UNIT I

Management

Q1) Explain the concept of Management.

A1) Concept of Management

The management is a particular kind of movement fundamentally dependable to complete things through others. All administrative capacities are general and all chiefs in any field of human endeavors play out that common place administrative capacities independent of what they are overseeing. One approach to dissect the management is to think as far as what a supervisor does. Utilizing this methodology, we can show up at the management cycle which depicts crafted by any director. A portion of the basic meaning of the management given by popular essayists and masterminds are: According to Harold Koontz and Heinz Weihrich, Management is the way toward planning and keeping up a climate in which people, cooperating in gatherings, proficiently achieve chosen points. As indicated by Kreitner, "The board is the way toward working with and through others to accomplish authoritative goals by proficiently utilizing restricted assets in the evolving climate.

Q2) Explain the significance of Management.

A2) Significance of Management

The management helps in accomplishing group objective. The management improves effectiveness by limiting the wastage of assets. The management makes a powerful association which adjusts the changing business climate. The management helps in accomplishing individual destinations. The board helps being developed of the general public. Significance of Management having perceived that administration is a general action that is basic to any association we currently analyze a portion of the reasons that have made administration so significant. The board helps in accomplishing bunch objectives. The board is required not for itself but rather for accomplishing the objectives of the association. The assignment of a chief is to provide a typical guidance to the individual exertion in accomplishing the general objective of the association.

Q3) Explain the nature of Management Process.

A3) Nature of management process

Management is a process which brings the scarce human and material resources together and motivates people for the achievement of objectives of the organization. Management isn't a onetime act but an on-going series of interrelated activities. The sum of these activities is called as management process. It consists of a group of interrelated operations or functions necessary to attain desired organizational goals. A process is a systematic way of doing things. It’s concerned with conversion of inputs into outputs. An analysis of management process will enable us to understand the functions which managers perform.

Features of Management Process:

Management process is characterized by the subsequent features:

1. Social Process:

The entire management process is considered a social process as the success of all organizational efforts depends upon the willing co-operation of individuals. Managers guide, direct, influence and control the actions of others to attain stated goals. Even people outside the organization are influenced by the actions of managers.

2. Continuous Process:

The process of management is on-going and continuous. Managers continuously take up one or the opposite function. Management cycle is repeated over and once again, each managerial function is viewed as a sub-process of total management process.

3. Universal:

Management functions are universal in the sense that a manager has to perform them regardless of the size and nature of the organization. Each manager performs similar functions no matter his rank or position in the organization. Even during a non-business organization managerial functions are the same.

4. Iterative:

Managerial functions are contained within each other the performance of the next function doesn't start only when the earlier function is finished. Various functions are taken together. For instance, planning, organizing, directing and controlling may occur within staffing function. Similarly, organizing may require planning, directing and controlling. So all functions are often thought of as sub-functions of each other.

5. Composite:

All managerial functions are composite and integrated. There cannot be any sequence which may be strictly followed for performing various functions. The sequential concept could also be true in a newly started business where functions may follow a specific sequence but the same won't apply to a going concern. Any function may be taken up first or many functions may be taken up at the same time.

Q4) Classify Management functions.

A4) Classification of Management Functions:

Different authors have given different managerial functions. Henry Fayol was the first to define specific functions of management. In his words, “To manage is to forecast and plan, to organize, to command, to co-ordinate and to control.”

He has given the subsequent functions:

(i) Forecasting and planning

(ii) Organizing

(iii) Commanding

(iv) Co-ordination

(v) Control

Luther Gulick used the word POSDCORB to explain various functions.

This initial describes the subsequent functions: Planning (P). Organizing (O), Staffing (S), Directing (D), Controlling (CO), Reporting (R) and Budgeting (B).

Ralph Davis gave three functions of management: Planning, Organizing and Control. He was of the view that command and co-ordination facilitate control so these should be a part of it.

Koontz and O’ Donnell have adopted the subsequent functions:

(i) Planning

(ii) Organizing

(iii) Staffing

(iv) Directing and

(v) Controlling.

Q5) Explain the Classical and Neo- classical theory of Management.

A5) Classical Theory of Management

The board is an efficient organization (cycle) of interrelated capacities. Formal schooling and preparing is stressed for creating the board aptitudes. Individuals are persuaded by financial additions. Stress was given to the conventional association structure. Numerous standards have been created for the rehearsing chief. Capacities, standards and aptitudes of the board are viewed as widespread.

Neo-Classical Theory of Management

This hypothesis manages the human factor. Elton Mayo and Mary Parker Follett are the fundamental patrons of human relations approach. This methodology additionally causes 'Conduct Science Management' which is a further refinement of human relations approach.

1. Human Relations Theory: It has focused on individual conduct. This considers bunch struggle as a negative power that influences authoritative effectiveness. It sees the laborers as a 'Social Man'. It offers significance to formal association structure. It sees association as social framework. It doesn't give logical vision to contemplate human conduct. Self-course and restraint methods are utilized in a restricted degree. It grants collective choice creation somewhat just to the normal choices.

2. Behavioral Science Theory: It has focused on gathering conduct. This considers bunch struggle as wellspring of new and inventive thoughts. It sees the laborers as a 'Self-Actualizing Man. It stresses on similarly an adaptable association structure. It sees as socio-specialized framework. It gives logical comprehension of human conduct. Self-bearing and discretion procedures are utilized to build bunch proficiency. It empowers collective choice creation for both daily schedule and significant issues.

Q6) Write a note on the contingency approach.

A6) Contingency Approach

The all inclusive cycle approach is the most established and one of the most mainstream ways to deal with the board thought. It is otherwise called the Universalist or useful methodology. As indicated by the all inclusive cycle approach general cycle approach. It requires a similar reasonable administration measure In the organization, all things considered, public or private or huge or little, requires a similar balanced cycle. The Universalist methodology depends on two fundamental suspicions. To begin with, in spite of the fact that the motivation behind associations may shift for instance, business, government, training, or religion and so forth A center administration measure stays as before over all associations. Fruitful chiefs, thusly, are compatible among associations of contrasting purposes. Second, the general administration cycle can be decreased to a bunch of isolated capacities and related standards. In 1916, at 75 years old, Fayol's work has left a perpetual blemish on 20th century the executives thinking. Fayol was initial an architect and later a fruitful head in an enormous French mining and metallurgical concern, which is maybe why he didn't turn to hypothesis in his spearheading the management book. Or maybe, Fayol was a chief who endeavored to interpret his wide managerial experience into viable rules for the fruitful administration of a wide range of associations.

1. Division of Work: Representatives spent significant time in various zones and they have various aptitudes. Various degrees of mastery can be recognized inside the information zones from generalist to expert. Individual and expert improvements uphold this. As per Hanery Fayol specialization advances proficiency of the labor force and builds profitability. Furthermore, the specialization of the labor force expands their precision and speed. This administration standard of the 14 standards of the executives is pertinent to both specialized and administrative exercises.

2. Authority and Responsibility: In request to complete things in an association, the executives have the position to provide requests to the representatives. Obviously with this position comes duty. As per Hanery Fayol, the going with force or authority gives the administration the option to provide requests to the subordinates.

3. Discipline: This rule is about dutifulness. It is frequently a portion of the fundamental beliefs of a mission of articulation and vision as great lead and conscious connections. This administration guideline is fundamental and is viewed as the oil to make the driving force of an association run easily.

4. Unity of Command: The administration standard 'Solidarity of order' implies that an individual representative ought to get orders from one administrator and that the worker is liable to that supervisor. In the event that assignments and related obligations are given to the representative by more than one supervisor, this may prompt disarray which may prompt potential clashes for workers. By utilizing this standard, the obligation regarding missteps can be set up more without any problem.

5. Unity of Direction: This administration guideline is about concentration and solidarity. All workers convey the very exercises that can be connected to similar targets. All exercises must be completed by one gathering that frames a group. These exercises must be portrayed in a strategy. The administrator is eventually liable for this arrangement and he screens the advancement of the characterized and arranged exercises. Center zones are the endeavors made by the representatives and coordination.

6. Subordinate Individual Interest: There are in every case a wide range of interests in an association. To have an association work well, Hanery Fayol demonstrated that individual interests are subordinate to the interests of the association. The essential spotlight is on the hierarchical targets and not on those of the person. This applies to all degrees of the whole association, including the chiefs.

7. Remuneration: Motivation and profitability are near each other to the extent the smooth running of an association is concerned. This administration rule of the 14 standards of the board contends that the compensation should be adequate to keep representatives inspired and profitable. There are two kinds of compensation specifically non-money related a commendation, more duties, credits and financial pay, reward or other monetary pay. At last, it is tied in with remunerating the endeavors that have been made.

8. The Degree of Centralization: Management and authority for dynamic cycle must be appropriately adjusted in an association. This relies upon the volume and size of an association including its progressive system. Centralization suggests the grouping of dynamic authority at the top administration. Sharing of experts for the dynamic cycle with lower levels is alluded to as decentralization by Hanery Fayol. Hanery Fayol showed that an association ought to make progress toward a decent equilibrium in this.

9. Scalar Chain: Hierarchy introduces itself in some random association. This shifts from senior administration to the most reduced levels in the association. Hanery Fayol "progression" the board rule expresses that there should be an away from in the territory of power. This can be viewed as a kind of the management structure. Every representative can contact a director or an unrivaled in a crisis circumstance without testing the pecking order. Particularly, when it concerns reports about cataclysms to the prompt directors/bosses.

10. Order: According to this guideline workers in an association must have the correct assets available to them with the goal that they can work appropriately in an association. Notwithstanding social request and duty of the supervisors, workplace must be protected, perfect and clean.

11. Equity: The administration standard of value regularly happens in the guiding principle of an association. As indicated by Hanery Fayol representatives must be dealt with sympathetic and similarly. Representatives must be in the ideal spot in the association to do things right. Administrators ought to oversee and screen this cycle and they should treat representatives decently and fairly.

12. Stability of Tenure of Personnel: This guideline speaks to sending and overseeing of faculty and this should be in offset with the administration that is given from the association. The executives endeavor to limit worker turnover and to have the correct staff in the perfect spot. Center zones, for example, successive difference in position and adequate improvement must be overseen well.

13. Initiatives: Hanery fayol contended that with this administration standard workers should be permitted to communicate groundbreaking thoughts. This supports interest and inclusion and makes added an incentive for the organization. Representative activities are a wellspring of solidarity for the association as per Hanery Fayol urges the workers to be involve and interested.

14. Esprit de Corps: This standard represents taking a stab at the inclusion and solidarity of the workers. Directors are liable for the improvement of spirit in the work environment; exclusively and in the territory of correspondence. Esprit de corps adds to the improvement of the way of life and makes an air of shared trust and comprehension.

Q7) Explain the various functions of Management.

A7) Various functions of Management

 1. Planning,

2. Organising,

3. Staffing,

4. Directing, and

5. Controlling.

Some authors consider “co-ordinating” as a separate function. But as the basic objective of all managerial functions is to achieve co-ordination in organised human efforts, co-ordination is the essence of management and it cannot be considered as a separate function.

Koontz and O’ Donnell have stated that, in practice, it is not always possible “to place all managerial activities neatly into these categories since the functions tend to coalesce.”

According to Professor Haimann, it is helpful to think of these managerial functions as a continuous circular movement. They flow into each other and at times, it is difficult to know where the one ends and the other begins.

Considering all these views on management functions, it may be said that management involves the following functions:

Function # 1. Planning:

Planning is concerned with the determination of the objectives to be achieved and the course of action to be followed to achieve them. Before starting any action, one has to decide how the work will be performed and where and how it has to be performed. Thus, planning implies decision-making as to what is to be done, how it is to be done, when it is to be done and by whom it is to done. Planning helps in achieving the objectives efficiently and effectively. Planning involves selecting of objectives and strategies, policies and programmes and procedures for achieving them.

Planning function is performed by managers at every level because planning may either be for the entire enterprise or for any section or department thereof. Planning pervades the entire gamut of managerial activity, and also it is continuous and never-ending. While the managers at the top level devote more time on planning, the managers at the lower level follow the policies, programmes and procedures laid down by the top management.

For any business activity, planning is a prerequisite for doing anything and also to ensure the proper utilisation of the resources of the business concern to achieve the desired goals. Plans can be classified into standing plans and single-use plans. Standing plans include objectives, policies, procedures, methods and rules and single-use plans include budgets, programmes, strategies and projects.

Function # 2. Organising:

According to Fayol, “to organise a business is to provide it with everything useful to its functioning — raw materials, tools, capital and personnel.” Thus, organising involves bringing together the manpower and material resources for the achievement, of objectives laid down by the enterprise.

Organising involves the following process:

(a) Determining and defining the activities involved in achieving the objectives laid down by the management;

(b) Grouping the activities in a logical pattern;

(c) Assigning the activities to specific positions and people; and

(d) Delegating authority to their positions and people so as to enable them to perform the activities assigned to them.

Organising function helps in increasing the efficiency of the enterprise. Further, by avoiding repetition and duplication of activities, it reduces the operation cost of the enterprise.

But organising function can be useful to the enterprise only when there are clear and verifiable objectives and clear understanding of the activities needed to achieve the objectives and clear definition of the authority assigned to the managers at every level.

Function # 3. Staffing:

Every enterprise is very much concerned with the quality of its people, especially its managers. The staffing function is concerned with this aspect of management. According to Harold Koontz and Cyril O’ Donell, “the managerial function of staffing involves manning the organisational structure through proper and effective selection, appraisal and development of personnel to fill the roles designed into the structure.”

Thus, the staffing functions involve:

(a) Proper selection of candidates for positions;

(b) Proper remuneration;

(c) Proper training and development so as to enable them to discharge their organisational functions effectively; and

 (d) Proper evaluation of personnel.

Staffing function is performed by every manager of the enterprise as he is actively associated with the recruitment, selection, training and appraisal of his subordinates. For example, the Board of Directors of the enterprise undertakes the staffing function by selecting and appraising the Chief Executive who, in turn, performs these functions in relation to his subordinates like divisional heads or departmental heads of the enterprise. Similarly, departmental heads or their subordinates also perform the staffing function.

Staffing function is a difficult managerial function because it is concerned with the selection of persons who are properly qualified and mentally well-adjusted to the situations.

Directing is one of the important functions of management and is the art and process of getting things done. While other functions like planning, organising and staffing are merely preparations for doing the work, the directing function actually starts the work.

Directing is concerned with actuating the members of the organisation to work efficiently and effectively for the attainment of organisation goals. Directing involves the manager telling the subordinates how they have to perform jobs assigned to them. It is concerned with guiding, supervising and motivating the subordinates for achieving the enterprise objectives. According to Joseph Massie, “Directing concerns the total manner in which a manager influences the action of his subordinates. It is the final action of a manager in getting others to act after all preparations have been completed.”

Directing consists of the following four sub-functions:

a. Communication or issuing of orders and instructions to subordinates. A manager has to instruct the subordinates what to do, how to do it and when to do it.

b. Guiding, energizing and leading the subordinates to perform the work systematically and also building up among workers confidence and zeal in the work to be performed.

c. Inspiring the subordinates to do work with interest and enthusiasm for the accomplishment of the enterprise’s objectives.

d. Exercising supervision over the subordinates to ensure that the work done by them is in conformity with the objectives that are determined.

Function # 4. Controlling:

Controlling is related to all other management functions. It is concerned with seeing whether the activities have been or being performed in conformity with the plans. According to Haimann, “Control is the process of checking to determine whether or not, proper progress is being made towards the objectives and goals and acting if necessary to correct any deviation.” Koontz and O’Donnell have defined controlling “as the measurement and correction of the performance of activities of subordinates in order to make sure that enterprise’s objectives and the plans devised to attain them are being accomplished.”

Thus, controlling involves the following sub-functions:

 (a) Determination of standards for measuring work performance.

(b) Measurement of actual performance.

(c) Comparing actual performance with the standards.

(d) Finding variances between the two and reasons for variances.

(e) Taking corrective actions to ensure attainment of objectives.

For control to be effective and fruitful, it must be based on a plan; there must be measurement of actual performance to ascertain deviations and to take action to remedy the deviations.

Q8) Explain the concept of Planning.

A8) CONCEPT OF PLANNING

Arranging is the principal the board work, which includes choosing previously, what could possibly be done, is it to be done, how it is to be done and who will do it. It is a scholarly cycle which sets out an association's destinations and creates different strategies, by which the association can accomplish those goals. Precisely, how to accomplish a particular objective. Arranging is only speculation before the activity happens. It encourages us to bring a peep into the future and choose ahead of time the best approach to manage the circumstances, which we will experience in future. It includes legitimate reasoning and objective management.

Q9) Explain the process of Planning.

A9) PROCESS OF PLANNING

1. Perception of Opportunities: Perception of chances isn't carefully a portion of the arranging cycle. In any case, this consciousness of chances in the outside climate just as inside the association is the genuine beginning stage for arranging. It is essential to investigate conceivable future chances and see them plainly and totally.

2. Establishing Objectives: This is the second step in the arranging cycle. The major authoritative and unit destinations are set in this stage. This is to be accomplished for the long haul just as for the short reach. Objective determine the normal outcomes and show the end purposes of what can anyone do, the essential accentuation is to be set and what is to be cultivated by the different kinds of plans.

3. Planning Premises: After assurance of hierarchical destinations, the subsequent stage is setting up arranging premises that is the conditions under which arranging exercises will be attempted. Arranging premises are arranging suspicions the normal ecological and interior conditions.

4. Identification of Alternatives: The fourth step in arranging is to distinguish the other options. Different options can be recognized dependent on the hierarchical destinations and arranging premises. The idea of different choices recommends that a specific target can be accomplished through different activities.

5. Evaluation of Alternatives: The different elective strategy should be investigated in the light of premises and objectives. There are different methods accessible to assess choices. The assessment is to be done in the light of different variables. Model, money inflow and outpouring, chances, restricted assets, expected compensation back and so onward, the options should give us the most obvious opportunity with regards to meeting our objectives at the least expense and most noteworthy benefit.

6. Choice of Alternative Plans: This is the genuine purpose of management. An investigation and assessment of elective courses will reveal that at least two. Which is appropriate and advantageous and fit one is chosen.

7. Formulation of Supporting Plan: After planning the fundamental arrangement, different plans are determined in order to help the principle plan. In an association there can be different subsidiary plans like making arrangements for purchasing gear, purchasing crude materials, enlisting and preparing individual, growing new item and so forth these subsidiary plans are figured out of the essential or fundamental arrangement and perpetually needed to help the essential arrangement.

8. Establishing Sequence of Activities: After detailing essential and subordinate plans, the arrangement of exercises is resolved so those plans are placed without hesitation. After choices are made and arrangements are set, spending plans for different periods and divisions can be set up to give designs more solid importance for execution.

Q10) Explain different types of Planning.

A10) Corporate, Operational, Functional and Proactive Planning!

I. Corporate Planning:

The term corporate planning denotes planning activities for the whole enterprise.

The basic focus of corporate planning is to determine the long-term objectives of the organisation as an entire .then to get plans to attain these objectives taking into mind the likely changes within the external environment (macro level). Corporate planning is usually carried out at the top level of management.

“Corporate planning includes the setting of objectives, organising the work, people and systems to enable those objectives to be attained, motivating through the planning process and thru the plans, measuring performance then controlling progress of the plan and developing people through better decision making, clearer objectives, more involvement and awareness of progress.” —David Hussey

Hussey has given a broad definition of corporate planning. It covers various functions of management besides defining planning. Corporate planning is that the total planning activities in the organisation and not the entire management functions.

“Corporate Planning is the continuous process of creating present risk taking decisions systematically and with the greatest knowledge of their futurity; organising systematically the efforts needed to carry out these decisions, and measuring expectations through organised, systematic feedback.” —Peter Drucker

The corporate planning activities are carrying out at the top level. They’re important for the success of the whole organisation. The highest management is liable for the formulation of such plans and is prepared according to the inputs that are given to them either from the environment or the lower levels in the organisational hierarchy. The plans are generally long term and are broad based.

The corporate planning is of two types:

i. Strategic Planning

ii. Operational Planning

Strategic Planning consists of the method of developing strategies to reach a defined objective. It sets the long-term direction of the organisation during which it wants to proceed in future. According to Anthony it are often defined as the “process of selecting the objectives of the organisation, on changes on these objectives and on the policies that are to control the acquisition, use and disposition of these resources.”

An assessment of available resources is made at the top and then things are planned for a period of time of upto 10 years. It basically deals with the entire assessment of the organisation, strengths capabilities and weaknesses and an objective evaluation of environment is formed for future pursuits.

Examples of strategic planning in an organisation may be; planned growth rate in sales, diversification of business into new lines, sort of products to be offered then on. Strategic planning also involves the analysis of various environmental factors specifically with reference to how organisation relates to its environment.

The strategic planning may be carried out serial of steps that include the

1. Specifying Missions and Objectives.

2. Elaborate Environmental Scanning.

3. Strategy Formulation.

4. Strategy Implementation

5. Evaluation and Control

Strategic planning is of prime importance for any organisation as they might specify the other decisions that require to be taken.

II. Operational or Tactical Planning:

Operational planning, is also called tactical or short-term planning, usually, covers one year approximately . Operational planning involves the conversion of strategic plans into detailed and specific action plans. These plans are designed to sustain the organisation in its products Operational planning is done at the middle or lower level of management Operational planning are often defined as follows:

“Operational planning is that the process of deciding, the most effective use of the resources already allocated and to develop an impact mechanism to assure effective implementation of the actions so that organisational objectives are achieved.”

An Operational plan is an annual work plan:

It narrates short term business strategies; it explains how a strategic plan will be put into operation (or what portion of a strategic plan will be put into operation (or what portion of a strategic plan are addressed) during a given operational period (fiscal year).

These plans are to support strategic plans whenever some difficulty is faced in its implementation. Any changes in internal organisation or external environment need to be met through tactical plans.

For examples, there's sudden change in prices of products, difficulty in procuring raw materials, unexpected moves by competitors; tactical plans will help in meeting such unforeseen situations. The success of tactical plan depends upon the speed and adaptability with which management acts to fulfill sudden situation.

Operational planning is concerned with the efficient use of resources already allocated and with the development of a control mechanism to make sure efficient implementation of the action in order that business objectives are attained.

III. Functional Planning:

The planning that's made to make sure smooth working of the organisation taking into account the needs of each and every department. the aim of functional planning is to market standardized management practices for corporate functions within the department’s decentralized corporate management structure.

The following three basic activities need to be carried out in functional planning:

(1) Functional Guidance:

Managers must be told and guided what they must be doing to properly manage corporate functions within the enterprise.

(2) Goal Setting:

Certain quantifiable goals need to be set that would measure the effectiveness of the functional planning. Goals should be meaningful, achievable and measureable.

(3) Functional Assessments:

Functional assessment wraps up the functional planning process. Here the Comparison is formed between the goal setting and therefore the goal achievement. The functional assessment should have the subsequent characteristics:

(i) Substantiation:

Managers who are accountable for corporate functions must explain how resources and activities devoted to their function provide support to the achievement of the corporate priorities and functional targets.

(ii) Measure of Success.

Managers accountable for corporate functions must quantifiably measure the success in meeting goals identified in their functional guidance.

(iii) Foresight:

Managers should be in a position to identify developing gaps and risks faced in their respective functional areas, alongside recommendations to refill those gaps and risks.

iv. Proactive and Reactive Planning:

Classification of planning into proactive and reactive is based on the organisation’s response to environmental dynamics. Planning is an open system approach and is affected by environmental factors which keep it up changing continuously. However, organisations response to those changes differs. based on these responses, planning could also be either proactive or reactive.

Proactive Planning:

It is based on the anticipation of the future outcomes and state of affairs that might affect the working of the organisation. Such a planning has got to be broad based, highly flexible and creative by nature.

The organisation that favours this type of planning often anticipates the future and takes necessary steps before the happening of the events. In India, companies like Reliance Industries, Hindustan Lever etc., have adopted this approach and their rate of growth has been much faster than others.

Reactive Planning:

As the name suggests, this type of planning isn't in the anticipation of the future but becomes active only the matter is confronted or has already occurred. this is merely the corrective action that's taken. This approach of planning is beneficial in an environment which is fairly stable over a long period of time.

v. Formal and Informal Planning:

Formal Planning exists in the formal hierarchy of the organisation and is usually carried out in the stepwise process. it's according to the pre expressed policies and the rules of the organisation. This type of planning is completed at a large scale and relies on the logical thinking. the planning process that's adopted is documented, and regular.

Informal Planning is typically carried out in very small organisations where the formal organisation structure may or might not exist. The planning is typically intuitive in nature and is short termed. Since the environment for smaller organisations isn't complex, they do reasonably well with informal planning process.

vi. Automated Planning:

Automated planning and scheduling may be a branch of AI that concerns the realisation of strategies or action sequences, typically for execution by intelligent agents, autonomous robots and unmanned vehicles. This sort of designing is generally found within the technologically advanced organisations.

Q11) Explain the concept and process of decision making.

A11) CONCEPT

More than everything else, the capacity to make sound, convenient choices separates a fruitful director from a non-effective. It is the obligation of chiefs to settle on excellent choices that are acknowledged and executed in an ideal style. By all accounts the choices should be firm, guessed, unforeseen, adaptable, improved, affecting, intuitional, non-critical, objective, operational one. One of the main elements of a director is to take choices. Whatever an administrator does, he does through management.

DECISION MAKING PROCESS

Identify the decision: The initial phase in creation the correct choice is perceiving the issue or opportunity and choosing to address it. Decide why this choice will have any kind of effect to your clients or individual representatives.

Gather information: Next, it's an ideal opportunity to accumulate data so you can settle on a choice dependent on realities and information. This requires making a worth judgment, figuring out what data is applicable to the current choice, alongside how you can get it

Identify Alternatives: Once you have an away from of the issue, it's an ideal opportunity to distinguish the different arrangements available to you. All things considered, you have various alternatives with regards to settling on your choice, so it is essential to concoct a scope of choices.

Weight of evidence: In this progression, you should assess for attainability, agreeableness and allure to realize which option is ideal. It very well might be useful to search out a confided in second feeling to increase another viewpoint on the current issue.

Choose among alternatives: When it's an ideal opportunity to settle on your choice, be certain that you comprehend the dangers associated with your picked course. You may likewise pick a mix of options since you completely handle all significant data and expected dangers.

Take action: Next, you should make an arrangement for execution. This includes recognizing what assets are required and picking up help from workers and partners.

Review decision: A frequently ignored yet significant advance in the decision making cycle is assessing your choice for adequacy. Ask yourself what you progressed admirably and what can be improved next time.

Q12) Write a note on Management by Objectives.

A12) The executives by goals (MBO) is presently polished the world over. However, regardless of its wide application, it isn't in every case clear what is implied by MBO. Some actually consider it an evaluation apparatus, others consider it to be a persuasive strategy; still, and others consider MBO and arranging and control gadget. The idea of 'The board by Objectives' (MBO) was first given by Peter Drucker in 1954 (The Practice of Management'). The board by goals (MBO) is a complete administration framework dependent on quantifiable and participative set destinations. MBO is presently generally drilled everywhere on the world. In any case, regardless of its enormous scope application, the importance of MBO isn't yet in every case clear. To certain individuals, it is an evaluation device; others think about it as a persuasive procedure, while others view it as an instrument of arranging and control. The exhaustive administrative framework that coordinates many key administrative exercises in an orderly way and that is intentionally coordinated toward the compelling and effective accomplishment of authoritative and individual goals.

1. Define Organizational Goal: Goals are basic issues to hierarchical adequacy, and they fill various needs. Which must all be fittingly overseen and various types of directors must be associated with defining objectives. The objectives set by the bosses are starter, in light of an examination and judgment concerning what can and what should be cultivated by the association inside a specific period.

2. Define Employees Objectives: After creation sure that representatives directors have educated regarding relevant general targets, systems and arranging premises, the administrator would then be able to continue to work with workers in setting their destinations. The administrator asks what objectives the representatives accept they can achieve in what time-frame, and with what assets. They will at that point examine some primer musings about what objectives appear to be achievable for the organization or office.

3. Continuous Monitoring Performance and Progress: MBO measure isn't just fundamental for making line administrators in business associations more powerful yet in addition similarly significant for checking the exhibition and progress of workers. Recognizing insufficient projects by contrasting execution and pre-set up targets. Utilizing zero based planning. Applying MBO ideas for estimating individual and plans. Planning long and short-range targets and plans. Planning a sound hierarchical structure with clear, obligations and management authority at the suitable level.

4. Performance Evaluation: Under this MBO cycle execution audit is made by the investment of the concerned chiefs.

5. Providing Feedback: The dutiful fixings in a MBO program are nonstop input on execution and objectives that permit people to screen and address their own activities. This ceaseless input is enhanced by occasional proper evaluation gatherings in which bosses and subordinates can audit progress toward objectives, which lead to additional criticism.

6. Performance Appraisal: Regular audit of worker execution inside associations. It is done at the last phase of the MBO cycle.

Q13) Explain the concept and nature of Organising.

A13) Organizing Concept

The working connections vertical and flat relationship among people and gatherings that exist inside an association influence how its exercises are refined and facilitated. Compelling getting sorted out relies upon the dominance of a few significant ideas: work specialization, levels of leadership, authority, assignment, length of control, and centralization versus decentralization. A large number of these ideas depend on the standards created by Henry Fayol. Degree to which hierarchical assignments are isolated into discrete positions. Representatives inside every division perform just the undertakings identified with their particular capacity.

NATURE OF ORGANISING:

 The main characteristics of an organizing are as follows:

1)     Process: Organizing is a process undertaken to accomplish objectives. The process of organizing consists of the following steps:1) Defining goals/objectives of the organization 2) Identifying and grouping of activities 3) Defining and delegating authority and responsibility 4) Establishing relationships in the organization 5) Co-coordinating activities.

2)     Goal oriented: Every organization has its own objectives and goals. Organizing is the function employed to achieve the individual goals of the employees with overall objectives of the firm.

3)     Group of individual: Individuals form a group and the groups form an organization. Thus, organization is the composition of individuals and groups. Individuals are grouped into departments and their work is co-ordinate directed towards achievement of organization goals.

4)     Integration: The organization divides the entire work and assigns the tasks to individuals in order to achieve the organizational objectives. Each one has to perform a different tasks of one individual must be co-ordinated with the tasks of others. Collectively these tasks at the final stage are called integration.

5)     Continuity: An organization is a group of people in which they work together to achieve the goals of that organization. This relationship does not come to an end after completing the task. Organizing is a never ending process.

6)     Decision Making: Top management has a right and power to take decisions. It is a task of a manager to get the things done from the subordinates in the most efficient and effective manner.

7)     Common Targets: To level management set the overall goals for an organization. It is an integrated and collective effort from all the employees towards the achievement of common targets or goals setup by an organization.

8)     Authority: Authority is the power to take decisions and to get the work done from the subordinates. Every manager in the organization must be given adequate authority so that he can take the right decisions to get the work done.

9)     Responsibility: The manager who is provided with authority must made responsible. There must be a balance between authority and responsibility.

Q14) Explain the process of Organisation.

A14) PROCESS OF ORGANISATION:

Process of organization, for sake of clarity of discussion and a far better comprehension of those, are classified in the following manner:

(I) Overall Principles:

Under this classification, a number of the very fundamental principles of organization are included i.e. principles which are absolutely essential for an efficient and logical functioning of the organization.

A brief explanation of the principles under this category is as follows:

(i) Principle of unity of objective:

Very simply stated, this principle requires that individual and departmental objectives throughout the enterprise must be perfectly harmonized; which all objectives must be mutually supportive and collectively contributing to overall common objectives.

(ii) Principle of simplicity:

The observance of this principle requires that the management must, as far as possible, design a simple organizational structure. a straightforward structure facilitates a far better understanding of superior- subordinate relationships; and provides background for better co-operation among people.

(iii) Principle of flexibility:

While designing the organizational structure, the management must provide for in-built devices within the structure itself; which might facilitate changes within the organizational structure to be effected as and when environmental factors-internal and/or external- so demand.

(II) Structural Principles:

Structural principles of organization relate to those aspects of the organization, which have an impact on the structuring (or the development) of the organization; its fundamental design and shape.

Some of the important principles, during this context, could be the subsequent ones:

(iv) Principle of division of work:

Since the total work of the enterprise can't be performed by just one person; it's imperative that such work must be suitably divided among variety of persons. In fact, the total managerial work need to be divided among variety of managers; and the total operational work being divided among variety of operating personnel.

(v) Principles of functional definition:

The above stated principle implies that the role (or job) of each individual and of every department of the enterprise must be suitably defined, in terms of the-work content, the authority and facilities required for job performance and the relationship of the job with those of others, within the enterprise.

(vi) Principle of optimum departmentation:

There are some ways and bases for creating departments within an organization. consistent with the principle of optimum departmentation, departments in an organization must be so created and maintained-as to facilitate the simplest attainment of the common objectives of the enterprise.

(vii) Principle of unity of direction:

The principle implies that every group of activities having the same objective must have just one overall head and just one overall or master plan.

As a principle of organization, this concept of unity of direction must be so embedded in designing the organizational structure that for every group of similar activities, there's a provision for only one overall head-having authority over all personnel performing a similar function, anywhere, in the organization.

(viii) Span of management principle:

The span of management principle is variously called as- the span of control or the span of supervision. However, the phrase ‘span of management’ is that the widest; including also the notions of span of control and span of supervision.

The span of management principle implies that there's a limit to the number of subordinates; whose work might be effectively managed (controlled or supervised) by a superior.

(III) Operational Principles:

Operational principles of organization can be suggested to be those which have a bearing on the running or functioning of the organization.

Some important principles, under this category, are as follows:

(ix) Principle of adequate delegation:

By the principle of adequate delegation, we mean that every managerial position be given adequate (or necessary or requisite) authority-to enable the holder of the position i.e. the manager to cope successfully with the wants of his job.

(x) Scalar chain principle:

Scalar chain implies a chain of superiors-ranging from the highest rank to the lowest rank-in a corporation . The scalar chain forms the base of authority-responsibility relationships among managers and subordinates, within the organisation; thus promoting mutual understanding among superiors and subordinates at different levels of the organization.

As a principle of organization, scalar chain principle requires its incorporation into the design of the organisation, for ensuring smooth running of the enterprise life.

(xi) Principle of unity of command:

The above-sated principle implies that an employee must receive orders and instructions, only from one superior, at a time. The observance of this principle is desirable for reasons of removing doubts and confusions from the mind of the employees; and for facilitating exact fixation of responsibility on individuals for the results expected of them.

(xii) Authority-level principle:

The authority-level principle implies that managers at particular levels within the management hierarchy must decide only those matters which fall within the purview of the authority vested in their managerial positions.

A natural extension of this principle is that if a manager at any level of the management hierarchy comes across a matter not covered by his authority; the matter must either be referred upwards within the hierarchy or pushed down the hierarchy at the acceptable level for decision.

Q15) Explain the significance of organizing.

A15) SIGNIFICANCE OF ORGANIZING

1) Ensures co-ordination: Due to good organization structure, co-ordination is possible in the organization. Co-ordination refers to interlinking of actions of the subordinates by the superior. The activities of the various individuals, and departments are combined together to accomplish company goals.

2) Optimum utilization of resources: Organization ensures optimum utilization of resources – human, financial and physical resources. The resources are put to best possible use.

3) Facilitates effective management: A properly designed organization facilitates effective management. It avoids confusion, delays and duplication of work. The work is systematically divided and grouped into several sections or units, so as to achieve desired results.

4)  Motivates personnel: A sound organization avoids confusion, misunderstandings and overlapping of functions, and as such employees are motivated to produce better results. This is mainly because of good relations existing between the superiors and their subordinates in the organization.

5)  Facilitates delegation of authority: A good organization structure enables the superiors to delegate authority to the subordinates. The superiors are in a position to delegate the proper degree of authority to the right subordinates. Without proper delegation, it would not be possible to conduct the activities of the organization smoothly and quickly.

6)  Encourages initiative and innovation: Due to effective delegation of authority, there is freedom of self-expression. The subordinates are encouraged to show their initiative, which helps the organization to excel and grow.

7) Technological improvements: Sound organizations have contributed to the technological developments. Through research and development, the organizations come with new methods, new machines, and techniques, which can be effectively used for business activities.

8) Facilitates growth: Sound organizations achieve good success. This enables the organization to grow and diversify. Large progressive firms are the direct outcome of the success of effective organizing.

Q16) Write a note on Authority, Responsibility and their relationship.

A16) 1. Authority: Authority can be characterized as the force and right of an individual to utilize and assign the assets effectively, to take choices and to provide arranges to accomplish the hierarchical destinations. Authority must be all around characterized. All individuals who have the authority should realize what is the extent of their power is and they shouldn't misutilize it. Authority is the option to provide orders arranges and completes the things. The high level administration has most prominent position. Authority consistently moves start to finish. It clarifies how an unrivaled completes work from his subordinate by obviously clarifying what is anticipated from him and how he should go about it. Authority should be went with an equivalent measure of obligation. Appointing the position to another person doesn't infer getting away from responsibility. Responsibility actually rest with the individual having the most extreme position.

2. Responsibility: Responsibility the obligation of the individual to finish the undertaking allocated to him. An individual who is given the duty ought to guarantee that he achieves the undertakings doled out to him. In the event that the undertakings for which he was considered capable are not finished, at that point he ought not to give clarifications or reasons. Duty without sufficient position prompts discontent and disappointment among the individual. Obligation streams from base to top. The center level and lower level administration holds greater duty. The individual considered liable for an occupation is responsible for it. In the event that he plays out the undertakings doled out true to form, he is headed for acclaims. While on the off chance that he doesn't achieve undertakings appointed true to form, at that point likewise he is responsible for that.

Relationship between Authority and Responsibility

Authority is the lawful right of individual or better than order his subordinates while responsibility is the commitment of individual to do his obligations according to principles of execution Authority streams from the bosses to subordinates, in which requests and directions are given to subordinates to finish the undertaking. It is just through power, a director practices control. In a manner through practicing the control the predominant is requesting responsibility from subordinates. On the off chance that the promoting director coordinates the business administrator for 50 units of offer to be embraced in a month. On the off chance that the above norms are not refined, it is the promoting supervisor who will be responsible to the CEO. Along these lines, we can say that power streams through and through and obligation streams from base to top. Responsibility is an aftereffect of duty and obligation is consequence of power. In this way, for each position an equivalent responsibility is appended.

Responsibility without power is a typical issue in associations with lopsided, conflicting administration. People who end up with obligation without power will consistently think that it’s a lot harder to succeed and will wind up in a tough situation more as often as possible than those with a solid position presence. This is to a great extent because of the interconnectedness of power and obligation with regards to making an association effective in general. Legitimate power exists to appoint assignments possible to meet the authoritative targets. When there is no position, the requirement of obligations and errands tumbles to the wayside, and representative endeavors stray from the way towards progress. In the event that an individual is given some degree of duty without adequate authority upholding that, they are likely not going to perform as well as could be expected, and could even neglect to achieve the errand by any means.

Q17) What is Delegation of Authority and what are its elements?

A17)  Meaning Of Delegation Of Authority

In order to define delegation of authority, we have to understand the meaning of the term. Delegation of authority is a process that enables a person to assign a task to others. As a manager or leader, you’re expected to perform several tasks and meet multiple deadlines. To ensure that you achieve your objectives on time, you delegate responsibility to your team members. In short, the meaning of delegation of authority is to entrust someone with tasks and share the overall responsibility.

Elements Of Delegation Of Authority

There are three central elements involved in the process of delegating authority.

1. Authority

In the context of business organizations, authority is the right and power of an individual to assign resources efficiently, make decisions and give instructions to achieve organizational goals. This authority should be well-defined and shouldn’t be misused. There’s a co-dependent relationship between authority and responsibility, which is why authority should always be accompanied by an equal amount of responsibility to complete tasks successfully. However, the ultimate responsibility always rests with the person with the greatest authority.

2. Responsibility

Responsibility refers to the scope or duty of an individual to complete the task assigned to them. Someone who is entrusted with responsibility should take ownership of their tasks. It’s best not to make excuses or give explanations if the tasks aren’t fulfilled. Responsibility without adequate authority can lead to dissatisfaction and discontent. It’s best to not give someone too much authority and too little responsibility. Managers and leaders may be ultimately held accountable for the overall performance, but the more important responsibilities lie in the hands of employees.

3. Accountability

What is a delegation of authority without accountability? It’s a component that differentiates between an individual’s performance and the expectations that were set in advance. Unlike authority and responsibility, accountability can’t be delegated to others. Anybody who sets out to complete a task becomes accountable for their efforts and outcomes. For example, if Madan is given a task with adequate authority and he delegates the task to Mohan, the responsibility rests with Mohan but Madan is still accountable for the task.

Q18) What are the types of Delegation of Authority?

A18) Types Of Delegation Of Authority

There are various types of delegation of authority. Let’s look into each type through different examples of delegation of authority:

1. Full Delegation

Often, recurring and repetitive jobs in organizations are fully delegated. For such tasks, there is minimal interference from managers and leaders, and team members are given maximum authority. Imagine you’re the Human Resources head at your organization. You conduct employee surveys every quarter and reuse a set of standard questions and follow a particular protocol to circulate the surveys. If new members join your team, you can hand over that task completely. You can communicate the objectives in advance and your team can present the final results after they collect the information.

2. Half Delegation

To delegate half a task seems like a bad idea but when done well, it can do wonders. Let’s take these two examples of delegation of authority and see how half delegation can work:

Imagine the ‘marketing’ and ‘sales’ teams are working towards the same goal. You can choose to delegate all marketing-related tasks to the marketing team and all sales- and partnership-related objectives to the sales team. They may collaborate and help each other but they would be accountable for their respective targets and deadlines. Ultimately, you can supervise their performance and make sure each team has met your expectations.

Suppose you want to hire new employees. Looking through hundreds of job applications isn’t easy, so you can delegate the preliminary task of looking through resumes and shortlisting them to your team members. You can then look at the shortlisted resumes. You may set certain expectations so that your team picks candidates with the required skills and expertise.

3. Outdoor Delegation

Outdoor delegation is most useful in case of collaborations with another organization. For example, if you work with an external agency, you can send your best negotiators to collaboratively develop a strategy. Once you receive a brief about the new business strategy with the necessary details, you can make the final decision without having to spend hours on the commute or negotiations.

4. Intervention

When you have limited time on your hands, intervention is the way to go. After you delegate tasks, you can check in with your team members every now and then. It’s a good way to track individual signs of progress. It’s especially beneficial when you have to work with new employees who don't have many years of experience behind them. For example, you can use the intervention method when you want to launch a new initiative. Ask your team to come up with ideas and present them to you for approval. Intervention is a time-saving technique.

5. Creative Delegation

Projects that require innovation should be delegated. When more people are involved, the chances of suggesting unique ideas are higher. One person’s creativity can push the creativity of the team. For example, if you are hosting Diwali celebrations at your office, you can either create a plan and delegate responsibilities for execution or ask your team to pitch their ideas. Both these ways are fitting examples of creative delegation.

Q19) Explain the importance of Delegation of authority.

A19) Importance Of Delegation Of Authority

The process of delegating authority is to ensure a well-functioning and productive workplace. The process can benefit you, your employees and the organization at large, if done properly. Here are some of the benefits that highlight the importance of delegation of authority.

1. Increased Productivity

Delegation helps employees finish tasks faster because the work is distributed among a group of individuals and everyone is responsible for their respective targets.

2. Personal Development

When you delegate tasks, your team members get a chance to showcase their skills and expertise in a particular area. With proper guidance, they can also improve their knowledge and skill sets.

3. Continuity

If you’re busy or absent from work, your team can help complete some of your work and ensure continuity and productivity.

4. Employee Motivation

When you assign new responsibilities, it shows that you trust your employees to take control. They’re encouraged and driven to fully utilize their potential.

5. Career Growth

The more you delegate tasks to different members of your team, the more they understand business goals and objectives. This gives way to potential promotion within the organization.

Q20) What is Decentralisation? What are its advantages and disadvantages?

A20) DECENTRALIZATION:

It refers to the dispersal of decision making power to the lower level of the organization.

 ‘Decentralization refers to the systematic effort to delegate to the lowest levels all authority except that which can only be exercised at central points’. – Louis A. Allen

‘When authority is dispersed decentralization is present.’ – George Terry.

In large organizations it is not always possible for all activities to be organized from the centre. Hence, a certain amount of decentralization becomes necessary.

Advantages of Decentralization (Importance of Decentralization):

1. It is a good philosophy to motivate the mangers so that it results in better job satisfaction.

2. It increases the morale of lower level managers by satisfying their need for participation and independence.

3. It helps to meet the challenges and complexities of big enterprises and provides scope for growth and development.

4. It promotes quick decision making and avoids confusion

5. It provides training for future managers by giving them an opportunity to develop their skills.

6. It facilitates effective communication, because in decentralization set up span is wider with a few levels of organization.

7. It ensures effective control and supervision. As all activities are coordinated at the lower level, any sort of adjustment can be made at lower level itself. Thus, it gives complete freedom of action.

8. It gives a relief to the top management from concentrating on day-to-day affairs and permits them to concentrate on developmental activities.

Disadvantages of Decentralization:

a. It is costly because it requires competent people to be employed to accept authority. The success of a unit depends on the ability and capability of the head.

b. It may lead to inconsistencies, when every department or division does not adopt procedures uniformly.

c. It creates a problem of among various units or departments.

d. Differences of opinions of top management and unit head often lead to conflicts.

e. Among the departments hostility may be developed due to severe competition. This will hamper the sharing of knowledge and resources.

f. Economies of scale may not be realized as each unit becomes small and independent.

By and large, decentralization is suitable for large scale organizations operating in different geographical areas or dealing with multiple products.

Q21) Discuss different forms of Organisational Structure with their advantages and disadvantages.

A21) Organizational Structure – Top 3 Forms: Functional and Multidivisional, Geographical and Matrix Structure (With Advantages and Disadvantages)

1. Functional and Multidivisional Structure:

A functional structure consists of a CEO who is supported by functional managers belonging to production, marketing, purchase, finance, personnel, R&D, etc. This structure enables the achieve­ment of functional excellence, efficiency and specialisation, but suffers from problems, such as, lack of product focus, long channels of communication, coordination problems, lack of importance given to overall corporate missions and objectives, and excessive involvement of the CEO in integrat­ing decisions and actions across various functions.

As against this, the multidivisional structure (also called M – Form) consists of more than one operating division, each of which is a distinct business area. Here, the CEO delegates responsibilities for formulation and implementation of business-level strategies and managing day-to-day affairs to the respective divisional heads, thereby making the corporate office responsible for the development and implementation of the corporate-level strategy and for exercising strategic and financial controls.

Strategic control, as exercised by the corporate office, is defined as the process of target-setting and monitoring in relation to the key operating areas pertaining to each business division, which are otherwise autonomous. To do an effective job in this regard, the corporate office must have a proper understanding of the environment, strategy and operational issues relating to each distinct business area.

The financial controls, exercised by the corporate office ensure that each division achieves the target profit, cash-flows and ROI. Interdepend­ence between the operating divisions (a normal feature in a company which has grown through a related diversification strategy) makes it difficult to exercise financial control, since attributing finan­cial performance correctly to one or the other divisions may involve subjective discretion. This implies that there is a possibility of dilution of internal control when a firm pursues extensive product diversification using the resources of various divisions.

Of all the options available in the organisational structure, an M-Form is the one most used. Chandler identified this form of structure as an innovative response to problems of coordination and control which are normally faced in a functional structure. Other advantages include ease in evaluating business performance, less complexity in allocating financial resources, improved coordi­nation, and availability of more time to the top management for concentrating on long-term strate­gic issues.

For diversified businesses (both related and unrelated), the M-Form structure is more useful vis-a-vis the functional structure, which works well when the firm is implementing single or domi­nant business strategies. Once an M-Form structure is put in place, a firm’s potential to enter a large number of diversified businesses (related/unrelated) increases.

Johnson and Scholes have listed the following advantages and disadvantages of functional and multidivisional structures:

FUNCTIONAL STRUCTURE:

Advantages:

a. The CEO in touch with entire operations,

b. Reduction/Simplification of control mechanisms,

c. Clarity of roles and responsibilities,

d. Specialists at senior and middle management levels, and

e. Efficiency and specialization.

Disadvantages:

i. Senior management overburdened with operational matters,

ii. Lack of attention to strategic issues,

iii. Difficulty in coping with diversity,

iv. Coordination between different departments and functions become difficult, and

v. Inability to adapt to changes.

MULTIDIVISIONAL STRUCTURE:

Advantages:

a. Focus on each business area (product-market),

b. Ease of evaluation of unit performance,

c. Facilitates acquisition/divestment of units,

d. Helps in drawing attention of the senior management to strategic issues, and

e. Facilitates development of general management competencies.

Disadvantages:

i. Possible confusion with regard to the extent of centralisation and decentralization.

ii. Inter-divisional conflict and resulting sub-optimisation.

iii. Problems of setting transfer prices for inter-unit trading.

iv. Duplication of resources.

v. Difficulty in coordination if there are too many divisions.

GEOGRAPHICAL STRUCTURE:

In a geographical structure, a firm’s overall geographical spread is divided into a certain number of homogeneous regions or territories, each headed by a regional or territorial head responding to the CEO. Each region, which deals with all the products of the company, is made by and large indepen­dent with the required resource support and is expected to pursue region specific strategies. Some­times, a geographical structure is built-in within a functional or M-Form structure. For example, in cases where there are one or two centralised manufacturing facilities, the firm can have a functional structure below the CEO, but within the overall sales function, it can have a geographical structure.

MATRIX STRUCTURE:

A matrix structure is a combination of the structural options covered in (1) and (2) above. Such structures are chosen when there is a need for more than one consideration for designing the organi­sational structure (for example, there is no clear-cut preference for either functional specialisation or product-market focus or geographical thrust). Normally a matrix structure reflects the need to recog­nise the simultaneous importance of at least two dimensions, such as, (i) product focus as well as geographical thrust, or (ii) product focus as well as functional specialisation.

While there are certain advantages of a matrix structure, there are also certain disadvantages, as can be seen from the following:

Advantages:

a. Better quality of decision making since multiple perspectives are allowed to be built-in.

b. Face-To-Face contact helps in reducing the impact of bureaucracy.

c. Improved managerial motivation and development.

Disadvantages:

i. Dilution of priority, lack of ownership.

ii. Confused/unclear job and task responsibilities.

iii. Lack of focus in cost and profit responsibilities.

iv. Potential for conflict within the teams.

If managed well, by clearly spelling out which arm of the matrix should lead, and duly sup­ported by the right managerial mind set and competencies (for example, the managers should be capable of collaborating across the matrix and they should be comfortable to work under ambiguity), a matrix structure can deliver the desired results. It can improve the quality of decision making in situations where exclusive emphasis on one dimension (be it product, function or geographical) is likely to undermine the overall interest of the organisation.

Combination of Structural Forms:

Very few companies adopt one or the other of the above alternatives in their pure form. Further, no organisation adheres strictly to one particular type of structure for all times to come.

A host of factors, such as:

(i) The strategy the company wishes to follow,

(ii) Its history, tradition and culture,

(iii) The profile of people and their skill level,

(iv) Managerial competencies and motivation,

(v) Requirements of planning, evaluation and control,

(vi) The need for collaboration/liaison between various functional/product/geographical groups for optimum decision making, etc., determine what kind of structure will be appropriate for the firm.

Experience shows that in most cases, the organisation structure chosen after taking into account the just mentioned factors tends to be a mixed one, reflecting the features of more than one of the three types of structure described before.