noun is being talked about. I.e., we need it in order to know which student will receive the prize - so it's essential. If we already know which specific noun we're talking about (i.e., this necklace), the adjective clause is just adding more information. Meaning it is not essential to the sentence. Often, this distinction is unclear. But, you could make a case either way, so don't worry too much if you have trouble identifying essential and inessential clauses.

Nominal or Noun Clauses

At this point, you can probably guess that a noun clause is a clause that acts as a noun.

Also called nominal clauses, these dependent clauses can function in a sentence just like any other noun. They can be a subject, subject complement, direct object, indirect object, the object of a preposition, or an appositive. I.e., "Why you ate all that cake is a mystery to me." Here, the clause why you ate all that cake is acting as a noun and is the subject of the sentence.

Because nominal clauses act like nouns, there's no set of particular questions they answer, since they're not modifying any other words in the sentence. Below are some examples with the nominal clauses in italics and the function of the noun in parentheses.

• Where you want to go is up to you. (subject)
• Whether you open the present now or later depends on when your parents get here. (subject)
• Your art project can be whatever you want. (subject complement)
• Give the ball to whomever asks for it first. (indirect object)
• Hand whatever papers you have over to the teacher. (direct object)

Noun clause signifiers

Noun clauses start with interrogatives (words that ask questions) or expletives (words that explain relationships).

Interrogatives: who, whom, what, which, why, when, where, whoever, whomever, whatever.

Expletives: that, whether, if.

Adverb Clauses

A close cousin of the adjective clause, the adverbial one, functions in much the same way, except it modifies nouns or adjectives. In the sentence, "I'll be working until we finish the project," the clause until we finish the project is an adverbial clause that modifies the verb phrase be working.

Adverb questions

Adverbial clauses can be identified by several specific questions they answer. They will tell you one of a few things about the verb of the main sentence:

• How?
• When?
• Why?
• Where?
• To what degree?

In the above example - I'll be working until we finish the project - the phrase until we finish the project tells us when we'll be working. Here are a few more examples with the adverbial phrase in bold and the word being modified in italics:

• My sister will come to the party even if she's tired. (How?)
• I'll wash the dishes after I eat dinner. (When?)
• She scrubbed the floor until it was spotless. (When?)
• Because you got here late, you'll need to fill out these forms. (Why?)
• Rather than buying a new car, she chose to have her old one fixed. (Why?)
• Wherever you go, I'll find you. (Where?)
• Alex will enjoy the movie more than his sister will. (To what degree?)
• The hostess wouldn't seat us because the restaurant was closed. (Why?)
• The seeds will take root wherever there is enough light. (Where?)

Adverbial clause signifiers

Adverbial phrases start with subordinate conjunctions. Those are words that join together an independent and dependent clause while indicating which is the subordinate (or secondary) clause.

Subordinate conjunctions:

• After
• Although
• As
• Because
• Before
• Even if
• Even
• Though
• If
• In order
• That
• Once
• Provided
• That
• Rather
• Than
• Since
• So that
• Then
• Though
• Unless
• Until
• When
• Whenever
• Where
• Whereas
• Wherever
• Whether
• While
• Why

Punctuating adverbial clauses

Like adjective clauses, adverbial ones are sometimes set off by commas. However, in this case, it's their placement in the sentence that determines how they're punctuated. Clauses that begin the sentence should be separated from the main clause with a comma. Those added at the end of the main clause do not need one:

• Rather than buying a new car, she chose to have her old one fixed.
• She chose to have her old car fixed rather than buying a new one.

9.     What are the various types of phrases? Explain with the help of examples.

Phrases are combinations of two or more words that form the component of a clause. They are meaningful grammatical constructions that express a concept and can be used within a sentence.

There are 5 basic types of phrases in the English language:

1. Noun Phrase:

A noun phrase is a type of phrase which consists of one noun and/or a group of words surrounding that noun. These nouns can be proper nouns, common nouns, abstract nouns etc.

Examples: There is a red box on the table.

                     I saw two lost puppies on the street yesterday.

                     He bought a new sports car on his birthday.

2.     Verb Phrase:

A verb phrase is a type of phrase which consists of a root verb and its auxiliaries. It is also known as a ‘verb group’.

Examples: They have been working since last night.

                    I have been waiting for the rain to stop for nearly an hour.

                     Jack lost the keys to his apartment when he was jogging.

3.     Adjective Phrase:

Adjective phrases are phrases constructed around a single adjective. It may be a single adjective or a group of words surrounding that adjective.

Examples: The film was very boring, wasn’t it?

                     I ate a very big meal for lunch.

The blue umbrella stood out in a crowd of all red umbrellas.

4.     Adverb phrase:

Adverb phrases consist of a single adverb and a group of supporting words surrounding that adverb.

Examples: They finished the task as fast as possible.

                     Please do it now, otherwise you’ll regret later.

                     He spoke very softly in front of his parents.

5.     Prepositional phrase:

A prepositional phrase is a type of phrase which consists of a preposition which is followed by its object which is usually a noun phrase.

Examples: They kept quarrelling over money of all things.

                     The coin was stuck inside a large black futon.

                     You shouldn’t go swimming after having a large meal.

10. What are the various types of sentence structures in the English language?

Structure in English grammar simply means how the different parts of speech are arranged and organised in a sentence so as to form a complete coherent thought. The English language comprises of many parts such as nouns, pronouns, verbs, adverbs conjunctions, prepositions, adjectives etc. It is through the correct use of these elements in a sentence that it becomes meaningful. Therefore, it is essential to understand how each of these parts of speeches has to be structured in a sentence.

There are mainly four types of sentence structures in English language –

1. Simple Sentence:

A simple sentence consists of only a subject and a verb. It may also contain an object but it will always have only one independent clause.

Examples: They Studied.

                    I used the shaver.

                    He will not fight.

An independent Clause is a group of words containing a noun and a verb which expresses a complete thought.

2.      Compound Sentence:

Compound sentences are sentences which comprise two or more independent clauses these clauses are often combine using a semi-colon or an appropriate conjunction.

Examples: I took my umbrella to work today but it did not rain.

He organized his files by tags; then, he updated his reference list.

                   She tried to write a good review and she succeeded in her efforts.

3.      Complex Sentence:

A complex sentence is a type of structure that consists of at least one independent clause and one dependent clause/subordinate clause. Dependent clause is a group of words that contain a subject and a verb but they do not express a complete thought.

In a compound sentence, a dependent clause will usually refer to the subject (who, which) the sequence/time (since, while), or the causal elements (because, if) of the independent clause.

Examples:  Because he did his work so diligently, he was praised by                    everyone in the room.

                           Jake cried because he couldn’t hit the ball.

He studied for hours and hours with no interest in the subject whatsoever.

4.      Complex-Compound Sentence:

The complex-compound sentence is the combination of complex and compound sentence structures. A complex compound sentence will contain at least two independent clauses and at least one subordinate clause.

Examples:  She did not mean to hurt him, but he wouldn’t listen to reason, so she had no choice.

                     Bill tried to apologize to the manager but she ignored him, so he quit the job.

                     I’m not wrong for thinking this way because I have been hurt in the past as I was a naïve young boy.