EITK_CSE
Unit - 4Fine Arts in IndiaQ 1. Write a brief note on Indian Painting.Ans1: ANCIENT PERIOD: ORIGINPainting as an art form has flourished in India from terribly early times as is evident from the remains that are discovered in the caves, and therefore the literary sources. The history of art and painting in India begins with the pre-historic rock painting at Bhimbetka caves (M.P.) wherever we have drawings and paintings of animals. The cave paintings of Narsinghgarh (Maharashtra) show skins of spotted deer left drying. Thousands of years ago, paintings and drawings had already appeared on the seals of Harappan civilization. Each Hindu and Buddhist literature refer to paintings of varied types and techniques for instance, Lepyacitras, lekhacitras and Dhulitcitras. The first was the illustration of folklore, the other was line drawing and painting on textile whereas the third one was painting on the floor.The Buddhist text Vinayapitaka (4th–3rd century) describes the existence of painted figures in several royal buildings. The play Mudrarakshasa (5th Century A.D.) mentions various paintings or patas. The sixth Century AD text on Aesthetics-Kamasutra by Vatsyayana has mentioned painting amongst sixty-four forms of arts and says that it had been based on scientific principles. The Vishnudharmottara purana (7th century A.D.) has a section on painting called Chitrasutra that describes the six organs of painting like variety of form, proportion, lustre and portrayal of colour etc. Thus, archaeology and literature testify to the flourishing of painting in India from pre-historic times. The best specimens of Gupta paintings are those at Ajanta. Their subject was animals and birds, trees, flowers, human figures and stories from the Jataka. Mural paintings are done on walls and rock surfaces like roofs and sides. Cave no. nine depicts the Buddhist monks going towards a stupa. In cave no. ten Jataka stories are depicted. However, the most effective paintings were done in the fifth – sixth centuries AD during the Gupta age. The murals chiefly depict laic} scenes from the life of Buddha and the Buddhist Jataka stories however we tend to also have secular scene. Here we see the depiction of all aspects of Indian life. We see princes in their palaces, ladies in their chambers, coolies with loads over their shoulders, beggars, peasants and ascetics, along with all the many beasts, birds and flowers of India.Materials used in the paintingsDifferent materials were used in differing types of paintings. Mention of chitra shalas (art gallery) and Shilpasashtra (technical treatises on art) are made in literary sources. However, the principal colors used were red ochre (dhaturaga), vivid red (kum kum or sindura), ocher (haritala), indigo (blue) lapis lazuli blue, atomic number 6 (kajjala), chalk white (Khadi Mitti) terra verte (geru mati) and green. Of these colors were regionally available except lapis lazuli that came from Pakistan. Mixed colors e.g. gray was used on rare occasions. Use of colours were decided by the theme and native atmosphere.Remains of Buddhist paintings have also been found at the Buddhist caves at Bagh in the North and at numerous Deccan and southern sites of sixth and ninth centuries. Although the theme of those paintings is religious but in their inner meanings and spirit, nothing could be a lot of secular, courtly and sophisticated. although only alittle part remains of these paintings however they depict a crowded world of Gods and goddess’s semi divine being like kinnars and apsaras, a rich and varied flora and fauna, gaiety, love, grace and charm. Example can be seen in cave three at Badami (Karnataka), at temples of Kanchipuram, at Jain caves of Sittanavasal (Tamil Nadu) and the Kailasa and jain caves at Ellora (eighth and ninth centuries). Several other South Indian temples like Brihadeshwara temple at Tanjavur are decorated with wall paintings on themes from epics and mythology. If Bagh, Ajanta and Badami represent the classical tradition of the North and Deccan at its best, Sittana vassal, Kanchipuram, Malayadipatti and Tirunalaipuram show the extent of its penetration in the south. The paintings of Sittanavasal (abode of the Jaina Siddhas) are connected with jaina themes whereas the other 3 are Saiva or Vaishnava in theme and inspiration. Despite having a very traditionally secular style and theme the paintings of those times started showing the impact of medieval influences i.e. flat and abstract surfaces on the one hand and linear and somewhat angular designs on the other.Q 2. Write a note on Art in medieval IndiaAns 2: During the period of Delhi country, mural painting has been reported from the royal palaces and royal bed-chambers and mosques. These chiefly depict flowers, leaves and plants. Throughout the time of Iltutmish (1210-36) we've references of paintings. During the time of Aladdin Khalji (1296-1316) we've mural painting, miniature painting (of illustrated manuscripts) and paintings on cloths. During the period amount, we tend to notice the Persian and Arabic influences on Indian painting. We’ve references of the coming of Persian and Arabic illustrated manuscripts from Iran and therefore the Arab world for the Muslim elites. Throughout this era, we've paintings from other regional states. The decorative paintings of the palace of the Gwalior king Man Singh Tomar impressed each Babur and Akbar During fourteenth – fifteenth centuries A.D. miniature painting emerged as a powerful movement in Gujarat and Rajasthan and spread to Central, North and eastern India due to the patronage of rich Jain merchants. Mandu in M.P., Jaunpur in eastern Uttar Pradesh and Bengal in eastern India were other great centers of manuscripts illustrated with paintings. In eastern India, in Bengal, Bihar and Orissa, during the Pala kingdom in the ninth – tenth century A.D., a brand new kind of painting developed known as the miniature painting. The miniature, as the name suggests, were little works that were made on perishable materials. In this category, Buddhist, Jain and Hindu manuscripts were illustrated, on palm leaves. They resemble the Ajanta style, however on a miniature scale. These were created on the request of the merchants, who donated them to the temples and monasteries. Painting as an art form has flourished in India from terribly early times as is evident from the remains that are discovered in the caves, and therefore the literary sources. The history of art and painting in India begins with the pre-historic rock painting at Bhimbetka caves (M.P.) wherever we have drawings and paintings of animals. The cave paintings of Narsinghgarh (Maharashtra) show skins of spotted deer left drying. Thousands of years ago, paintings and drawings had already appeared on the seals of Harappan civilization. Each Hindu and Buddhist literature refer to paintings of varied types and techniques for instance, Lepyacitras, lekhacitras and Dhulitcitras. The first was the illustration of folklore, the other was line drawing and painting on textile whereas the third one was painting on the floor.The Buddhist text Vinayapitaka (4th–3rd century) describes the existence of painted figures in several royal buildings. The play Mudrarakshasa (5th Century A.D.) mentions various paintings or patas. The sixth Century AD text on Aesthetics-Kamasutra by Vatsyayana has mentioned painting amongst sixty-four forms of arts and says that it had been based on scientific principles. The Vishnudharmottara purana (7th century A.D.) has a section on painting called Chitrasutra that describes the six organs of painting like variety of form, proportion, lustre and portrayal of colour etc. Thus, archaeology and literature testify to the flourishing of painting in India from pre-historic times. The best specimens of Gupta paintings are those at Ajanta. Their subject was animals and birds, trees, flowers, human figures and stories from the Jataka. Mural paintings are done on walls and rock surfaces like roofs and sides. Cave no. nine depicts the Buddhist monks going towards a stupa. In cave no. ten Jataka stories are depicted. However, the most effective paintings were done in the fifth – sixth centuries AD during the Gupta age. The murals chiefly depict laic} scenes from the life of Buddha and the Buddhist Jataka stories however we tend to also have secular scene. Here we see the depiction of all aspects of Indian life. We see princes in their palaces, ladies in their chambers, coolies with loads over their shoulders, beggars, peasants and ascetics, along with all the many beasts, birds and flowers of India.From the thirteenth century onward, the Turkish Sultans of northern India brought with them necessary features of Persian court culture. In the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries illustrated manuscripts of Persian influence were produced at Malwa, Bengal, Delhi, Jaunpur, Gujarat and also the Deccan. The interaction of Indian painters with Persian traditions resulted within the synthesis of the 2 styles evident in the works of the sixteenth century. During the first sultanate period, important contribution to the art of painting was made by the Jain community of Western India. Illustrated manuscripts of Jain scriptures were given to temple libraries. These manuscripts depicted the lives and deeds of the Tirthankara. The art of textual illustration got a brand new look under the Mughals. Akbar and his successors brought revolutionary changes to painting and sensual illustrations. From this era book illumination or individual miniatures replaced wall painting because the most important form of art. Emperor Akbar patronized artists from Kashmir and Gujarat; Humayun brought 2 Persian painters to his court. For the first time painters’ names were recorded in inscriptions. Some great painters of this era were Abd-us-Samad Dasawanth and Basawan. Stunning illustrations are found on the pages of Baburnama and Akbarnama. Within a few years an integrated and dynamic style resulted from the synthesis of Persian and Indian style and also the independent style of Mughal painting was developed. Between 1562 and 1577 a series of nearly 1400 cloth paintings were made representing the new style and were placed within the imperial studio. Akbar additionally encouraged the art of making portraits.The art of painting reached its climax during the period of Jahangir who himself was a good painter and connoisseur of art. Artists began to use vibrant colors like peacock blue and red and were able to give 3 dimensional effects to paintings. Mansur, Bishan Das and Manohar were the foremost gifted painters of Jahangir’s time. Mansur had created an outstanding portrait of the artist Abul Hasan and specialized in paintings of birds and animals. Though shah jahan was more interested in architectural splendors, his eldest son Dara Shikoh patronized painting like his gradfather. His most popular preferred natural elements like plants and animals in his painting. But withdrawal of royal patronage to painting under Aurangzeb led to the dispersal of artists to different places in the country. This helped in the development of the art of painting in Rajasthan and also the Punjab hills giving rise to distinct schools of paintings, for instance, Rajasthani and Pahari schools.These works were painted on a small surface and were called miniature painting. They painted themes drawn from epics, myths and legends. Other themes were Barahmasa (seasons) and Raga mala (melodies). Miniature painting was also developed at native centres like Kangra, Kulu, Basoli, Guler, Chamba, Garhwal, Bilaspur, and Jammu. The rise of the bhakti movement in India within the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries also inspired illustrative texts on the themes of Vaishnava devotional cults. in the pre-Mughal era mural paintings on the walls of temples gained prominence within the northern part of India.Q 3. Write any 3 forms of painting in detailAns 3:Mithila paintingMithila painting also referred to as Madhubani folk art is the traditional art of the Mithila region of Bihar. They’re produced by village women who create 3 dimensional images using vegetable color with few earthen colors and finished in black lines on cow dung treated paper. These pictures tell tales particularly about Sita’s exile, Ram-Laxman’s forest life, or depict the pictures of Lakshmi, Ganesha, Hanuman and others from Hindu mythology. Except these women also paint celestial subjects like sun and moon. Tulsi, the holy plant is also to be found in these paintings. They also show court scenes, wedding and social happenings. Drawings in Madhubani pictures are very conceptual. First, the painter thinks and then she “draws her thought”. No pretence is there to explain the figures accurately. Visually pictures that speak in lines and colours and are drawn for some rituals or festivals on household and village walls to mark the seasonal festivals or special events of the life cycle. Intricate flora, animal and bird’s motifs also can be found together with geometrical designs to fill up the gap. In some cases, it's a special practice for mothers to make these art items prior to for their daughters as a marriage gift. These paintings also convey advice on ways in which to lead a good married life. There is also a social variation in subjects and use of colors. One will identify the community to that the painting belongs from the colours that are used in them. Paintings made by the upper, more affluent classes are colorful whereas those created by the lower caste people use red and black line work. However, the technique of painting is safely and zealously guarded by the women of the village to be passed on by the mother to the daughter. Nowadays Madhubani art is being used as decorative gift items, greeting cards and has become a source of income for native women folk.KALAMKARI PAINTINGThe literal meaning of Kalamkari is a painting done by kalam (pen). This art got enriched because it came down from one generation to another. These paintings are made in Andhra Pradesh. Its hand painted as well as block printing with vegetable dyes applied on cloth. Vegetable dyes are used for colour in the Kalamkari work. Alittle place Sri-Kalahasti is the best known center of Kalamkari art. This work is also found at Masaulipatnam in Andhra Pradesh. This art is mainly related to decorating temple interiors with painted cloth panels that was developed in the fifteenth century under the patronage of Vijay agar rulers. Subjects are adopted from the Ramayana, the Mahabharata and Hindu religious mythology. This art form may be a continuous legacy from father to son. After deciding the topic of the painting, scène after scene is painted. Each scene is surrounded by floral decorative patterns. These paintings are created on cloth. They very sturdy durable in size and made according to theme. Figures of deities have a very rich border embellishments and were created for the temples. Owing to Muslim rulers in Golconda, the Masulipatnam kalamkari was and designs influenced by Persian motifs and styles. The outlines and main features widely done using hand carved blocks. The finer details are later done using the pen. This art was started on garments, bed covers and curtains. The artists use a bamboo or date palm stick pointed at one finish with a bundle of fine hair attached to the other end to end brush or pen. The kalamkari dyes are obtained by extracting colors from plant roots, leaves, along with salts of iron, tin, copper, alum etc.Orissa Patachitras Similar to Kalighat Pats, one comes across another kind of Pats that are found within the state of Orissa. The Orissa patachitras, mostly painted on cloth are additional detailed and more colorful and most of those depict stories of Hindu gods and goddesses. Q 4. Write a note on: a) Warli Painting b) Kalighat PaintingAns 4: WARLI PAINTINGWarli painting derives its name from a small tribe inhabiting the remote, tribal regions of Maharashtra. These are decorative paintings on floors and walls of ‘gond’ and ‘kol’ tribes’ homes and places of worship. Trees, birds, men and women collaborate to make a composite whole in a Warli painting. These paintings are made mostly by the women as part of their routine at auspicious celebrations. Subjects are predominantly religious with simple and local materials like white color and rice paste and native vegetable glue on a plain contrasting background, made in a geometric pattern like squares, triangles, and circles. Dots and crooked lines are the units of those composition. Flora and fauna and people’s day to day life also form a part of the painted. The paintings ar expanded by adding subject after subject in a spiraling manner. The rhythm of the Warli means of life is superbly captured in simple images. Unlike other tribal art forms, Warli paintings don't use laic} iconography and is a more secular art form.Kalighat paintingKalighat painting derives its name from its place of origin Kalighat in Calcutta. Kalighat could be a bazaar near the Kali temple in Kolkata. Patua painters from rural Bengal came and settled in Kalighat to make images of gods and goddesses in the early nineteenth century. These paintings on paper made with water colors comprise clear sweeping line drawings using bright colours and a transparent background. Subjects are images of Kali, Lakshmi, Krishna, Ganesha, Shiva, and other gods and goddesses. In this method, artists developed a unique new form of expression, and effectively portray a wide range of subjects commenting on the social life of Bengal. Similar kind of pata paintings is also found in Orissa. This painting type has its roots within the culture upheaves of nineteenth century colonial Bengal. As its market grew, the artists began to liberate themselves from the routine depiction of Hindu deities and began to explore the world of contemporary social events in their paintings. The genre derived much inspiration from the introduction of photography, western the rise theatrical performances, the increase of babu culture in Bengal as a result of the impact of British colonial and administrative system. The emergence of the unique style of the nouveau riche of Kolkata in response to those diverse influence also inspired these paintings. Of these stimuli gave birth to a new imagery that occupied the center stage of Bengali literature, theatre and visual arts of the period. Kalighat paintings became the best mirror of this cultural and aesthetic shift. Based on their preexisting models of the Hindu deities, the artists created a full repertoire of images, courtesans, actresses, heroines, pompous babus and conceited dandies, resplendent in their fancy attire and hair styles, smoking pipes and playing the sitar. Kalighat paintings are often referred to as the first works of art that came from Bengal.Q 5. Write about Traditional Indian Music.Ans 5: The earliest tradition of Indian music may be traced to Sama veda that contained the slokas that were put to music. Chanting of vedic hymns with prescribed pitch and accent still form a part of religious rituals. The earliest text dealing exclusively with performing arts is Bharata’s Natyashashtra (compiled between second century bc and second century AD) that has six chapters on music. Another major text is Matanga’s Brihaddesi compiled between eight and ninth century AD. In this work ragas were first named and discussed at great length. Sangeet Ratnakara written by Sarangdeva in the thirteenth century mentions 264 ragas. A variety of string and wind instruments were invented over the period of time. In ancient texts references are made to flutes, drums, veena, and cymbals. Many rulers like Samudragupta, King Bhoja of Dhara and King Someshavra of Kalyana patronized music. The Gupta monarch Samudra Gupta was himself an accompolished musician. In some of his coins, he's shown playing on the Veena. Music was also associated with the worship of Gods and goddess in the temples. In the twelfth century, Jayadeva of Orissa produced the most brilliant raga kavya, the gita Govinda, every song of which was set in a raga and was composed on the theme of love of Radha and krishna. Abhinavagupta’s (993-1055) Abhinavabharati provides useful information about music. Tamil music has a number of terms and concepts parallel to what's found in sanskrit texts. The Saivite Nayanars and Vaishnavite Alvars too set their psalms (poems) to music.Similarly, in the medieval period the Sufi and bhakti saints encouraged music. Qawwalis were sung in Sufi khanqahs and devotional music like kirtan and bhajan became popular with the bhakti saints. Names of Kabir, Mirabai, Surdasa, Chandidasa, Tulsidasa, Vidyapati are closely associated with religious music. Great scholars like amir Khusrau contributed equally to the promotion of music. The legendary ruler of Malwa, Baz Bahadur and his wife Rupmati introduced new ragas. Kitabe Navras written by ibrahim Adil shah II during the seventeenth century is a collection of songs in praise of Hindu deities as well as Muslim saints. The most famous musician of Akbar’s court was Tansen and there was no one to match him, although there have been all types of singers. Baiju Bawra was additionally a widely known musician throughout Akbar’s time. The patronage given to these artists by the ancient and medieval rulers are instrumental in keeping the traditions alive. Indeed, the Mughal rulers were great patrons of music. According to Lanepoole- “Babar himself was fond of music. He’s supposed to have developed some very popular musical style forms like Qawalis, Khayal, etc. Humayun was said to have illustrated Indian texts on music. Akbar composed songs and encouraged musicians. Swami Haridas and his disciples composed several songs in numerous tunes. Pundarika Vittal was a great scholar of music who wrote the famous Ragamala. Hindustani Music was also enriched by devotional songs sung by Mira bai, Tulsidas and Surdas.Q 6. Write a brief note on Dances of India.Ans 6: The Rigveda mentions dance (nrti) and danseuse (nrtu) and compares the brilliant dawn (usas) to a brightly attrived danseuse. In the Brahmanas, Jaiminiya and Kausitaki dance and music are mentioned together. The Epics are full of references to dances on earth and heaven. Like music, Indian dance has also developed a rich classical tradition. It has a great power of expression and emotions while telling a story. In India, the art of dancing may be traced back to the Harappan culture. The discovery of the bronze statue of a dancing girl testifies to the fact that some women in Harappa performed dances.In traditional Indian culture the function of dance was to give symbolic expression to religious ideas. The figure of Lord Shiva as Nataraja represents the creation and destruction of the cosmic cycle. The popular image of Shiva in the form of Nataraja clearly shows the popularity of dance form on the Indian people. There is not a single temple atleast in the southern part of the country which does not show the sculptures of the dancers in their different forms. In fact, classical dance forms like Kathakali, Bharatnatyam, Kathak, Manipuri, Kuchi pudi and Odishi are an important part of our cultural heritage.It is difficult to say at what point of time dance originated, but it is obvious that dance came into existence as an effort to express joy. Gradually dances came to be divided as folk and classical. The classical form of dance was performed in temples as well as in royal courts. The dance in temples had a religious objective whereas in courts it was used purely for entertainment. In both cases for the artists devoted to this art form, it was no less than praying to God. In southern India Bharatanatyam and Mohiniattam developed as an important aspect of the rituals in temples. Yakshagana, a form of Kathakali in Kerala, tells us stories of Ramayana and Mahabharata whereas Kathak and Manipuri are mostly related to the stories of Krishna and his leela (exploits). Performance of Odissi is related to the worship of Lord Jagannath. Though the Krishna leela and the stories related to Lord Shiva was the theme of Kathak, this dance came to be performed in royal courts in medieval times. Romantic gestures contained in Thumri and Ghazal, which were also performed with accompanists for the kings, reflect this aspect. Manipuri dance was also performed for religious purposes. Folk dances evolved from the lives of common people and were performed in unison. In Assam people celebrate most of the harvesting season through Bihu. Similarly, Garba of Gujarat, Bhangra and Gidda of Punjab, bamboo dance of Mizoram, Koli, the fisherman’s dance of Maharashtra, Dhumal of Kashmir, and Chhau of Bengal are unique examples of performing arts that gave expression to the joys and sorrows of the masses.As far as the analytical study of this art form is concerned, the Natyashastra of Bharata, is a primary source of information, and basically deals with drama. Bharata has discussed dance and its various angas (limbs) in detail. Facial expressions, body movements, hasta mudras and the footsteps have all been brought together under three broad categories namely, as nritta (pada sanchalan), nritya (anga sanchalan) and natya (abhinay). Both men and women took keen interest in dance but generally women dancers were looked down upon in society. However, with the efforts of great music thinkers and various religious and social reform movements, people have started to hold women performers with great respect. In the medieval period Kathak dance form was promoted by the Muslim rulers. We hear of these performances in the courts of most of the Mughal rulers except for Aurangzeb. In the south, temples, ‘court’ and other parts of the building provided an important stage for all dancers. Navaras, mythological tales of Rama, Krishna, Ganesh, Durga were all enacted in the form of dance. Some rulers of the north like Wajid ali Shah was a great patron of music and dance and here the seeds of the Lucknow gharana or ‘school of dance’ was sown. The modern day dancers like Pt. Birju Maharaj all have come from the Lucknow school of dance. In the medieval period, the south remained very rigid with the rules of dances that were imbibed from ancient Sanskrit texts. It became a seat of learning and institutions of dance sprung up first in the southern regionAlong with classical dance forms, folk dance also flourished. In most of the regions the local dance form became very popular. Manipuri dance, Santhal dance, Rabindranath’s dance, drama, chhau, ras, gidda, bhangra, garba are some of the folk dances that have flourished in India. They are equally popular and have extreme acumen and innovation. Practically every region of our country has developed their own rich tradition of folk dances. For example, the Bihu dance of Assam, Mask dance of Ladakh, Wangla of Meghalaya, Bhutia or Lepcha dance of Sikkim. Similarly, we also have some dances which are called martial dances like Chholia of Uttranchal, Kalari paittu of Kerala, Thang-taa of Manipur among the more famous ones. Presently, all the three art forms are flourishing in the country. Musical institutions have opened up giving opportunities to many. Schools, universities have departments of music. Indira Kala Vishwa Vidyalaya of Khairagarh is a university of music, Gandharva MahaVidyalaya, Kathak Kendra and many institutes in the south are all propagating music in their own ways. Music conferences, Baithaks, lecture, demonstrations are all spreading music to nooks and corners of India. Societies like Spic-macay, India International Rural Cultural Centre have worked very hard to bring about a rapport and bondage with artists and the modern generation. Abroad musicians have also flourished and different institutions of music started by Pt. Ravi Shankar, Ustad Ali Akbar Khan, Alla Rakkha etc. are prestigious teaching centres for foreigners. Many foreign universities also have facilities of art forms giving degrees and diplomas to students. All over the world Indian artists are invited to perform and participate in various festivals and occasions.Well-known Dancers of Modern IndiaKathak Bharatanatyam Odissi Kuchipudi Q 7. What is the specialized features of Harappan period architecture?Ans 7: The excavations at Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro and several other sites of the Indus valley Civilization revealed the existence of a very modern urban civilization with expert town planning and engineering skills. The very advanced drainage system along with well-planned roads and houses show that a sophisticated and highly evolved culture existed in India before the coming of the Aryans. The sites of the Indus valley Civilization were excavated under the archaeological Survey of India established by the British.1. The settlements could be traced as far back as third millennium BC.2, some important settlements were excavated on the banks of the river Indus particularly at the bends that provided water, easy means of transportation of produce and other goods and also some protection by way of natural barriers of the river.3. All the sites consisted of walled cities which provided security to the people.4. The cities had a rectangular grid pattern of layout with roads that cut one another at right angles.5. The Indus valley people used standardized burnt mud-bricks as building material.6. There is evidence of building of big dimensions that maybe were public buildings, administrative or business centers, pillared halls and courtyards, there's no evidence of temples.7. Public buildings include granaries that were used to store grains which give an idea of an organized collection and distribution system.8. Along with large public buildings, there's proof of small one roomed constructions that appear to be working people’s quarters.9. The Harappan people were great engineers as is evident from the public bath that was discovered at Mohenjo-Daro. The ‘Great Bath’ as it is called, is still functional and there is no leakage or cracks in the construction. The existence of what appears to beA public bathing place shows the importance of ritualistic bathing and cleanliness in this Culture. It’s significant that most of the houses had private wells and bathrooms.10. At some sites a dominant citadel was excavated in the western part containing the Public buildings including the granaries. This can perhaps be treated as evidence of some kind of political authority ruling over the cities.11. There's evidence also of fortifications with gateways enclosing the walled cities that shows that there may are a fear of being attacked.Q 8. Write in brief about Scientific and technological developments in medieval IndiaAns 8: During the medieval period (11th to18th century) science and technology in India developed along two lines: one concerned with the already charted course of earlier traditions and the other with the new influences which came up as result of Islamic and European influence. The maktabs and the madrasas came in existence that followed a set curricular. These institutions used to receive royal patronage. The two brothers, Sheikh Abdullah and Sheikh Azzizullah, specialists in Rational Sciences (Magulat), headed the madrasas at Sambhal and Agra. Learned men from Arabia, Persia and Central Asia were invited to teach in these madrasas.A large number of karkhana (workshops) were maintained by the kings and the nobles to supply provisions, stores and equipment to royal houses and governmental departments. The karkhanas not only worked as manufacturing agencies but also served as centres for technical and vocational training to many young men. The karkhanas trained and turned out artisans and craftsmen in different branches, who later set up their own independent karkhanas (workshops).Muslim rulers tried to reform the curriculum of primary schools. Some important subjects like arithmetic, mensuration, geometry, astronomy, accountancy, public administration and agriculture were included in the course of studies for primary school education. Though special efforts were made by the rulers to carry out reforms in education, yet science did not make much headway during this period. Efforts were made to seek a kind of synthesis between the Indian traditional scientific culture and the prevalent approach to the science in the other countries.BiologyHamsadeva compiled Mrga-pasi-sastra in the 13th century which gives a general, though not always scientific account of some of the beasts and birds of hunting. The medieval rulers as warriors and hunters, kept animals such as horses, dogs, cheetahs and falcons. Animals, both domestic and wild, existed in their menageries. Akbar showed special interest in producing good breeds of domestic animals, elephants and horses. Jahangir, in his Tuzuk-i-Jahangiri, recorded observations and experiments of weeding and hybridization. He described about thirty-six species of animals. His court artists, especially Mansur, produced elegant and accurate portrait of animals, some of which are still preserved in several museums and the private collections. As a naturalist, Jahangir was interested in the study of plants and his court artists in their floral portraiture describe some fifty-seven plants.
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