English Grammar and Composition

Unit - 1

Question Bank

1. What are gerunds and participles?

A gerund is a word which is created from a verb but always serves the function of a noun. Gerunds always end with the -ing at the end of the word. Being used as a noun, a gerund can function as a subject, a subject complement, a direct object, an indirect object, or an object of a preposition. Gerunds often look like present participles but they are not to be confused with them. The main difference between these two is that gerunds are specifically placed in the noun position of a sentence whereas present participles are placed with the verb phrase, often as modifiers.

Below an example of a gerund in the position of the subject:

      Brushing your hair prevents it from tangling.

In this sentence, the word brushing is the gerund functioning as the subject of the sentence.

If a gerund were to be the complement of a subject in a sentence, it would look like this:

      Her number one priority is working.

In this sentence, the word working is functioning as a complement to the subject, priority.

Gerunds can also function as the object of a sentence. Below is an example where the gerund is functioning as the object of a preposition:

      “There is no use in standing in that line for four hours,” grandma said.

In this sentence, standing follows the preposition in, making it the object of the preposition.

A participle, on the other hand, is a word created from verbs that are then used as adjectives to modify nouns in a sentence. They can also be used as introductions to adverbial phrases.

Participles can be classified into two types: Present participles and Past participles. Present participles always end with the -ing at the end of a word and correlate to events that are taking place in the present. The past participle can be either regular or irregular and describes events that have already taken place.

Participles can often function as gerunds which could make it difficult to differentiate between the two.

When using a participle as an adjective, consider the below sentence:

      The ripening fruit should be put outside for composting.

Ripening here acts as a present participle (noted by the -ing ending) that is modifying the noun fruit.

      I spent the week day studying chemistry.

In the sentence above, the word 'studying' acts as a present participle which functions as the beginning of an adverbial phrase in the sentence. The phrase studying chemistry is modifying the verb spent. How did I spend the whole week? Studying chemistry.

Both of the above examples were present participles, meaning the words ended in -ing­ to describe something happening in the present. However, Past participles can have different word endings depending upon the nature and context of the word being used; Most often, there will be a -d­ or -ed added to the end of a word in a past participle. Let’s look at a couple of examples:

      The doors cracked open when the rain hurricane came through.

Here, the word cracked acts as a past participle functioning as an adjective to modify the noun doors.

      He continued forward cautioned by the desolate streets.

Here, cautioned is the past participle in the sentence functioning as the beginning of an adverbial phrase describing the word continued.

2.     What is meant by auxiliary verbs? Explain with examples.

Auxiliary verbs, also known as helping verbs because they help in the formation of tenses, mood and voices of other verbs. Auxiliary verbs therefore, add functional or grammatical meaning to the clause in which they appear. 'To be', 'to do' and 'to have' are the most commonly used auxiliary verbs. For example: the auxiliary 'to do' is needed to ask questions in the present and past simple tenses.. The auxiliary 'to have' is used in the present and past perfect tenses. Some tenses such as the present perfect continuous, consist of more than one auxiliary verbs.

Below are examples of some commonly used auxiliary verbs:

      Do you like German food?

      Does your mother speak English?

      Did you come to school yesterday?

      Why are you talking? You should be listening to me!

      I was having a bath when you called!

      A new annex is being built behind the school.

      Have you done your homework?

      My father has never visited the USA.

      How long have you been living in Germany?

      By this time next year, I will have been learning French for 15 years!

Contracted Verb Forms

The auxiliary verbs are very often contracted. For example, it can be said that I'm playing tennis today, instead of I am playing tennis today. These contracted forms of auxiliary verbs are more likely to be used in spoken forms or informal writing. Consider speaking to someone: Why did you not call me yesterday? and instead: Why didn't you call me? It is obvious that the latter seems more probable and consistent.

Conversely, while writing a report or an essay, it is more appropriate to write the full form without contractions: Why did America not join the war until 1941? (instead of: Why didn't America ...?).

The contracted form of auxiliaries can have multiple forms all of which can be correct depending on the context.

      She's not going to the dance.

      She isn't going to the dance.

      I haven't seen him for ages.

      I've not seen him for ages.

The full form is commonly used in spoken language only when the speaker wants to emphasize what they are saying. e:

      Why don't you call him?

      I have called him.

      I do not want to see him again.

Modal verbs

Auxiliary verbs also consist of another set of verbs called modal verbs or modal auxiliary verbs. These verbs combine with other verbs to describe necessity, possibility, intention, or ability. Modal auxiliary verbs include - must, shall, will, should, would, ought (to), can, could, may, and might.

      You must act promptly.

      Can you speak Spanish?

      I would go if I could afford it.

      He said he might reconsider his decision.

      I ought to visit my family.

      We should get to London before midday.

      May I come in?

3.     What are finite and non-finite verbs? Give examples.

In every sentence, there is normally at least one verb that has both a subject and a tense. When a verb contains both a subject and a tense, it can be defined as a finite verb.

Example: We want Charlie to act as club secretary.

                  I like taking photographs of insects.

                  While coming home last night, I saw a leopard run across the road.

A non-finite verb is a verb which is not defined by its subject and tense. The present and past participles, and the 'to' infinitive are the most common types of non-finite verbs. Every verb in the English language can be used in a clause in either a finite or non-finite way.

A verb is called as finite if it is discovered in a clause in combination with a subject and a tense.

      I walked home.

      We saw a deer.

      They appreciate a little praise now and then.

It is non-finite if it is used:

• Without the verb having a tense:

      To open, tear off the tab.

      Looking around, he noticed a letter on the floor.

      Worn out by the heat, they stopped for a drink.

• Without an agreement between the verb and the subject (if there is one).

      That plan failing, he gave up.

      Our guests departed, we felt a little depressed.

A compound verb comprises of one finite part, which is mostly the first auxiliary verb, while the remaining non-finite parts are the base form or the participles.

      I may have been joking when I said that.

      Helen was running around screaming.

      I had been living in a dream for months.

      Olivia is coming around at 9 o’clock tonight.

Verbs in simple present and simple past tense are always finite.

      I sing.

      We tell stories at night.

      Maya laughed.

      The shelter collapsed.

A finite verb is sometimes immediately followed by a non-finite verb.

      I like to get up early on the weekends.

      Harriet really dislikes cleaning the cooker.

      I certainly wouldn’t want to see him again.

      We persuaded them to join us.

Many a times, a noun or pronoun enters the space between a finite and non-finite verb.

      We want Charlie to act as club secretary.

      She wanted him to wash his hands in the bathroom.

      I don’t like you cleaning your boots over the sink.

When the second verb is an -ing form coming after a noun or pronoun, there can be a difference in grammar between two similar sentences. Both sentences below are acceptable, although the first example might seem ambiguous to some people. In the second sentence, the -ing form is used as a verbal noun.

      She didn’t like him cleaning his gloves over the sink.

      She didn’t like his cleaning his gloves over the sink.

4.     What are the eight main constituents of a sentence?

The English language is basically comprised of eight parts of speech that construct a complete sentence: noun, pronoun, verb, adjective, adverb, preposition, conjunction, and interjection. These parts of speech determine how a word functions in meaning as well as grammatically within the sentence.

The use of the words defines their place and meaning in a sentence.

1. Noun

Nouns, also called naming words, refer to any person, place, animal, thing or idea. Nouns can be singular or plural, concrete or abstract. There are two types of nouns:

1. Proper noun- These nouns start with capital letters and refer to the name of a particular place or thing. Ex – Barack Obama, Himalaya mountains.
2. Common noun- These nouns start with lower case letter and refer to the names of general places or things. Ex – man, teacher, letter

2.     Pronoun

A pronoun is a word used in place of the noun.

A pronoun which substituted in place of a specific noun is called an antecedent. Pronouns can be further defined by their various types: personal pronouns describe specific persons or things; possessive pronouns imply ownership; relative pronouns introduce a subordinate clause; and demonstrative pronouns identify, point to, or refer to nouns.

Ex - Me, she, her, mine, theirs.

3.     Adjective

An adjective is a word that describes the quality or quantity possessed by a noun. It answers the questions like which one, what kind or how many. It is a word used to modify or describe the noun or a pronoun.

Ex - Young boy, Pretty girl, Huge elephant, One thousand sea shells.

4.     Adverb

An adverb is a word that modifies or describes a verb, an adjective, or another adverb, but never a noun. When, where, how, why, under what conditions, or to what degree are the types of questions that are answered by an adverb. Adverbs often end in -ly.

Ex- Very long letter, quickly disappear out of sight.

5.     Preposition

Prepositions are words placed before a noun or a pronoun in order to modify the meaning of other words in a sentence. The prepositional phrase almost functions as an adjective or an adverb.

Ex- The boy received a number of sweets from the teacher.

6.     Verb

A verb is a word that expresses the state of being or work being done by the subject. There are main verbs and there are also helping verbs known as auxiliary verbs. Verbs can also be used to express tense.

Ex – She vanished in the darkness.

7.     Conjunction

A conjunction is a word that joins words, phrases or clauses and establishes a relationship between them. And, but, or, nor, for, so, yet are some examples of conjunctions.  

8.     Interjection

An interjection is a word which is used to express emotion. They are usually followed by exclamation points.

Ex. Oh dear! Wow! Oh my God!

5.     What is meant by a pronoun concord/agreement? Explain its types.

Pronoun concord refers to the correspondence of a pronoun with its antecedent in number (singular, plural), person (first, second, third), and gender (masculine, feminine, neuter).

Typically, one of the basic principles of pronoun concord (also known as noun-pronoun agreement or pronoun-antecedent agreement) is that a singular pronoun refers to a singular noun while a plural pronoun refers to a plural noun.

Below are the rules related to pronoun concord:

Singular Noun, Singular Pronoun:
 

When writing a sentence, using the same word more than once can be repetitive.

Example: Francine edited her paper because her paper was full of errors.

• Rather than repeating "paper" twice, it is possible to use a pronoun.

Revision: Francine edited her paper because it was full of errors.

• Since "paper" is singular (there is only one), use the singular pronoun ("it") to replace it.

Remember to find the exact subject of the sentence to find out whether a pronoun should be singular or plural. See our web page on subject-verb agreement for more on singular and plural subjects.

For example: Each student should find his or her  own note taking strategy.

• Since the subject is singular ("each "), the pronoun ("his or her") must also be singular.

For example: Neither Bob and Alex do not believe he will win this award.

• Since the subject is singular ("neither"), the pronoun ("he") must also be singular.

For example: A community group of teachers is meeting tonight to see if it can find a way to help students improve their SAT scores.

• Since the subject is singular  ("community group"), the pronoun ("it") must also be singular.

Singular “They"

Recently, a number of popular and popular books have begun to accept the use of the word "them" as a singular pronoun, meaning that the authors use "they" to associate with the target topics in an attempt to avoid male pronouns. Although the pronoun "they" is a plural noun in some style references, APA encourages authors to use "they" as a singular pronoun for the purpose of accepting gender differences.

According to the APA-style blog, "when people come together and do not change their gender (including age, gender, and other communities) use their unity as their pronoun, the authors rightly use the singular when" writing about them ".

With this in mind, when authors write specifically about an individual or group of people who like singular "they," authors should also use the single "they."

When appropriate, we recommend authors explicitly explain that they have used the singular "they" to follow the identities of the people they are interviewing.

In addition, authors can often avoid the issue of gender-neutral pronouns by updating a sentence to make the subject plural:

Original sentence: A teacher should carefully choose opportunities for development that address their gaps in knowledge.

Plural Noun, Plural Pronoun:
 

When the subject of a sentence is plural, the pronoun in the sentence becomes plural as well.

For example: When students arrive on the first day of school, students need help finding the right classroom.

• Since " students " is a plural, use a plural pronoun to replace it.

Revision: When students arrive on the first day of school, they need help finding the right classroom.
Remember to find the exact subject of the sentence to find out whether a pronoun should be singular or plural. See our web page on subject- verb agreement for more on single-subject articles.

For example: When a manager or employee disagrees, they should discuss the situation.

• Since the subject has a plural ("a  manager or employee"), the pronoun ("they") must also be plural.

Example: The professor hopes that students review their notes carefully.

• Since the subject is plural ("students "), the pronoun ("their") must also be plural.

For example: Both Smith (2016) and Taylor (2017) believe that their results will lead to social change.

• Since the subject is plural ("both"), the pronoun ("their") must also be plural.

Pronoun Ambiguity:
 

Although pronouns are useful to help writers avoid repetition, they should be used sparingly to understand the meaning of the sentence. Look at this sentence:

For example: When Jeff and Brian joined the team members, they were shocked.

• The pronoun here ("they") is unclear - to whom? Was the team nervous? Were Jeff and Brian nervous? In this example, because the pronoun "they" makes sense, choosing a noun instead of a pronoun will help clarify it.

6.     What is a subject-verb concord/agreement? What are its defining rules?

A subject – verb concord refers to the agreement formed between the subject and verb in a sentence which makes the sentence meaningful and sound structurally correct.

Below are the rules of a Subject-Verb concord:

Being able to find the right title and action will help you correct the mistakes of the action agreement.

      Basic Rule.  A singular subject (he, Bill, car) takes a singular verb (goes, shiny), and the plural subject takes a plural verb.

For example: The list of items is /are on the table.

If you know that a list is a topic, then you will choose it for the Verb.

• Rule 1. The subject will come before the sentence you begin. This is an important rule for understanding subjects/lessons.  The word of is the culprit in many, perhaps most, subject-verb mistakes.
  Funny writers, speakers, readers and the audience can miss the most common mistake in the following sentence:

Incorrect: The bouquet of yellow roses lends color and aroma to the room.

Correct: A bouquet of flowers of yellow roses lends. . . (borrowing a bouquet of flowers, not roses lend)

• Rule 2. Two related topics linked by, or, either/ or, or neither / nor require one action.

Examples:

My aunt or my uncle is arriving by train today.
Neither Juan nor Carmen is available.
Either Kiana or Casey is helping today with stage decorations.

• Rule 3. The verb in an or, either / or, or neither / nor sentence agrees with the noun or pronoun next to it.

Examples:

Neither the plates nor the serving bowl goes on that shelf.
Neither the serving bowl nor the plates go on that shelf.

This rule can lead to traffic congestion. For example, if I'm one of two (or more) subjects, it could lead to this unusual sentence:

Awkward: Neither she, my friends, nor I am going to the festival.

If possible, it is better to rearrange such correct sentences in the language but be negative.

Better: Neither she, I, nor my friends attend the festival.

Or

She, my friends, and I are not going to the festival.

• Rule 4. As a general rule, use a plural action for two or more subjects if they are linked by.

Example: A car and a bicycle are my mode of transportation.

But note the exceptions:

• Exceptions:
  Breaking and entering is against the law.
  The bed and breakfast was charming.

In those sentences, breaking and entering and the bed and breakfast are complicated nouns.

• Rule 5a. Sometimes a subject is separated from a verb by words such as once, and, and besides, not, etc. These words and phrases are not part of the title. Ignore them and use only one action when the subject is alone.

Examples:

The politician, along with the newsmen, is expected shortly.
Excitement, as well as nervousness, is the cause of her shaking.

• Rule 5b. Parents are not part of the topic.

Example: Joe (and his trusty mutt) was always welcome.

If this seems difficult, try rewriting the sentence.

• Rule 6. In sentences that begin here or there, the actual subject follows the verb.

Examples:

There are four hurdles to jump.
There is a high hurdle to jump.
Here are the keys.

• NOTE:
  The word existence, some consensus exists, leads to bad habits in illegal sentences such as There are a lot of people here today, because it's easier to say "there" than "there is." Take care never to use an article on a plural subject.

• Rule 7. Use the unit-by-unit action, time periods, currency, etc., when considered a unit.

Examples:

Three miles is too far to walk.
Five years is the maximum sentence for that offense.
Ten dollars is a high price to pay.
BUT
Ten dollars (i.e., dollar bills)  were scattered on the floor.

• Rule 8. In words that indicate parts - e.g., many, many, all, all - Regulation 1 given earlier in this section is reversed, and we are guided by the noun in the background. If the noun is one after the other, use one action. If plural, use the plural verb.

Examples:

A lot of the pie  has disappeared.
A lot of the pies  have disappeared.
A third of the city  is unemployed.
A third of the people  are unemployed.
All of the pie  is gone.
All of the pies are gone.
Some of the pie  is missing.
Some of the pies are missing.

• NOTE:
  In recent years, the SAT test service has considered none of it very important. However, according to Merriam-Webster's Dictionary of English  Usage: "Obviously no one has been united and plural since Old English and still is. The idea that it is compiled only is a myth of an unknown origin that probably originated in the 19th century. If it seems to you, use one verb; if there seems to be a plural, use a plural verb. Both are accepted without serious criticism. " When none is clearly intended to mean "not one," it is followed by a singular verb.

• Rule 9. With collective nouns such as group, jury, family, audience, population, the action may be singular or plural, depending on the author's intent.

Examples:

All of my family has arrived OR have arrived.
Most of the jury  is here OR are here.
A third of the population  was not in favor OR were not in favor of the bill.

• NOTE:
  Anyone using a collective verb with a collective pronoun should be aware of the accuracy - and also disagree. It should not be done with care. The following is the kind of error sentence that a person sees and doesn't hear much these days:

The staff decides how they want to vote.

Careful speakers and writers can avoid sharing their singular and plural to work in one sentence.

Consistent: The staff are deciding how they want to vote.

Rewriting such sentences is recommended whenever possible. The preceding sentence will read better like:

The staff members are deciding how they want to vote.

• Rule 10. The word instead consisted of statements expressing desire or contradicting the truth:

For example: If Joe were here, you would be sorry.

Shouldn't Joe be followed by him, not, given that Joe is alone? But Joe is not here, so we say it wasn't. The sentence indicates the state of injection, which is used to express things that are logical, wishful, rational, or controversial. The general motive reflects a few lessons and what we often think of as pluralism.

Examples:

I wish it were friday.

He requested that she raise his  hand.

In the first example, a wish statement is presented, not a fact; So, it's been something, which we often think of as a mathematical act, used with it. (Technically, one article article in a reunion: it were friday.)

Usually, he used to sound awful to us. However, in the second example, when an application is presented, the subjunctive mood is correct.

• Note: The punctuation condition is lost in spoken English but should be used in formal speech and writing.

7.     What are the various types of tenses?

Tenses determine whether something has happened, is happening, or will happen. The tense of a verb describes its position in time.

Tenses can be divided into 3 main types and further sub dived into 4 types:

PRESENT TENSES

1. SIMPLE PRESENT TENSE: In this type of tense the action is still taking place, there is no mention of its completeness.

Example: I sleep.
She studies vocabulary every day.

2. PRESENT CONTINUOUS TENSE: In this type of tense the action is still in progress, therefore the use of the word ‘continuous’.
 

Example: I am sleeping.
I am eating lunch, I will call you later.

3. PRESENT PERFECT TENSE: In this type of tense the action has already been completed, hence the use of the word ‘perfect’.

Example: I have slept.
I have eaten Chinese food a few times already.

4. PRESENT PERFECT CONTINUOUS TENSE: In this type of tense, the action has started taking place beforehand and is still ongoing.

Example: I have been sleeping.
I have been eating a lot of vegetables lately.

PAST TENSES

1. SIMPLE PAST TENSE: In this type of tense the action which is mentioned has already taken place in the past, there is no continuity.

Example: I got some sleep yesterday.

2. PAST CONTINUOUS TENSE: This type of tense describes an on-going action that took place in the past.

Example: I was having lunch when u called yesterday.

3. PAST PERFECT TENSE: This type of tense describes a completed action which took place in the past.

Examples: I had slept.
I had already eaten when my doorbell rang.

4. PAST PERFECT CONTINUOUS TENSE: This type of tense describes an action which started in the past and continued until another point in time, still in the past.

Example: I had been sleeping for two hours before my friend arrived.

FUTURE TENSES

1. SIMPLE FUTURE TENSE: This type of tense describes an action taking place in the future; there is no mention of its continuity.
Example: I will sleep.
I shall finish my project by tomorrow morning.

2. FUTURE CONTINUOUS TENSE: This type of tense describes an action that will take place in the future but will still be ongoing.

Example: I will be sleeping at 11 p.m.
I’ll be staying at my parents’ house for a few weeks.

3. FUTURE PERFECT TENSE: This type of tense describes an action that will occur in the future before another action in the future.

Example: I will have slept before you arrive.                  

4. FUTURE PERFECT CONTINUOUS TENSE: This type of tense describes an on-going action in the future before a completed action in a specific point in time.

Example: I will have been sleeping for seven hours by 9 a.m. Tomorrow morning.
I will have been studying for two hours by the time my parents arrive.

8.     What are the rules for sequencing of tenses?

Below are some basic rules regarding the sequencing of tenses:

Rule 1

A past tense in the independent clause is always followed by a past tense in the subordinate clause.

Example: I found out that she was out of town.

However, there is an exception to this rule. When the independent clause in the past tense, the subordinate clause can be in the present tense if a universal truth is being stated by it. 

Example: The children were taught that honesty is the best policy.

Another exception to this rule is when the word ‘than’ is used in the sentence to introduce the subordinate clause. In this case, the subordinate clause can be used in any tense irrespective of the tense of the independent clause.

Rule 2

If the tense used with the independent clause is in the present or future tense, the tense of the subordinate clause can be in any tense based on what needs to be conveyed.

Example: She is saying that she is alright. She says she is fine.

Rule 3

If the independent clause is in the future tense, the subordinate clause is not used in the future tense instead a subordinating clause beginning with when, until, before, after etc. is used.

Example: I will call you when dinner is ready. I shall wait until you return.

Rule 4

When the subordinate clause is introduced with the conjunction ‘that’, the following rules must be followed,

• ‘May’ should be used in the subordinate clause when the independent clause is in the present tense.
• ‘Might’ should be used in the subordinate clause when the independent clause is in the past tense.

Example: We eat that we may live. She tried to live so that he might have a chance at life.

Rule 5

When some phrases such as If only, wish that, what if, it is time are used, the clauses that follow it are always in the past tense.

Example: I wish I could eat another ice cream.

9.     What is meant by mood in English grammar? Describe the 3 types of moods.

Mood

Mood refers to the form of the verb that describes the manner or mode in which a thought is expressed. The word mood comes from the root word 'mode' which refers to the manner in which the speaker views the action. The mood of a sentence can be distinguished between an assertion, a wish, or a command. Is the action which took place hypothetical? or Is it a real event that has already occurred or might occur? Is the speaker giving a command?

Depending upon these factors the moods can be divided into 3 major types: Indicative mood (assertion), Subjunctive mood (wish), and Imperative mood (command).

1. Indicative Mood

Indicative mood describes facts and is the most often found mood in the English language. It states, asks, or denies a fact. However, it can also express an opinion because opinions are often stated as facts; when you have an opinion about something, you usually view it as a fact. Indicative mood is expressed by simple, progressive and perfect tenses.

Facts:

Rain falls quite heavily during the month of April.

Lots of rain fell yesterday.

Rain is falling.

Rain is not falling.

Is rain falling?

Opinions:

Lots of rain will fall tomorrow.

That is a beautiful painting.

These chocolate cookies taste delicious.

Jenna thinks that Norah will win the competition.

We believe he should go alone.

My little sister likes that we visit Miami every summer.

2.      Subjunctive Mood

The subjunctive mood are the verbs which are used to express suggestions, recommendations, advice, demands, wishes, and doubts. It is also used to talk about hypothetical (imaginary) situations or something that is contrary to fact.

The present form of the subjunctive is most often used to talk about recommendations, suggestions, advice, requests, and demands, and it often (but not always) follows the word that. This is called the mandative subjunctive.

Example: Jacob's academic advisor recommended that he study in Finland next year.

The mandative subjunctive mood is mostly used for recommendations, demands, suggestions, requests, and advice. These types of sentence will always contain at least two verbs, but only the one after the word that is subjunctive; the first verb is always indicative.

We demanded that he stop setting off the fire alarm at school.

Demanded = indicative

Stop = subjunctive

It is imperative that she leave right away.

Is = indicative

Leave = subjunctive

3.      Imperative Mood

Imperative mood is also sometimes referred to as the "bossy" mood—it's used to give commands or to advise or beg someone to do something. Commands can be either affirmative (command someone to do something) or negative (command someone not to do something). Affirmative commands use the base form of the verb. Negative commands follow this formula: do + not + base. The subject of all imperative sentences will be the unstated "you".

(you) Open the door, please.

(you) Do not forget your homework.

Or: Don't forget your homework.

Imperative mood can also include sentences containing a prohibition, entreaty or advice.

Command: Give the toy back to your brother.

Prohibition: Stay out of Mr. MacGregor’s garden!

Entreaty: Remember us in your prayers.

Advice: Beware of the dog.

10. What are the types of articles and how are they used in the English language?

Articles are words that precede a noun and define the specificity of that noun. In other words, they imply how specific a particular noun is.

There are two types of Articles in the English language, Definite and Indefinite Articles.

1. Definite Article

The definite article is the word ‘the’. This article is only used when a particular place, thing or activity is being referred to. It limits the meaning to one particular thing or activity.

For example in the sentence “I won’t be attending the party this weekend.” ‘The’ is used before the noun party therefore it refers to a specific party which the subject is talking about. The definite article can be used with both singular and plural words.

Uses of “The”:

1. The definite article can be used to make general things specific, for example, “Please pass me a pen.” when changed to “Please pass me the pen.” Changes the meaning of the sentence entirely. In the former the subject requests for a pen in general whereas in the latter he refers to a specific pen.
2. ‘The’ is used by geographical areas such as rivers, mountains, seas, oceans etc.

“The Middle East”, “The Atlantic Ocean”, “The Himalayas”

c.      Unique things always requite the article ‘the’

“The Sun”, “The Moon”

d.     Musical instruments use ‘the’

“He plays the cello.”

e.     Countries generally don’t use articles in front but if their names are plural they use the article ‘the’

“The Netherlands”, “The United States of America”

f.        Abbreviations and classes of people always use the article ‘the’

“The U.N” “The Poor” “The British” “The IMF”

2.     Indefinite Article

The Indefinite Article is of two types, namely, ‘a’ and ‘an’. The word ‘a’ is used when it precedes a word that starts with a consonant and the word ‘an’ is used when it precedes a word that starts with a vowel. Unlike the Definite Article, the Indefinite Articles refer to a general idea and not a particular one. The Indefinite Article only appears with singular nouns. For example in the sentences “I would like a good book to read.” Or “I am craving for an apple pie.” The subject talks about books or apple pies in general rather than a specific book or apple pie.

Uses of ‘a’ and ‘an’:

1. Uncountable nouns cannot use either ‘a’ or ‘an’. For example advice is an uncountable noun, therefore a sentence such as “Can you give me an advice.” Does not make sense. Rather “Can you give me some advice.” Is more appropriate.
2. Jobs use Indefinite Articles

“I want to become a teacher” “My dream is to become an actor”

c.      There are a couple of exceptions to the overall rule of employing ‘a’ before words that start with consonants and ‘an’ before words that begin with vowels. The first letter of the word honour, for instance, may be a consonant, but it’s unpronounced. In spite of the way it is spelled, the word honour begins with a vowel. Therefore, we use an. For example, consider the following sentences:
My mother is a honest woman.
My mother is an honest woman.

d.     When the first letter of a word is a vowel but is pronounced with a consonant sound, the article 'a' must be used. For example:

She is an United States senator.

She is a United States senator.

11. Describe how various types of adjectives are formed in the English language.

Unlike other languages, the adjectives in English do not alter or change (agree) with the noun that they modify:

Example: All new foreign students are welcome to join the clubs and societies.

Not: All new foreigns students …

Example: Every room was painted in different colours.

Not: … in differents colours.

Identifying adjectives

There is no general rule for making adjectives. Adjectives are usually identified by what they do (their function) in a sentence. However, some suffixes are typical forms of adjectives.

• -able, -ible: comfortable, readable, incredible, invisible

• -al, -ial: comical, normal, musical, industrial, presidential

• -ful: beautiful, harmful, peaceful, wonderful

• -ic: classic, economic, heroic, romantic

• -ical: aeronautical, alphabetical, political

• -ish: British, childish, Irish, foolish

• -ive, -ative: active, alternative, creative, talkative

• -less: endless, motionless, priceless, timeless

• -eous, -ious, -ous: spontaneous, hideous, ambitious, anxious, dangerous, famous

• -y: angry, busy, wealthy, windy

Forming adjectives from other words

1. Suffixes

Adjectives can be formed by adding suffixes to a noun or a verb.

• Noun: Hero – Adjective: Heroic
• Noun: Wind – Adjective: Windy
• Noun: Child – Adjective: childish
• Noun: Beauty – Adjective: Beautiful

• Verb: Read – Adjective: Readable
• Verb: Talk – Adjective: Talkative
• Verb: Use – Adjective: Useful
• Verb: Like – Adjective: Likeable

Example: I hate windy days.

                  San Francisco is a very hilly place.

Many words that end in '-ly' can be adjectives as well as adverbs. These include daily, early, monthly, weekly, nightly, yearly:

Adjective: She gets a monthly payment from her employers. (She gets money every week.)

Adverb: I pay my rent weekly. (I pay my rent every week.)

Many words that end in -ly are only adjectives and not adverbs. Some of these words are: costly, cowardly, deadly, friendly, likely, lonely, lovely, oily, orderly, scholarly, silly, smelly, timely, ugly, woolly.

Example: We enjoyed the trip to America but it was a costly holiday.

                   Fish is considered very healthy because it contains omega 3.

2.      Prefixes

Prefixes are certain letters added to the beginning of a word such as un-, in-, im-, il- and ir- which sometime change the meaning of adjectives.

Adding these prefixes makes the meaning negative:

• Un:  fair – unfair, happy – unhappy, sure – unsure

• In: active – inactive, complete – incomplete, appropriate – inappropriate

• Ir: responsible – irresponsible, reducible – irreducible, regular – irregular

• Im: balance – imbalance, possible – impossible, polite – impolite

• Il: legal – illegal, legible – illegible, logical – illogical

12. What are the various types of prepositions?

A preposition is a word that connects the noun/pronoun in a sentence to the other parts of the sentence such as the verbs and adjectives. It determines the relationship between the nouns, pronouns and the other words in a sentence.

They help one understand the relationships of logic, space and sequence between the different parts of a sentence.

Below are few examples of prepositions commonly used in the English language:

1. I just came back from the U.S.
2. The book is inside the drawer.
3. The kid threw a stone into the lake.

A preposition cannot be plural or possessive. Sometimes prepositions can also act as nouns, verbs and adverbs.

The uses of various types of prepositions are described below:

1. Prepositions of Time:

These prepositions indicate when something happens, will happen or has happened in any point in time.

Prepositions of time include at, on, in, before, during, after.

Examples:

1. John was born on the 7th of August.
2. David left his job in 2012.
3. Amy ate lots of fruits during her pregnancy.

2.     Prepositions of Place:

These prepositions usually indicate the position of a particular thing or person. The three most common prepositions of time are on, at and in.

These prepositions may also indicate the time along with place but depending on their use it can be easily ascertained what they are referring to.

Examples:

1. The ball is in the court.
2. The clothes are on the top shelf.
3. I was at the supermarket just yesterday.

3.     Prepositions of Direction or Movement:

Prepositions of movement indicate the direction in which a person or an object is moving.

‘To’ is the most commonly used preposition of movement.

Examples:

1. I went to shop for groceries but all the shops were closed.
2. He took his dog to the park.

The other prepositions of direction or movement are across, though, over, down, up, past, around.

4.     Prepositions of Manner:

Prepositions of manner describe the way in which things take place or means by which things happen.

Prepositions of manner include by, in, like, with, on.

Examples:

1. I like travelling by car.
2. She went to the school in a taxi.
3. Jacob sings like a professional.
4. He reacted with pity when he saw the poor cat.

5.     Preposition of Agents or Instruments:

Preposition of Agents or Instruments describe the action conducted by a person or object on another person or object.

Most common prepositions of these types are by and with.

Examples:

1. The song was recorded by James.
2. He cuts his hair with a clipper.

6.     Prepositions of Possession:

Prepositions of Possession indicate the owing or owning of an object. It also can be used when something is own to someone. Prepositions of possession include of, with and to.

Examples:

1. This is the car of my niece.
2. He said he saw a man with a green umbrella.
3. This jacket belongs to my grandfather.

13. Describe the use of adverbs in English grammar in detail

Adverbs are words which are used to provide more information about verbs and are also used to modify verbs, clauses and other adverbs.

Adverbs can appear in different parts of a sentence and therefore, can be difficult to identify. The simplest way to recognise an adverb is by looking for the ending –ly. Examples of –ly adverbs are: quickly, quietly, fortunately.

Most of the adverbs are formed by adding –ly to adjectives:

Careful > carefully

Loud > loudly

Slow > slowly

Adverbs with Verbs

Here the adverbs provide us more information about the verb than the verb holds within itself.

'She slowly entered the room.'

'He carefully drove through the city.'

Adverbs with Adjectives

Here the adverbs provide us more information about the adjective than the adjective holds within itself.

'The test was extremely difficult.'

'I'm incredibly sorry about what I did.'

Adverbs with Adverbs

Her the first adverb provides us more information about the second adverb.

'The cheetah runs incredibly quickly.'

'He talks exceptionally loudly.'

Change in Meaning

Sometimes adverbs can change the entire meaning of a sentence.

'Unfortunately, I will be out of the office for the next 3 days'.

'Surprisingly, the team was beaten in the final.'

Confusing Adverbs

Many adverbs are formed by adding –ly to the adjective: strong > strongly, but sometimes, adverbs can be very different from the adjective:

Good =adjective / well =adverb

'He's a good golfer.'

'He plays golf well.'

Take a look at the following sentences; they both contain adverbs:

'I work hard.'

'I hardly work.'

Hard, which is also an adjective, takes the meaning 'with a lot of effort.'

On the other hand, hardly here means 'very little.'

'He's a fast runner.' – Here 'fast' acts as an adjective.

'He runs fast.' – Here 'fast' acts as an adverb.

'It was late at night.' – Here 'late' acts as an adjective.

'We talked late into the night.' – Here 'late' acts as an adverb.

Combining Clauses

Two independent clauses (sentences) can be joined together using conjunctive adverbs. Conjunctive adverbs may show cause and effect, sequence, contrast, comparison, or other relationships.

The most common of these are:

Accordingly

Afterwards

Also

Consequently

However

Indeed

Likewise

Moreover

Nevertheless

Nonetheless

Otherwise

Similarly

Still

Therefore

When writing, a semi-colon (;) must be used before the conjunctive adverb. Use a comma (,) after the conjunctive adverb.

Below are some examples:

'I wanted to eat Chinese; however, my wife wanted Indian.'

'It had rained all day; therefore, he decided not to drive in the dangerous conditions.'