Communication Skills

Unit - 1

Question Bank

1. What are Idioms? Give Examples.

Idioms are phrases or expressions that convey a meaning which cannot be derived from the conjoined meanings of its elements. These do not convey the exact meaning of the words but have a figurative or literal meaning.

How are they different from proverbs? Proverbs are well-known sayings, stating a general truth or advice. For example, the proverb ‘a picture is worth thousand words’ is a general truth. The idiom ‘bite off more than you can chew’, however, is neither a general truth nor an advice.

Below are some commonly used idioms in the English language with their meaning:

     Penny for your thoughts - To ask what someone is thinking about

     Actions speak louder than words - Intentions are clearer by actions rather than words

     Add insult to injury - To mock someone's pitiable situation even more

     At the drop of a hat - To do something instantly

     Back to the drawing board - To restart something

     Ball is in your court - It’s up to you to take the next step

     Barking up the wrong tree - Looking in the wrong direction, accusing a wrong person

     Beat around the bush - Speaking indirectly about something

     Best of both worlds - All of the advantages without any drawbacks

     Best thing since sliced bread - A good idea or innovation

     Bite off more than you can chew - To accept a task which is bigger than one's capabilities

     Blessing in disguise - Something which was considered as bad first which turned out to be good

     Burn the midnight oil - To work all night

     Can't judge a book by its cover - Cannot judge something based on first impressions

     Costs an arm and a leg - Used when something is very expensive

     Cross that bridge when you come to it - To deal with the problem as it presents itself

     Cry over spilt milk - Complaining about the past

     Curiosity killed the cat - Being Inquisitive can lead to a difficult situation

     Cut corners - To cut expenses by performing in a subpar manner

     Devil's Advocate - Counter argument

     Don't put all your eggs in one basket - Not to put all resources in one direction

     Every cloud has a silver lining - To be optimistic in difficult situations

     Feel a bit under the weather - To feel slightly sick

     Give the benefit of the doubt - To believe someone without proof

     Hear it on the grapevine - To hear rumours

     Hit the nail on the head - To perform a task perfectly

2.     What are the various types of phrases? Give examples for each.

Phrases are combinations of two or more words that form the component of a clause. They are meaningful grammatical constructions that expresses a concept and can be used within a sentence.

There are 5 basic types of phrases in the English language:

1. Noun Phrase:

A noun phrase is a type of phrase which consists of one noun and/or a group of words surrounding that noun. These nouns can be proper nouns, common nouns, abstract nouns etc.

Examples: There is a red box on the table.

                     I saw two lost puppies on the street yesterday.

                     He bought a new sports car on his birthday.

2.     Verb Phrase:

A verb phrase is a type of phrase which consists of a root verb and its auxiliaries. It is also known as a ‘verb group’.

Examples: They have been working since last night.

                    I have been waiting for the rain to stop for nearly an hour.

                     Jack lost the keys to his apartment when he was jogging.

3.     Adjective Phrase:

Adjective phrases are phrases constructed around a single adjective. It may be a single adjective or a group of words surrounding that adjective.

Examples: The film was very boring, wasn’t it?

                     I ate a very big meal for lunch.

                     The blue umbrella stood out in a crowd of all red umbrellas.

4.     Adverb phrase:

Adverb phrases consist of a single adverb and a group of supporting words surrounding that adverb.

Examples: They finished the task as fast as possible.

                     Please do it now, otherwise you’ll regret later.

                     He spoke very softly in front of his parents.

5.     Prepositional phrase:

A prepositional phrase is a type of phrase which consists of a preposition which is followed by its object which is usually a noun phrase.

Examples: They kept quarreling over money of all things.

                     The coin was stuck inside a large black futon.

                     You shouldn’t go swimming after having a large meal.

Word Pairs

Word pairs are phrases which, if used in proper context give a different meaning than when they are used separately. In other words, they are a coupling of words that go very well together.

Word pairs may also include collocations. Collocations are two or more words that are often used collectively. They sound natural to the native ear.

These word pairs are often non-reversible, meaning the sequence of the words in a word pair cannot be interchanged.

Below are some examples of the most commonly used word pairs in the English language:

Following examples describe how collocations are used in sentences:

1. Are you fully aware of the consequences you’re about to face?
2. He fell on the ground in excruciating pain.
3. The bomb went off when he started the car engine.
4. The prisoner was hanged for committing homicide.
5. After her eyes were filled with horror, suddenly she burst into tears.

Question Tags

Question tags are phrases which convert regular imperative or declarative sentences into questions. In other words, question tags are phrases used at the end of sentences to turn them into questions. They may be used to confirm information that has already been conveyed through a sentence or to ask follow up questions at the end of a sentence.

For example, consider a statement “Your name is Jacob.” now if the words “isn't it?” are added at the end of the statement the statement turns into a question where the Identity of Jacob is being confirmed. And therefore, the statement becomes a question, “Your name is Jacob, isn't it?” Question tags replace a period at end of a sentence with a comma and end the same sentence with a question mark.

Below are some examples question tags 

1.     You crashed my car yesterday, didn't you?

2.     Jake is Brave kid, isn’t he? 

3.     I don't need to finish this project today, do I?

There are a few rules for determining question tags for different kinds of sentences; some of them are listed below:

1. The Sentence and the question tag must always be in the same tense.
2. If the sentence is negative the question tag must be negative and vice-versa.
3. Question tags must never contain proper noun, they should always contain the pronoun.
4. Sentences with negative meaning will have a positive question tag.
5. The question tag ‘won’t you’ is used with imperative sentences.
6. Question tags are always made in accordance with the main parts of the sentence.
7. Each, everyone, everybody, no one, nobody, none are singular and hence but their question tag will take forms of plural verbs and plural nouns.

3. Write a short note on the use of clichés in the English language.

Clichés are those words or phrases which have been used repeatedly over time and because of this overuse they have lost their impact.

The word cliché can be traced to its French origin, which is why you'll often see it with an accent over the "e," but you can also write it as "cliche" in English. When printing presses were used, the cast iron plate that reproduced the words, phrases, or images was called a stereotype. The noise that casting plate made sounded like "cliché," meaning click, to French printers, so this onomatopoeia word became printer's jargon for the stereotype. Thus, cliché came to mean a word or phrase that gets repeated often.

Just because a phrase is overused doesn't mean it's a cliché, and because a phrase is a cliché doesn't mean it isn't true. A cliché will convey meaning but often loses its point along the way through over-usage. Below are some common English Clichés:

Common Cliché Sayings

     All that glitters isn't gold

     Don't get your knickers in a twist

     All for one, and one for all

     Kiss and make up

     He has his tail between his legs

     And they all lived happily ever after

     Cat got your tongue?

     Read between the lines

     Someone woke up on the wrong side of the bed

     We're not laughing at you we're laughing with you

Clichés that Describe Time

     Only time will tell

     In the nick of time

     Lost track of time

     Lasted an eternity

     Just a matter of time

     A waste of time

     Time flies

     In a jiffy

     The time of my life

     At the speed of light

Clichés that Describe People

     As old as the hills

     Fit as a fiddle

     Without a care in the world

     A diamond in the rough

     Brave as a lion

     Weak as a kitten

     Had nerves of steel

     Ugly as sin

Clichés that Describe Life, Love, and Emotions

     Opposites attract

     Every cloud has a silver lining

     Don't cry over spilled milk

     The calm before the storm

     Laughter is the best medicine

     Love you more than life itself

     Scared out of my wits

     Frightened to death

     All is fair in love and war

     All's well that ends well

     Haste makes waste

     The writings on the wall

     Time heals all wounds

     What goes around comes around

     When life gives you lemons, make lemonade

     Head over heels in love

     Gut-wrenching pain

     Heart-stopping fear

4.     What is meant by the term “Redundancies”? give examples.

Redundancies refer to the use of two or more words together that carry the same meaning thus making them repetitious and unnecessary. Redundant words often make communication longer but definitely not better and therefore, must be strictly avoided. In some specific contexts however, some of these phrases may serve a purpose. Although more often than not, these phrases weigh down our writing with unnecessary words and jargon.

Below are some common redundancies in the English language, the words in parentheses are to be omitted to make the phrase correct in meaning:

A

(absolutely) essential

(absolutely) necessary

(actual) facts

Advance (forward)

(advance) planning

(advance) preview

(advance) reservations

(advance) warning

Add (an additional)

Add (up)

(added) bonus

(affirmative) yes

(aid and) abet

(all-time) record

Alternative (choice)

A.M. (in the morning)

(and) etc.

(anonymous) stranger

(annual) anniversary

(armed) gunman

(artificial) prosthesis

Ascend (up)

Ask (the question)

Assemble (together)

Attach (together)

ATM (machine)

Autobiography (of his or her own life)

B

Bald(-headed)

Balsa (wood)

(basic) fundamentals

(basic) necessities

Best (ever)

Biography (of his--or her--life)

Blend (together)

(boat) marina

Bouquet (of flowers)

Brief (in duration)

(brief) moment

(brief) summary

(burning) embers

C

Cacophony (of sound)

Cameo (appearance)

Cancel (out)

(careful) scrutiny

Cash (money)

Cease (and desist)

Circle (around)

Circulate (around)

Classify (into groups)

(close) proximity

(closed) fist

Collaborate (together)

Combine (together)

Commute (back and forth)

Compete (with each other)

(completely) annihilate

(completely) destroyed

(completely) eliminate

(completely) engulfed

(completely) filled

(completely) surround

(component) parts

Confer (together)

Connect (together)

Connect (up)

Confused (state)

Consensus (of opinion)

(constantly) maintained

Cooperate (together)

Could (possibly)

Crisis (situation)

Curative (process)

(current) incumbent

(current) trend

D

Depreciate (in value)

Descend (down)

(desirable) benefits

(different) kinds

Disappear (from sight)

Drop (down)

During (the course of)

Dwindle (down)

E

Each (and every)

Earlier (in time)

Eliminate (altogether)

Emergency (situation)

(empty) hole

Empty (out)

(empty) space

Enclosed (herein)

(end) result

Enter (in)

(entirely) eliminate

Equal (to one another)

Eradicate (completely)

Estimated at (about)

Evolve (over time)

(exact) same

(exposed) opening

Extradite (back)

F

(face) mask

Fall (down)

(favorable) approval

(fellow) classmates

(fellow) colleague

Few (in number)

Filled (to capacity)

(final) conclusion

(final) end

(final) outcome

(final) ultimatum

(first and) foremost

(first) conceived

First (of all)

Fly (through the air)

Follow (after)

(foreign) imports

(former) graduate

(former) veteran

(free) gift

(from) whence

(frozen) ice

(frozen) tundra

Full (to capacity)

(full) satisfaction

Fuse (together)

(future) plans

(future) recurrence

G

Gather (together)

(general) public

GOP (party)

GRE (exam)

Green [or blue or whatever] (in colour)

Grow (in size)

H

Had done (previously)

(harmful) injuries

(head) honcho

Heat (up)

HIV (virus)

Hoist (up)

(hollow) tube

Hurry (up)

I

(illustrated) drawing

Incredible (to believe)

Indicted (on a charge)

Input (into)

Integrate (together)

Integrate (with each other)

Interdependent (on each other)

Introduced (a new)

Introduced (for the first time)

(ir)regardless

ISBN (number)

J

Join (together)

(joint) collaboration

K

Kneel (down)

(knowledgeable) experts

L

Lag (behind)

Later (time)

LCD (display)

Lift (up)

(little) baby

(live) studio audience

(live) witness

(local) residents

Look (ahead) to the future

Look back (in retrospect)

M

Made (out) of

(major) breakthrough

(major) feat

Manually (by hand)

May (possibly)

Meet (together)

Meet (with each other)

(mental) telepathy

Merge (together)

Might (possibly)

Minestrone (soup)

Mix (together)

Modern ______ (of today)

(mutual) cooperation

(mutually) interdependent

Mutual respect (for each other)

(number-one) leader in ________

N

Nape (of her neck)

(native) habitat

(natural) instinct

Never (before)

(new) beginning

(new) construction

(new) innovation

(new) invention

(new) recruit

None (at all)

Nostalgia (for the past)

(now) pending

O

Off (of)

(old) adage

(old) cliche

(old) custom

(old) proverb

(open) trench

Open (up)

(oral) conversation

(originally) created

Output (out of)

(outside) in the yard

Outside (of)

(over) exaggerate

Over (with)

(overused) cliché

P

(pair of) twins

Palm (of the hand)

(passing) fad

(past) experience

(past) history

(past) memories

(past) records

Penetrate (into)

Period (of time)

(personal) friend

(personal) opinion

Pick (and choose)

PIN (number)

Pizza (pie)

Plan (ahead)

Plan (in advance)

(Please) RSVP

Plunge (down)

(polar) opposites

(positive) identification

Postpone (until later)

Pouring (down) rain

(pre)board (as an airplane)

(pre)heat

(pre)record

(private) industry

(present) incumbent

Present (time)

Previously listed (above)

Proceed (ahead)

(proposed) plan

Protest (against)

Pursue (after)

R

Raise (up)

RAM (memory)

Reason is (because)

Reason (why)

Recur (again)

Re-elect (for another term)

Refer (back)

Reflect (back)

(regular) routine

Repeat (again)

Reply (back)

Retreat (back)

Revert (back)

Rise (up)

Round (in shape)

S

(safe) haven

(safe) sanctuary

Same (exact)

(sand) dune

Scrutinize (in detail)

Self-______ (yourself)

Separated (apart from each other)

(serious) danger

Share (together)

(sharp) point

Shiny (in appearance)

Shut (down)

(single) unit

Skipped (over)

Slow (speed)

Small (size)

(small) speck

Soft (in texture) [or (to the touch)]

Sole (of the foot)

Spell out (in detail)

Spliced (together)

Start (off) or (out)

(still) persists

(still) remains

(sudden) impulse

(sum) total

Surrounded (on all sides)

T

Tall (in height)

Tall (in stature)

(temper) tantrum

Ten (in number)

Three a.m. (in the morning)

(three-way) love triangle

Time (period)

(tiny) bit

(total) destruction

(true) facts

(truly) sincere

Tuna (fish)

(twelve) noon or midnight

(two equal) halves

U

(ultimate) goal

Undergraduate (student)

(underground) subway

(unexpected) emergency

(unexpected) surprise

(unintentional) mistake

(universal) panacea

(unnamed) anonymous

UPC (code)

(usual) custom

V

Vacillate (back and forth)

(veiled) ambush

(very) pregnant

(very) unique

Visible (to the eye)

W

(wall) mural

Warn (in advance)

Weather (conditions)

Weather (situation)

Whether (or not)

(white) snow

Write (down)

5.     What are articles? Describe how they are used in sentences.

Articles are words that precede a noun and define the specificity of that noun. In other words, they imply how specific a particular noun is.

There are two types of Articles in the English language, Definite and Indefinite Articles.

1. Definite Article

The definite article is the word ‘the’. This article is only used when a particular place, thing or activity is being referred to. It limits the meaning to one particular thing or activity.

For example, in the sentence “I won’t be attending the party this weekend.” ‘The’ is used before the noun party therefore it refers to a specific party which the subject is talking about. The definite article can be used with both singular and plural words.

Uses of “The”:

1. The definite article can be used to make general things specific, for example, “Please pass me a pen.” when changed to “Please pass me the pen.” Changes the meaning of the sentence entirely. In the former the subject requests for a pen in general whereas in the latter he refers to a specific pen.
2. ‘The’ is used by geographical areas such as rivers, mountains, seas, oceans etc.

“The Middle East”, “The Atlantic Ocean”, “The Himalayas”

c.      Unique things always requite the article ‘the’

“The Sun”, “The Moon”

d.     Musical instruments use ‘the’

“He plays the cello.”

e.     Countries generally don’t use articles in front but if their names are plural they use the article ‘the’

“The Netherlands”, “The United States of America”

f.        Abbreviations and classes of people always use the article ‘the’

“The U.N” “The Poor” “The British” “The IMF”

2.     Indefinite Article

The Indefinite Article is of two types, namely, ‘a’ and ‘an’. The word ‘a’ is used when it precedes a word that starts with a consonant and the word ‘an’ is used when it precedes a word that starts with a vowel. Unlike the Definite Article, the Indefinite Articles refer to a general idea and not a particular one. The Indefinite Article only appears with singular nouns. For example, in the sentences “I would like a good book to read.” Or “I am craving for an apple pie.” The subject talks about books or apple pies in general rather than a specific book or apple pie.

Uses of ‘a’ and ‘an’:

1. Uncountable nouns cannot use either ‘a’ or ‘an’. For example advice is an uncountable noun, therefore a sentence such as “Can you give me an advice.” Does not make sense. Rather “Can you give me some advice.” Is more appropriate.
2. Jobs use Indefinite Articles

“I want to become a teacher” “My dream is to become an actor”

c.      There are a couple of exceptions to the overall rule of employing ‘a’ before words that start with consonants and ‘an’ before words that begin with vowels. The first letter of the word honour, for instance, may be a consonant, but it’s unpronounced. In spite of the way it is spelled, the word honour begins with a vowel. Therefore, we use an. For example, consider the following sentences:
My mother is a honest woman.
My mother is an honest woman.

d.     When the first letter of a word is a vowel but is pronounced with a consonant sound, the article 'a' must be used. For example:

She is an United States senator.

She is a United States senator.

6.     Define Verbs. What are the various types of verbs? Describe Finite, Non-finite and Auxiliary verbs in detail.

A verb is a word that expresses the state of being or work being done by the subject. There are main verbs and there are also helping verbs known as auxiliary verbs. Verbs can also be used to express tense.

Ex – She vanished in the darkness.

Finite and Non-Finite Verbs

In every sentence, there is normally at least one verb that has both a subject and a tense. When a verb contains both a subject and a tense, it can be defined as a finite verb.

Example: We want Charlie to act as club secretary.

                  I like taking photographs of insects.

                  While coming home last night, I saw a leopard run across the road.

A non-finite verb is a verb which is not defined by its subject and tense. The present and past participles, and the 'to' infinitive are the most common types of non-finite verbs. Every verb in the English language can be used in a clause in either a finite or non-finite way.

A verb is called as finite if it is discovered in a clause in combination with a subject and a tense.

     I walked home.

     We saw a deer.

     They appreciate a little praise now and then.

It is non-finite if it is used:

• Without the verb having a tense:

     To open, tear off the tab.

     Looking around, he noticed a letter on the floor.

     Worn out by the heat, they stopped for a drink.

• Without an agreement between the verb and the subject (if there is one).

     That plan failing, he gave up.

     Our guests departed, we felt a little depressed.

A compound verb comprises of one finite part, which is mostly the first auxiliary verb, while the remaining non-finite parts are the base form or the participles.

     I may have been joking when I said that.

     Helen was running around screaming.

     I had been living in a dream for months.

     Olivia is coming around at 9 o’clock tonight.

Verbs in simple present and simple past tense are always finite.

     I sing.

     We tell stories at night.

     Maya laughed.

     The shelter collapsed.

A finite verb is sometimes immediately followed by a non-finite verb.

     I like to get up early on the weekends.

     Harriet really dislikes cleaning the cooker.

     I certainly wouldn’t want to see him again.

     We persuaded them to join us.

Many a times, a noun or pronoun enters the space between a finite and non-finite verb.

     We want Charlie to act as club secretary.

     She wanted him to wash his hands in the bathroom.

     I don’t like you cleaning your boots over the sink.

When the second verb is an -ing form coming after a noun or pronoun, there can be a difference in grammar between two similar sentences. Both sentences below are acceptable, although the first example might seem ambiguous to some people. In the second sentence, the -ing form is used as a verbal noun.

     She didn’t like him cleaning his gloves over the sink.

     She didn’t like his cleaning his gloves over the sink.

Gerunds and Participles

A gerund is a word which is created from a verb but always serves the function of a noun. Gerunds always end with the -ing at the end of the word. Being used as a noun, a gerund can function as a subject, a subject complement, a direct object, an indirect object, or an object of a preposition. Gerunds often look like present participles but they are not to be confused with them. The main difference between these two is that gerunds are specifically placed in the noun position of a sentence whereas present participles are placed with the verb phrase, often as modifiers.

Below an example of a gerund in the position of the subject:

     Brushing your hair prevents it from tangling.

In this sentence, the word brushing is the gerund functioning as the subject of the sentence.

If a gerund were to be the complement of a subject in a sentence, it would look like this:

     Her number one priority is working.

In this sentence, the word working is functioning as a complement to the subject, priority.

Gerunds can also function as the object of a sentence. Below is an example where the gerund is functioning as the object of a preposition:

     “There is no use in standing in that line for four hours,” grandma said.

In this sentence, standing follows the preposition in, making it the object of the preposition.

A participle, on the other hand, is a word created from verbs that are then used as adjectives to modify nouns in a sentence. They can also be used as introductions to adverbial phrases.

Participles can be classified into two types: Present participles and Past participles. Present participles always end with the -ing at the end of a word and correlate to events that are taking place in the present. The past participle can be either regular or irregular and describes events that have already taken place.

Participles can often function as gerunds which could make it difficult to differentiate between the two.

When using a participle as an adjective, consider the below sentence:

     The ripening fruit should be put outside for composting.

Ripening here acts as a present participle (noted by the -ing ending) that is modifying the noun fruit.

     I spent the week day studying chemistry.

In the sentence above, the word 'studying' acts as a present participle which functions as the beginning of an adverbial phrase in the sentence. The phrase studying chemistry is modifying the verb spent. How did I spend the whole week? Studying chemistry.

Both of the above examples were present participles, meaning the words ended in -ing­ to describe something happening in the present. However, Past participles can have different word endings depending upon the nature and context of the word being used; Most often, there will be a -d­ or -ed added to the end of a word in a past participle. Let’s look at a couple of examples:

     The doors cracked open when the rain hurricane came through.

Here, the word cracked acts as a past participle functioning as an adjective to modify the noun doors.

     He continued forward cautioned by the desolate streets.

Here, cautioned is the past participle in the sentence functioning as the beginning of an adverbial phrase describing the word continued.

Auxiliary Verbs

Auxiliary verbs, also known as helping verbs because they help in the formation of tenses, mood and voices of other verbs. Auxiliary verbs therefore, add functional or grammatical meaning to the clause in which they appear. 'To be', 'to do' and 'to have' are the most commonly used auxiliary verbs. For example: the auxiliary 'to do' is needed to ask questions in the present and past simple tenses.. The auxiliary 'to have' is used in the present and past perfect tenses. Some tenses such as the present perfect continuous, consist of more than one auxiliary verbs.

Below are examples of some commonly used auxiliary verbs:

     Do you like German food?

     Does your mother speak English?

     Did you come to school yesterday?

     Why are you talking? You should be listening to me!

     I was having a bath when you called!

     A new annex is being built behind the school.

     Have you done your homework?

     My father has never visited the USA.

     How long have you been living in Germany?

     By this time next year, I will have been learning French for 15 years!

Contracted Verb Forms

The auxiliary verbs are very often contracted. For example, it can be said that I'm playing tennis today, instead of I am playing tennis today. These contracted forms of auxiliary verbs are more likely to be used in spoken forms or informal writing. Consider speaking to someone: Why did you not call me yesterday? and instead: Why didn't you call me? It is obvious that the latter seems more probable and consistent.

Conversely, while writing a report or an essay, it is more appropriate to write the full form without contractions: Why did America not join the war until 1941? (instead of: Why didn't America ...?).

The contracted form of auxiliaries can have multiple forms all of which can be correct depending on the context.

     She's not going to the dance.

     She isn't going to the dance.

     I haven't seen him for ages.

     I've not seen him for ages.

The full form is commonly used in spoken language only when the speaker wants to emphasize what they are saying. e:

     Why don't you call him?

     I have called him.

     I do not want to see him again.

Modal verbs

Auxiliary verbs also consist of another set of verbs called modal verbs or modal auxiliary verbs. These verbs combine with other verbs to describe necessity, possibility, intention, or ability. Modal auxiliary verbs include - must, shall, will, should, would, ought (to), can, could, may, and might.

     You must act promptly.

     Can you speak Spanish?

     I would go if I could afford it.

     He said he might reconsider his decision.

     I ought to visit my family.

     We should get to London before midday.

     May I come in?

7.     What are tenses? Give its types.

Tenses determine whether something has happened, is happening, or will happen. The tense of a verb describes its position in time.

Tenses can be divided into 3 main types and further sub dived into 4 types:

PRESENT TENSES

1. SIMPLE PRESENT TENSE: In this type of tense the action is still taking place, there is no mention of its completeness.

Example: I sleep.
She studies vocabulary every day.

2. PRESENT CONTINUOUS TENSE: In this type of tense the action is still in progress, therefore the use of the word ‘continuous’.
 

Example: I am sleeping.
I am eating lunch, I will call you later.

3. PRESENT PERFECT TENSE: In this type of tense the action has already been completed, hence the use of the word ‘perfect’.

Example: I have slept.
I have eaten Chinese food a few times already.

4. PRESENT PERFECT CONTINUOUS TENSE: In this type of tense, the action has started taking place beforehand and is still ongoing.

Example: I have been sleeping.
I have been eating a lot of vegetables lately.

PAST TENSES

1. SIMPLE PAST TENSE: In this type of tense the action which is mentioned has already taken place in the past, there is no continuity.

Example: I got some sleep yesterday.

2. PAST CONTINUOUS TENSE: This type of tense describes an on-going action that took place in the past.

Example: I was having lunch when u called yesterday.

3. PAST PERFECT TENSE: This type of tense describes a completed action which took place in the past.

Examples: I had slept.
I had already eaten when my doorbell rang.

4. PAST PERFECT CONTINUOUS TENSE: This type of tense describes an action which started in the past and continued until another point in time, still in the past.

Example: I had been sleeping for two hours before my friend arrived.

FUTURE TENSES

1. SIMPLE FUTURE TENSE: This type of tense describes an action taking place in the future; there is no mention of its continuity.
Example: I will sleep.
I shall finish my project by tomorrow morning.

2. FUTURE CONTINUOUS TENSE: This type of tense describes an action that will take place in the future but will still be ongoing.

Example: I will be sleeping at 11 p.m.
I’ll be staying at my parents’ house for a few weeks.

3. FUTURE PERFECT TENSE: This type of tense describes an action that will occur in the future before another action in the future.

Example: I will have slept before you arrive.                  

4. FUTURE PERFECT CONTINUOUS TENSE: This type of tense describes an on-going action in the future before a completed action in a specific point in time.

Example: I will have been sleeping for seven hours by 9 a.m. Tomorrow morning.
I will have been studying for two hours by the time my parents arrive.

8.     What are the rules regarding the sequencing of tenses?

Below are some basic rules regarding the sequencing of tenses:

Rule 1

A past tense in the independent clause is always followed by a past tense in the subordinate clause.

Example: I found out that she was out of town.

However, there is an exception to this rule. When the independent clause in the past tense, the subordinate clause can be in the present tense if a universal truth is being stated by it. 

Example: The children were taught that honesty is the best policy.

Another exception to this rule is when the word ‘than’ is used in the sentence to introduce the subordinate clause. In this case, the subordinate clause can be used in any tense irrespective of the tense of the independent clause.

Rule 2

If the tense used with the independent clause is in the present or future tense, the tense of the subordinate clause can be in any tense based on what needs to be conveyed.

Example: She is saying that she is alright. She says she is fine.

Rule 3

If the independent clause is in the future tense, the subordinate clause is not used in the future tense instead a subordinating clause beginning with when, until, before, after etc. is used.

Example: I will call you when dinner is ready. I shall wait until you return.

Rule 4

When the subordinate clause is introduced with the conjunction ‘that’, the following rules must be followed,

• ‘May’ should be used in the subordinate clause when the independent clause is in the present tense.
• ‘Might’ should be used in the subordinate clause when the independent clause is in the past tense.

Example: We eat that we may live. She tried to live so that he might have a chance at life.

Rule 5

When some phrases such as If only, wish that, what if, it is time are used, the clauses that follow it are always in the past tense.

Example: I wish I could eat another ice cream.

9.     Write a short note on the types of pronouns.

A pronoun is a word used in place of the noun.

A pronoun which substituted in place of a specific noun is called an antecedent. Pronouns can be further defined by their various types: personal pronouns describe specific persons or things; possessive pronouns imply ownership; relative pronouns introduce a subordinate clause; and demonstrative pronouns identify, point to, or refer to nouns.

Ex - Me, she, her, mine, theirs.

There are seven types of pronouns in the English language:

1.  PERSONAL PRONOUNS

Personal pronouns represent persons or things.

Ex. Dad, will you help weed the garden?

Personal Pronouns are divided into first, second and third persons.

1st Person - person speaking (i. We, me, us)

2nd Person - person spoken to (you)

3rd Person - person spoken about (he, she. Him. Her. It they. Them).

2.     INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS

Interrogative pronouns are used to ask questions. To interrogate a person is to ask a question.

The interrogative pronouns are: who. Whom, whose, which and what.

Ex. Who is there?

Please note that when an interrogative is used alone it is a pronoun. However, if it is used in conjunction with another word. Then it is an adjective.

Ex. Which one? 'One' here is the pronoun while 'which' is the adjective.

3.     POSSESSIVE PRONOUNS

Possessive pronouns show possession or ownership. Possessive pronouns are: mine. Yours, his. Hers. Its. Ours and theirs.

Ex. These dvds are mine.

4.     DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS

Demonstrative pronouns demonstrate or point to something. The demonstrative pronouns are: this, that. These and those.

Ex. Throw me that! 

Please note that when this. That. These and those do not replace the noun. They become adjectives.

Ex. These oranges are very sweet.

5.     INDEFINITE PRONOUNS

Indefinite pronouns are not definite about which ones.

Ex. Some made millions from the mistake.

Here is a list of indefinite pronouns: any. Anybody, anyone, anything, all. Another. Both. Each, either. Everybody, everyone, everything, whoever, many, more. Most. Much. Neither. Nobody, no one, nothing. None. One, two. Three. Hundreds. Others. Several, some. Somebody, someone, something.

6.     RELATIVE PRONOUNS

Relative pronouns relate to a noun or another pronoun in the sentence. Relative pronouns are: who. Whom, whose. Which and that.

Ex. The bus driver who was warned for speeding lost his job.

7.     REFLEXIVE PRONOUNS

Reflexive pronouns reflect back to a person. They end in -self or -selves.

Here are some examples of reflexive pronouns. Myself, yourself. Himself. Herself, ourselves, yourselves, themselves.

Ex. I saw myself in the mirror

10. Give a detailed account of the various types of nouns in the English language.

Nouns, also called naming words, refer to any person, place, animal, thing or idea. Nouns can be singular or plural, concrete or abstract. There are two types of nouns:

There are ten types of nouns in the English language, they are as follows:

1. Proper Noun:

Proper nouns name specific persons, places or things. When writing proper nouns in English sentences, it usually begins with capital letters in order to distinguish it from common nouns.

     Jenny is my friend and companion (referring to person).

     He gave his excess belongings to David before leaving on a long road trip around the country (referring to a person).

     Washington, D.C. Has been the federal capital city of the United States since 1802 (referring to a place).

     The President usually lives at the White House (referring to a thing).

     Amazon is where I buy most of my books (referring to a thing).

A proper noun prefixed by the definite article "the", if it names a specific thing (with exceptions).

     The White House is the home of the President of The U.S.

     The Foundation supports disadvantage children.

     The Middle East Crisis has been in the news recently.

     The American Civil War was the defining event in their nation's history.

     What states fought for the Confederacy?

2.     COMMON NOUNS

Definition of Common Nouns: Common nouns are non-specific names of persons, places and things.

Because common nouns are non-specific and refer to most general things, they are not capitalized.

Examples of Common Nouns:

     Her boyfriend is an electrician. (Names a Person)

     Would you like a cookie? (Names a Thing)

     I pushed my friend in the lake. (Names a Place)

     There are many books in the library. (Names a Thing)

     The man in the car stole the money from the store. (Names a Person)

Common nouns are often prefixed with the indefinite article "a".

Examples of Common Nouns with the Prefix "A":

     A voice came from the upper room.

     When I drove to the store, a noise came from the engine.

     My son built a house on the farm.

     He gave us a dog for Christmas.

     David is a fan of American football.

Examples of Proper and Common Nouns in the Same Sentence:

     My cat (Common Noun) is called Cleopatra (Proper Noun).

     There are important documents (Common Noun) at The Library of Congress (Proper Noun).

     The writer (Common Noun) of this great novel is Agatha Christie (Proper Noun).

     The supermarket (Common Noun) down the road is Costco (Proper Noun).

     My car (Common Noun) is a Toyota (Proper Noun).

3.     CONCRETE NOUNS

Definition of Concrete Nouns: Concrete nouns refer to things in their material or physical form like car, bike, spanner, broom, rice, etc.

Examples of Concrete Nouns:

     Will you put the apples in the bowl?

     Jonathan parked his vehicle in the backyard.

     Brad left his hammer at the building site.

     Dad erected a shed in the backyard.

     Emma rode her bike to school.

Examples of Concrete Nouns Experienced Through the Five Senses:

Concrete nouns can be experienced through the five senses: sight, touch or feel, smell, taste and hear.

     The dog is part of our family (sight).

     The boys kicked the football in the backyard (touch).

     The warmth of the sun helped our family endure the winter carnival (feel).

     The aroma of the flowers flowed throughout the funeral home (smell).

     The sourness of milk made her sick (taste).

     The noise of the music annoyed the neighbours (hear).

4.     ABSTRACT NOUNS

Abstract nouns name concepts, ideas and emotions.

     The speaker said love is kind and gentle.

     His success was built on the foundation of discipline.

     His courage won the battle of despondency

     Forgiveness is something we must all consider at some stage in life.

     My friendship with my children helped me through life.

If you cannot taste, touch, hear, smell or see something, it is an abstract noun.

     Our CEO is a great leader due to his compassion for people.

     The staff had a bad attitude due to the inundation of customers.

     The local football player was dishonest about why he violated the law.

     My sympathy goes out to all those who lost their homes in the bush fire.

     His determination to finish the race was courageous.

Abstract noun denotes intangible things; whereas, concrete nouns denote tangible things. Concrete nouns perceive things with the five senses; whereas, abstract nouns cannot perceive things with five senses.

Here are some examples of abstract and concrete nouns in the same sentence.

     His success (abstract noun) is seen in the money (concrete noun) he has accumulated.

     He demonstrated his love (abstract noun) with a passionate kiss (concrete noun).

     My friendship (abstract noun) with my father (concrete noun) grew as I matured as a person.

     The man showed great patience (abstract noun) with his elderly parents (concrete noun).

     My siblings were given many opportunities (abstract noun) to help our parents (concrete noun) during their horrible ordeal.

5.     COLLECTIVE NOUNS

Definition of Collective Nouns: Collection nouns refer to a group, a collection or a number of people or things.

Examples of Collective Nouns:

     The art class presented their paintings to the faculty.

     I gave my friend a pack of cards.

     The cast have been practicing their lines.

     The board of directors decided to purchase the business.

     The boy was attacked by a swarm of wasps.

Examples of Singular and Plural Verbs with Collective Nouns:

     The cast is celebrating their success (singular verb).

     The cast have been practicing their lines all day (plural verb).

     The cast members have been practicing their lines (plural verb).

     The orchestra often plays at the carnival (singular verb).

     The orchestra have been practicing their songs for months (plural verb).

6.     COMPOUND NOUNS

Definition of Compound Nouns: Compound nouns are formed from two or more words.

Examples of Compound Nouns:

     I took a beautiful photograph of the sunrise.

     I had my worst haircut when I entered the army.

     The most violent criminals come from the underworld.

     The blackboard needed to be cleaned before class.

     I had eggs for breakfast.

Examples of Compound Nouns Which Take Different Forms:

     I usually have ice cream for dessert (with spaces).

     I generally put all my pots in the greenhouse (without spaces).

     My mother-in-law visits the family regularly (with hyphens).

     The children love the merry-go-round in the park (with hyphens).

     Our children must do their homework before supper (without spaces).

     I usually meet my friends at the bus stop (with spaces).

Examples of Compound Nouns Formed from Different Components:

     The family kicked the football in the park (noun + noun).

     The cars raced down the highway (adjective + noun). •

     We eat bacon and eggs for breakfast (verb + noun).

     The sunrise was beautiful this morning (noun + verb).

     The onlookers were asked to leave the scene of the accident (preposition + noun).

     The rebels tried to overthrow the elected government (preposition + verb).

     The only drawback to the incoming government is a hostile and fake media (verb + preposition).

     The team blow-up led to a vicious brawl (verb + adverb).

7.     COUNTABLE NOUNS

Definition of Countable Nouns: Countable nouns can be counted whether singular or plural.

Examples of Countable Nouns:

     I read three books a month for professional development.

     I take a variety of photographs when I am on location.

     I used several panels for the new fence.

     A herd of dogs attacked my neighbour.

     I had many candles on my twenty-first birthday cake.

Examples of Countable Nouns Preceded by a Number or Indefinite Article a/an:

By the way, only countable nouns are preceded by a number or indefinite article a/an.

     My friend bought me a camera for my birthday.

     I take two tablets for a headache.

     My sister bought a computer from the electrical store.

     I eat an apple a day to keep the doctor away.

     I take two bottles of water with me when I go hiking.

8.     NON-COUNTABLE NOUNS

Definition of Non-Countable Nouns: Non-Countable nouns are singular and take singular verbs.

Examples of Non-Countable Nouns:

     The neighbour took the garbage to the tip.

     I always help myself to some cheese.

     The clothing was delivered by mail.

     I put the water in the fridge.

     The patient was given oxygen.

Examples of Countable and Non-Countable Nouns in the Same Sentence:

By the way, non-countable nouns cannot be preceded by a number or the indefinite article a/an.

     I will put water (non-countable noun) on all the tables (countable noun) in the dining room.

     I will give rice (non-countable noun) to all the diners (countable noun) in the restaurant.

     Oxygen (non-countable) was given to seven patients (countable noun) during the crisis.

     Clothing (non-countable) was given to all the flood victims (countable noun).

     All the flood victims (countable noun) received fresh water (non-countable noun).

9.     POSSESSIVE NOUNS

Definition of Possessive Nouns: Possessive nouns are nouns that show ownership or possession. They indicate ownership or possession. It is quite easy to recognize possessive nouns because they always show an apostrophe. Examples of Possessive Nouns:

     Rachel's wedding is next week.

     The doctor's coat was hanging in his office.

     The minister's Bible was very old.

     The thief stole Jennifer's handbag.

     The neighbour stood on the dog’s bowl and broke it.

10. VERBAL NOUNS

The Definition of Verbal Nouns: Verbal nouns are nouns derived from verbs. Verbal nouns are formed with a variety of suffixes. Examples of Verbal Noun Formations:

• arrive (verb) /arrival (noun) • teach (verb) /teaching (noun) • decide (verb)/ decision (noun) • destroy (verb) / destruction (noun) • fly (verb) /flight (noun)

Examples of Verbal Nouns:

     Teaching is a noble profession.

     The building caught fire in the middle of the night.

     His arrival surprised me.

     Jonathan's decision surprised the board members.

     His return was well received.

     The flight was cancelled due to the pandemic.

11. What is a conjunction? Describe the 3 types of conjunctions with examples.

A conjunction is a word that joins words, phrases or clauses and establishes a relationship between them. And, but, or, nor, for, so, yet are some examples of conjunctions. 

There are three major types of conjunctions:

1. Coordinating Conjunction 2. Subordinating Conjunction 3. Correlative Conjunction

1. Coordinating Conjunctions

A coordinating conjunction is a type of conjunction which joins words, phrases or clauses that contain a similar grammatical structure. A coordinating conjunction is also known as a coordinator. Coordinating conjunctions include 'but, and, or so, nor, yet, for'. They join the following:

     Word + Word

     Phrase + Phrase

     Clause + Clause

In the examples that follow the underlined parts are the words, phrases and clauses joined by the coordinating conjunction such as 'and, or, but' Examples:

     He bought a book and a pen. (two words).

     I forgot to bring my laptop and my charger. (two word).

     You may meet me at my home or at my office. (two phrases).

     He always sits in the library or in the classroom. (two phrases).

     I waited for him but he didn't come. (two clauses).

     She requested him for help but he didn't help her. (two clauses)

These examples demonstrate that, the words, phrases and clauses joined by coordinating conjunctions, in each sentence, are of similar grammatical nature.

2.     Subordinating Conjunctions

A subordinating conjunction is a type of conjunction which joins a dependent (subordinate) clause to an independent (main) clause.

A subordinating conjunction is also referred to as a subordinator, Subordinate conjunctions include - although, because, before, if, how, since, once, till, until, where, when, whenever, whether, after, while, no matter how, provided that, as soon as, even if' etc.

They Join the following:

     Main Clause + Subordinate Clause

     Subordinate Clause + Main Clause.

An independent Clause is a group of words containing a noun and a verb which expresses a complete thought. Dependent clause is a group of words that contain a subject and a verb but they do not express a complete thought.

Examples:

     You will succeed in life provided that you think optimistically.

     We went to zoo where we saw an elephant.

     I will help whenever you need my help.

     All the shops were closed because it was late.

     It makes me happy when you laugh.

     I will not tell him the secret even if he insists a lot.

     Although It is raining, it is too hot today.

     As far as I know, he is a very nice person.

     If you avoid sugary foods, you will lose your weight.

3.     Corelative Conjunctions

Correlative conjunctions are paired words. They usually join words, phrases or clauses that contain reciprocal or complementary relationships.

The common correlative conjunctions are as follows:

     Either .... Or

     Neither .... Nor

     Whether.... Or

     Both .... And

     Not only .... But also

Examples:

     He may buy either a laptop or a camera.

     She likes neither tea nor coffee.

     Both the pink and the blue are nice colours.

     She is interested not only in singing but also in games.

     You will find him either in the library or in the classroom.

12. What are the types of prepositions?

A preposition is a word that connects the noun/pronoun in a sentence to the other parts of the sentence such as the verbs and adjectives. It determines the relationship between the nouns, pronouns and the other words in a sentence.

They help one understand the relationships of logic, space and sequence between the different parts of a sentence.

Below are few examples of prepositions commonly used in the English language:

1. I just came back from the U.S.
2. The book is inside the drawer.
3. The kid threw a stone into the lake.

A preposition cannot be plural or possessive. Sometimes prepositions can also act as nouns, verbs and adverbs.

Types of Prepositions

1. Prepositions of Time:

These prepositions indicate when something happens, will happen or has happened in any point in time.

Prepositions of time include at, on, in, before, during, after.

Examples:

1. John was born on the 7th of August.
2. David left his job in 2012.
3. Amy ate lots of fruits during her pregnancy.

2.     Prepositions of Place:

These prepositions usually indicate the position of a particular thing or person. The three most common prepositions of time are on, at and in.

These prepositions may also indicate the time along with place but depending on their use it can be easily ascertained what they are referring to.

Examples:

1. The ball is in the court.
2. The clothes are on the top shelf.
3. I was at the supermarket just yesterday.

3.     Prepositions of Direction or Movement:

Prepositions of movement indicate the direction in which a person or an object is moving.

‘To’ is the most commonly used preposition of movement.

Examples:

1. I went to shop for groceries but all the shops were closed.
2. He took his dog to the park.

The other prepositions of direction or movement are across, though, over, down, up, past, around.

4.     Prepositions of Manner:

Prepositions of manner describe the way in which things take place or means by which things happen.

Prepositions of manner include by, in, like, with, on.

Examples:

1. I like travelling by car.
2. She went to the school in a taxi.
3. Jacob sings like a professional.
4. He reacted with pity when he saw the poor cat.

5.     Preposition of Agents or Instruments:

Preposition of Agents or Instruments describe the action conducted by a person or object on another person or object.

Most common prepositions of these types are by and with.

Examples:

1. The song was recorded by James.
2. He cuts his hair with a clipper.

6.     Prepositions of Possession:

Prepositions of Possession indicate the owing or owning of an object. It also can be used when something is own to someone. Prepositions of possession include of, with and to.

Examples:

1. This is the car of my niece.
2. He said he saw a man with a green umbrella.
3. This jacket belongs to my grandfather.

13. Write a short note on adverbs and their various types.

Adverbs are words which are used to provide more information about verbs and are also used to modify verbs, clauses and other adverbs.

Adverbs can appear in different parts of a sentence and therefore, can be difficult to identify. The simplest way to recognise an adverb is by looking for the ending –ly. Examples of –ly adverbs are: quickly, quietly, fortunately.

Most of the adverbs are formed by adding –ly to adjectives:

Careful > carefully

Loud > loudly

Slow > slowly

Adverbs with Verbs

Here the adverbs provide us more information about the verb than the verb holds within itself.

'She slowly entered the room.'

'He carefully drove through the city.'

Adverbs with Adjectives

Here the adverbs provide us more information about the adjective than the adjective holds within itself.

'The test was extremely difficult.'

'I'm incredibly sorry about what I did.'

Adverbs with Adverbs

Her the first adverb provides us more information about the second adverb.

'The cheetah runs incredibly quickly.'

'He talks exceptionally loudly.'

Change in Meaning

Sometimes adverbs can change the entire meaning of a sentence.

'Unfortunately, I will be out of the office for the next 3 days'.

'Surprisingly, the team was beaten in the final.'

Confusing Adverbs

Many adverbs are formed by adding –ly to the adjective: strong > strongly, but sometimes, adverbs can be very different from the adjective:

Good =adjective / well =adverb

'He's a good golfer.'

'He plays golf well.'

Take a look at the following sentences; they both contain adverbs:

'I work hard.'

'I hardly work.'

Hard, which is also an adjective, takes the meaning 'with a lot of effort.'

On the other hand, hardly here means 'very little.'

'He's a fast runner.' – Here 'fast' acts as an adjective.

'He runs fast.' – Here 'fast' acts as an adverb.

'It was late at night.' – Here 'late' acts as an adjective.

'We talked late into the night.' – Here 'late' acts as an adverb.

Combining Clauses

Two independent clauses (sentences) can be joined together using conjunctive adverbs. Conjunctive adverbs may show cause and effect, sequence, contrast, comparison, or other relationships.

The most common of these are:

Accordingly

Afterwards

Also

Consequently

However

Indeed

Likewise

Moreover

Nevertheless

Nonetheless

Otherwise

Similarly

Still

Therefore

When writing, a semi-colon (;) must be used before the conjunctive adverb. Use a comma (,) after the conjunctive adverb.

Below are some examples:

'I wanted to eat Chinese; however, my wife wanted Indian.'

'It had rained all day; therefore, he decided not to drive in the dangerous conditions.'

Adverbs can be classified into a number of types depending upon their function in a sentence. Below are the different types of adverbs found in the English language:

1. Adverbs of Frequency

We use adverbs of frequency (always, sometimes, often/frequently, normally/generally, usually, occasionally, seldom, rarely/hardly ever, never, etc.) to say how often we do things, or how often things happen.

Adverb Examples:

     He always wears a shirt and tie.

     She normally eats three meals a day.

     I seldom buy all my vegetables at the market.

2.     Adverbs of Manner

Adverbs of manner include various adverbs such as cheerfully, efficiently, painfully, secretly, quietly, peacefully, carefully, slowly, badly, closely, easily, well, fast, quickly, etc. which tell us how something happens or the way in which an action is performed. Their position is usually either after the main verb or after the object.

Adverb Examples:

     The children were playing happily with their toys.

     The police dealt with the incident very efficiently.

     Birds sang cheerfully in the trees.

3.     Adverbs of Time

Adverbs of time (now, yesterday, soon, later, tomorrow, yet, already, tonight, today, then, last month/year,…) tell us about when something happens.

Adverb Examples:

     I’m not going to hang out with my friends tomorrow.

     I’ll call you from home later.

     She’d already gone when we got there.

4.     Adverbs of Place

Adverbs of place such as - off, above, abroad, far, on, away, back, here, out, outside, backwards, behind, in, below, down, indoors, downstairs, inside, nearby, near, over, there, towards, under, up, upstairs, where, everywhere, elsewhere, anywhere, nowhere, somewhere etc. tell us about the location of an object or person or the place where the action takes place. They are placed either after the main verbs or after the clause that they modify.

Examples of Adverbs:

     His children go everywhere with him.

     She started work here last May.

     Let’s open the box and see what’s inside it.

5.     Adverbs of Degree

Adverbs of degree (quite, fairly, too, enormously, entirely, very, extremely, rather, almost, absolutely, just, barely, completely, enough, deeply, enormously, fully, greatly, hardly, incredibly, practically, scarcely, barely, somewhat, terribly, virtually, …) express degrees of qualities, properties, states, conditions and relations.

Examples of Adverbs:

     He was quite agreeable to accepting the plan.

     I’m not absolutely certain I posted it.

     The building was completely destroyed.

6.     Adverbs of Evaluation and Certainty

Adverbs of Evaluation are generally those adverbs which are used by the speaker to comment or give an opinion on something. Evaluative adverbs modify the entire clause.

There are several types of adverbs of evaluation, which can be classified according to their function. Some give information about how certain we consider something to be, others express our attitude (negative or positive) about something, while others are used to pass judgement on someone’s actions.

Sometimes adverbs of evaluation could be used to state how certain we are about something, such as apparently, clearly, definitely, doubtfully, doubtlessly, obviously, presumably, probably, undoubtedly, etc. These adverbs are known as adverbs of certainty.

Adverbs Examples:

     David is clearly unhappy to be here.

     Apparently, we’re going to have to work harder.

     We definitely don’t want to spend too much money.

7.     Conjunctive Adverbs (Linking Adverbs)

Linking adverbs or conjunctive adverbs are adverbs that are used to link ideas or clauses in spoken discourse or written text. These adverbs include - accordingly, besides, comparatively, conversely, equally, further, hence, in comparison, incidentally, namely, next, now, rather, undoubtedly, additionally, anyway, certainly, elsewhere, finally, in addition, in contrast, indeed, moreover, nonetheless, similarly, subsequently, thereafter, yet, also, meanwhile, consequently, nevertheless, finally, next, furthermore, otherwise, however, still, indeed, then, instead, therefore, likewise, thus, etc). They could also be called conjunctive adverbs in so far as they perform the same sort of function as conjunctions.

Examples:

     Furthermore, they had not consulted with her.

     Some of the laws were contradictory. Accordingly, measures were taken to clarify them.

     I don’t want to go; besides, I’m too tired.

14. What are adjectives? How can they be identified in a sentence? How can adjectives be formed?

An adjective is a word that describes the quality or quantity possessed by a noun. It answers the questions like which one, what kind or how many. It is a word used to modify or describe the noun or a pronoun.

Ex - Young boy, Pretty girl, Huge elephant, One thousand sea shells.

Unlike other languages, the adjectives in English do not alter or change (agree) with the noun that they modify:

Example: All new foreign students are welcome to join the clubs and societies.

Not: All new foreigns students …

Example: Every room was painted in different colours.

Not: … in differents colours.

Identifying adjectives

There is no general rule for making adjectives. Adjectives are usually identified by what they do (their function) in a sentence. However, some suffixes are typical forms of adjectives.

• -able, -ible: comfortable, readable, incredible, invisible

• -al, -ial: comical, normal, musical, industrial, presidential

• -ful: beautiful, harmful, peaceful, wonderful

• -ic: classic, economic, heroic, romantic

• -ical: aeronautical, alphabetical, political

• -ish: British, childish, Irish, foolish

• -ive, -ative: active, alternative, creative, talkative

• -less: endless, motionless, priceless, timeless

• -eous, -ious, -ous: spontaneous, hideous, ambitious, anxious, dangerous, famous

• -y: angry, busy, wealthy, windy

Forming adjectives from other words

1. Suffixes

Adjectives can be formed by adding suffixes to a noun or a verb.

• Noun: Hero – Adjective: Heroic
• Noun: Wind – Adjective: Windy
• Noun: Child – Adjective: childish
• Noun: Beauty – Adjective: Beautiful

• Verb: Read – Adjective: Readable
• Verb: Talk – Adjective: Talkative
• Verb: Use – Adjective: Useful
• Verb: Like – Adjective: Likeable

Example: I hate windy days.

                  San Francisco is a very hilly place.

Many words that end in '-ly' can be adjectives as well as adverbs. These include daily, early, monthly, weekly, nightly, yearly:

Adjective: She gets a monthly payment from her employers. (She gets money every week.)

Adverb: I pay my rent weekly. (I pay my rent every week.)

Many words that end in -ly are only adjectives and not adverbs. Some of these words are: costly, cowardly, deadly, friendly, likely, lonely, lovely, oily, orderly, scholarly, silly, smelly, timely, ugly, woolly.

Example: We enjoyed the trip to America but it was a costly holiday.

                   Fish is considered very healthy because it contains omega 3.

2.     Prefixes

Prefixes are certain letters added to the beginning of a word such as un-, in-, im-, il- and ir- which sometime change the meaning of adjectives.

Adding these prefixes makes the meaning negative:

• Un:  fair – unfair, happy – unhappy, sure – unsure

• In: active – inactive, complete – incomplete, appropriate – inappropriate

• Ir: responsible – irresponsible, reducible – irreducible, regular – irregular

• Im: balance – imbalance, possible – impossible, polite – impolite

• Il: legal – illegal, legible – illegible, logical – illogical

15. What are the various types of adjectives in the English language? Explain with the help of examples.

Types of adjectives

1. Attributive adjectives

Attribute adjectives are the adjectives that come before the nouns they modify. For example:

     She handed me a blue book.

     We sat down to a well-made breakfast.

     Looking back, it was a fantastic trip.

2.     Predicate adjectives

Unlike attributive adjectives, predicate adjectives come after the nouns they modify. They’re called predicate adjectives because they appear in the predicate section of the sentence (the part that includes the verb and its modifiers, objects and complements). In this way, predicate adjectives act alongside linking verbs or the verb to be. For example:

     Coffee is life-giving.

     I shouldn’t complain, but they really were slower than promised.

3.     Compound adjectives

A compound adjective contains two words or more. Usually, these words have hyphens between them — particularly if they’re placed before the noun. For example:

     It’s turn-of-the-century architecture.

     My mother loves home-made bread.

     The bill was bigger than anticipated.

4.     Coordinate adjectives

Multiple adjectives which are equal in rank and modify the same word are known as coordinate adjectives. Each coordinate adjective applies individually to the noun, and neither is more important or fundamental to the meaning of the noun than the other. Coordinate adjectives are usually separated by a comma or by the use of prepositions and conjunctions. For example:

     She is a knowledgeable and experienced instructor.

     She is a knowledgeable, experienced instructor.

     I have written a book that is long, dense, and convoluted.

     I have written a long, dense, convoluted book.

     I have written a long, dense and convoluted book.

5.     Non-coordinate adjectives

Adjectives which hare not equal in rank (although they do modify the same word) are known as Non-coordinate adjectives. Because of this, they are not separated by a comma or and. Simply put, each additional non-coordinate adjective modifies the existing adjective(s) and noun as a single unit. For example:

     They bought her a bright warehouse apartment. (Here, the first and most significant adjective 'warehouse' is joined with 'apartment', so that the adjective 'bright' modifies the single unit 'warehouse apartment').

     It was a complicated interview question. (Like the first example, complicated modifies interview question as one unit).

     It was a dusty old leather-bound diary. (It doesn’t matter how many adjectives you add — each one modifies the existing adjective or adjectives and noun as a single unit. So old modifies leather-bound diary as one unit, and dusty modifies old leather-bound diary).

6.     Proper adjectives

Proper adjectives are proper nouns turned into adjectives by the way they are used in a sentence. A proper noun is the name of a specific person, place or thing, like Benjamin or Australia or Pizza Hut. A proper adjective is that proper noun used as an adjective. For example:

     That’s how it was during Elizabethan times.

     I’ve been studying Australian history.

     How very Machiavellian of you.

Adjectives by Degree

1. Absolute adjectives

Absolute adjectives are descriptive adjectives which describe a noun without comparing it to anything else. They describe them because of their own qualities, and not because of their connection to anything else. For example:

     He was tall.

     The gathering was large.

     The room was messy.

2.     Comparative adjectives

Comparative adjectives are adjectives which compare two or more things. For example:

     The taller brother wasn’t there.

     The gathering was larger than last years.

     The room was messier than I’d expected.

3.     Superlative adjectives

Finally, superlative adjectives are like super-comparative adjectives: they describe nouns as being the most kind of something or having the greatest amount of a particular quality. For example:

     He was the tallest of all the brothers.

     The largest gathering was three years ago.

     It was the messiest room I’d ever seen.

Communication Skills

Unit - 1

Question Bank

1. What are Idioms? Give Examples.

Idioms are phrases or expressions that convey a meaning which cannot be derived from the conjoined meanings of its elements. These do not convey the exact meaning of the words but have a figurative or literal meaning.

How are they different from proverbs? Proverbs are well-known sayings, stating a general truth or advice. For example, the proverb ‘a picture is worth thousand words’ is a general truth. The idiom ‘bite off more than you can chew’, however, is neither a general truth nor an advice.

Below are some commonly used idioms in the English language with their meaning:

     Penny for your thoughts - To ask what someone is thinking about

     Actions speak louder than words - Intentions are clearer by actions rather than words

     Add insult to injury - To mock someone's pitiable situation even more

     At the drop of a hat - To do something instantly

     Back to the drawing board - To restart something

     Ball is in your court - It’s up to you to take the next step

     Barking up the wrong tree - Looking in the wrong direction, accusing a wrong person

     Beat around the bush - Speaking indirectly about something

     Best of both worlds - All of the advantages without any drawbacks

     Best thing since sliced bread - A good idea or innovation

     Bite off more than you can chew - To accept a task which is bigger than one's capabilities

     Blessing in disguise - Something which was considered as bad first which turned out to be good

     Burn the midnight oil - To work all night

     Can't judge a book by its cover - Cannot judge something based on first impressions

     Costs an arm and a leg - Used when something is very expensive

     Cross that bridge when you come to it - To deal with the problem as it presents itself

     Cry over spilt milk - Complaining about the past

     Curiosity killed the cat - Being Inquisitive can lead to a difficult situation

     Cut corners - To cut expenses by performing in a subpar manner

     Devil's Advocate - Counter argument

     Don't put all your eggs in one basket - Not to put all resources in one direction

     Every cloud has a silver lining - To be optimistic in difficult situations

     Feel a bit under the weather - To feel slightly sick

     Give the benefit of the doubt - To believe someone without proof

     Hear it on the grapevine - To hear rumours

     Hit the nail on the head - To perform a task perfectly

2.     What are the various types of phrases? Give examples for each.

Phrases are combinations of two or more words that form the component of a clause. They are meaningful grammatical constructions that expresses a concept and can be used within a sentence.

There are 5 basic types of phrases in the English language:

1. Noun Phrase:

A noun phrase is a type of phrase which consists of one noun and/or a group of words surrounding that noun. These nouns can be proper nouns, common nouns, abstract nouns etc.

Examples: There is a red box on the table.

                     I saw two lost puppies on the street yesterday.

                     He bought a new sports car on his birthday.

2.     Verb Phrase:

A verb phrase is a type of phrase which consists of a root verb and its auxiliaries. It is also known as a ‘verb group’.

Examples: They have been working since last night.

                    I have been waiting for the rain to stop for nearly an hour.

                     Jack lost the keys to his apartment when he was jogging.

3.     Adjective Phrase:

Adjective phrases are phrases constructed around a single adjective. It may be a single adjective or a group of words surrounding that adjective.

Examples: The film was very boring, wasn’t it?

                     I ate a very big meal for lunch.

                     The blue umbrella stood out in a crowd of all red umbrellas.

4.     Adverb phrase:

Adverb phrases consist of a single adverb and a group of supporting words surrounding that adverb.

Examples: They finished the task as fast as possible.

                     Please do it now, otherwise you’ll regret later.

                     He spoke very softly in front of his parents.

5.     Prepositional phrase:

A prepositional phrase is a type of phrase which consists of a preposition which is followed by its object which is usually a noun phrase.

Examples: They kept quarreling over money of all things.

                     The coin was stuck inside a large black futon.

                     You shouldn’t go swimming after having a large meal.

Word Pairs

Word pairs are phrases which, if used in proper context give a different meaning than when they are used separately. In other words, they are a coupling of words that go very well together.

Word pairs may also include collocations. Collocations are two or more words that are often used collectively. They sound natural to the native ear.

These word pairs are often non-reversible, meaning the sequence of the words in a word pair cannot be interchanged.

Below are some examples of the most commonly used word pairs in the English language:

Following examples describe how collocations are used in sentences:

1. Are you fully aware of the consequences you’re about to face?
2. He fell on the ground in excruciating pain.
3. The bomb went off when he started the car engine.
4. The prisoner was hanged for committing homicide.
5. After her eyes were filled with horror, suddenly she burst into tears.

Question Tags

Question tags are phrases which convert regular imperative or declarative sentences into questions. In other words, question tags are phrases used at the end of sentences to turn them into questions. They may be used to confirm information that has already been conveyed through a sentence or to ask follow up questions at the end of a sentence.

For example, consider a statement “Your name is Jacob.” now if the words “isn't it?” are added at the end of the statement the statement turns into a question where the Identity of Jacob is being confirmed. And therefore, the statement becomes a question, “Your name is Jacob, isn't it?” Question tags replace a period at end of a sentence with a comma and end the same sentence with a question mark.

Below are some examples question tags 

1.     You crashed my car yesterday, didn't you?

2.     Jake is Brave kid, isn’t he? 

3.     I don't need to finish this project today, do I?

There are a few rules for determining question tags for different kinds of sentences; some of them are listed below:

1. The Sentence and the question tag must always be in the same tense.
2. If the sentence is negative the question tag must be negative and vice-versa.
3. Question tags must never contain proper noun, they should always contain the pronoun.
4. Sentences with negative meaning will have a positive question tag.
5. The question tag ‘won’t you’ is used with imperative sentences.
6. Question tags are always made in accordance with the main parts of the sentence.
7. Each, everyone, everybody, no one, nobody, none are singular and hence but their question tag will take forms of plural verbs and plural nouns.

3. Write a short note on the use of clichés in the English language.

Clichés are those words or phrases which have been used repeatedly over time and because of this overuse they have lost their impact.

The word cliché can be traced to its French origin, which is why you'll often see it with an accent over the "e," but you can also write it as "cliche" in English. When printing presses were used, the cast iron plate that reproduced the words, phrases, or images was called a stereotype. The noise that casting plate made sounded like "cliché," meaning click, to French printers, so this onomatopoeia word became printer's jargon for the stereotype. Thus, cliché came to mean a word or phrase that gets repeated often.

Just because a phrase is overused doesn't mean it's a cliché, and because a phrase is a cliché doesn't mean it isn't true. A cliché will convey meaning but often loses its point along the way through over-usage. Below are some common English Clichés:

Common Cliché Sayings

     All that glitters isn't gold

     Don't get your knickers in a twist

     All for one, and one for all

     Kiss and make up

     He has his tail between his legs

     And they all lived happily ever after

     Cat got your tongue?

     Read between the lines

     Someone woke up on the wrong side of the bed

     We're not laughing at you we're laughing with you

Clichés that Describe Time

     Only time will tell

     In the nick of time

     Lost track of time

     Lasted an eternity

     Just a matter of time

     A waste of time

     Time flies

     In a jiffy

     The time of my life

     At the speed of light

Clichés that Describe People

     As old as the hills

     Fit as a fiddle

     Without a care in the world

     A diamond in the rough

     Brave as a lion

     Weak as a kitten

     Had nerves of steel

     Ugly as sin

Clichés that Describe Life, Love, and Emotions

     Opposites attract

     Every cloud has a silver lining

     Don't cry over spilled milk

     The calm before the storm

     Laughter is the best medicine

     Love you more than life itself

     Scared out of my wits

     Frightened to death

     All is fair in love and war

     All's well that ends well

     Haste makes waste

     The writings on the wall

     Time heals all wounds

     What goes around comes around

     When life gives you lemons, make lemonade

     Head over heels in love

     Gut-wrenching pain

     Heart-stopping fear

4.     What is meant by the term “Redundancies”? give examples.

Redundancies refer to the use of two or more words together that carry the same meaning thus making them repetitious and unnecessary. Redundant words often make communication longer but definitely not better and therefore, must be strictly avoided. In some specific contexts however, some of these phrases may serve a purpose. Although more often than not, these phrases weigh down our writing with unnecessary words and jargon.

Below are some common redundancies in the English language, the words in parentheses are to be omitted to make the phrase correct in meaning:

A

(absolutely) essential

(absolutely) necessary

(actual) facts

Advance (forward)

(advance) planning

(advance) preview

(advance) reservations

(advance) warning

Add (an additional)

Add (up)

(added) bonus

(affirmative) yes

(aid and) abet

(all-time) record

Alternative (choice)

A.M. (in the morning)

(and) etc.

(anonymous) stranger

(annual) anniversary

(armed) gunman

(artificial) prosthesis

Ascend (up)

Ask (the question)

Assemble (together)

Attach (together)

ATM (machine)

Autobiography (of his or her own life)

B

Bald(-headed)

Balsa (wood)

(basic) fundamentals

(basic) necessities

Best (ever)

Biography (of his--or her--life)

Blend (together)

(boat) marina

Bouquet (of flowers)

Brief (in duration)

(brief) moment

(brief) summary

(burning) embers

C

Cacophony (of sound)

Cameo (appearance)

Cancel (out)

(careful) scrutiny

Cash (money)

Cease (and desist)

Circle (around)

Circulate (around)

Classify (into groups)

(close) proximity

(closed) fist

Collaborate (together)

Combine (together)

Commute (back and forth)

Compete (with each other)

(completely) annihilate

(completely) destroyed

(completely) eliminate

(completely) engulfed

(completely) filled

(completely) surround

(component) parts

Confer (together)

Connect (together)

Connect (up)

Confused (state)

Consensus (of opinion)

(constantly) maintained

Cooperate (together)

Could (possibly)

Crisis (situation)

Curative (process)

(current) incumbent

(current) trend

D

Depreciate (in value)

Descend (down)

(desirable) benefits

(different) kinds

Disappear (from sight)

Drop (down)

During (the course of)

Dwindle (down)

E

Each (and every)

Earlier (in time)

Eliminate (altogether)

Emergency (situation)

(empty) hole

Empty (out)

(empty) space

Enclosed (herein)

(end) result

Enter (in)

(entirely) eliminate

Equal (to one another)

Eradicate (completely)

Estimated at (about)

Evolve (over time)

(exact) same

(exposed) opening

Extradite (back)

F

(face) mask

Fall (down)

(favorable) approval

(fellow) classmates

(fellow) colleague

Few (in number)

Filled (to capacity)

(final) conclusion

(final) end

(final) outcome

(final) ultimatum

(first and) foremost

(first) conceived

First (of all)

Fly (through the air)

Follow (after)

(foreign) imports

(former) graduate

(former) veteran

(free) gift

(from) whence

(frozen) ice

(frozen) tundra

Full (to capacity)

(full) satisfaction

Fuse (together)

(future) plans

(future) recurrence

G

Gather (together)

(general) public

GOP (party)

GRE (exam)

Green [or blue or whatever] (in colour)

Grow (in size)

H

Had done (previously)

(harmful) injuries

(head) honcho

Heat (up)

HIV (virus)

Hoist (up)

(hollow) tube

Hurry (up)

I

(illustrated) drawing

Incredible (to believe)

Indicted (on a charge)

Input (into)

Integrate (together)

Integrate (with each other)

Interdependent (on each other)

Introduced (a new)

Introduced (for the first time)

(ir)regardless

ISBN (number)

J

Join (together)

(joint) collaboration

K

Kneel (down)

(knowledgeable) experts

L

Lag (behind)

Later (time)

LCD (display)

Lift (up)

(little) baby

(live) studio audience

(live) witness

(local) residents

Look (ahead) to the future

Look back (in retrospect)

M

Made (out) of

(major) breakthrough

(major) feat

Manually (by hand)

May (possibly)

Meet (together)

Meet (with each other)

(mental) telepathy

Merge (together)

Might (possibly)

Minestrone (soup)

Mix (together)

Modern ______ (of today)

(mutual) cooperation

(mutually) interdependent

Mutual respect (for each other)

(number-one) leader in ________

N

Nape (of her neck)

(native) habitat

(natural) instinct

Never (before)

(new) beginning

(new) construction

(new) innovation

(new) invention

(new) recruit

None (at all)

Nostalgia (for the past)

(now) pending

O

Off (of)

(old) adage

(old) cliche

(old) custom

(old) proverb

(open) trench

Open (up)

(oral) conversation

(originally) created

Output (out of)

(outside) in the yard

Outside (of)

(over) exaggerate

Over (with)

(overused) cliché

P

(pair of) twins

Palm (of the hand)

(passing) fad

(past) experience

(past) history

(past) memories

(past) records

Penetrate (into)

Period (of time)

(personal) friend

(personal) opinion

Pick (and choose)

PIN (number)

Pizza (pie)

Plan (ahead)

Plan (in advance)

(Please) RSVP

Plunge (down)

(polar) opposites

(positive) identification

Postpone (until later)

Pouring (down) rain

(pre)board (as an airplane)

(pre)heat

(pre)record

(private) industry

(present) incumbent

Present (time)

Previously listed (above)

Proceed (ahead)

(proposed) plan

Protest (against)

Pursue (after)

R

Raise (up)

RAM (memory)

Reason is (because)

Reason (why)

Recur (again)

Re-elect (for another term)

Refer (back)

Reflect (back)

(regular) routine

Repeat (again)

Reply (back)

Retreat (back)

Revert (back)

Rise (up)

Round (in shape)

S

(safe) haven

(safe) sanctuary

Same (exact)

(sand) dune

Scrutinize (in detail)

Self-______ (yourself)

Separated (apart from each other)

(serious) danger

Share (together)

(sharp) point

Shiny (in appearance)

Shut (down)

(single) unit

Skipped (over)

Slow (speed)

Small (size)

(small) speck

Soft (in texture) [or (to the touch)]

Sole (of the foot)

Spell out (in detail)

Spliced (together)

Start (off) or (out)

(still) persists

(still) remains

(sudden) impulse

(sum) total

Surrounded (on all sides)

T

Tall (in height)

Tall (in stature)

(temper) tantrum

Ten (in number)

Three a.m. (in the morning)

(three-way) love triangle

Time (period)

(tiny) bit

(total) destruction

(true) facts

(truly) sincere

Tuna (fish)

(twelve) noon or midnight

(two equal) halves

U

(ultimate) goal

Undergraduate (student)

(underground) subway

(unexpected) emergency

(unexpected) surprise

(unintentional) mistake

(universal) panacea

(unnamed) anonymous

UPC (code)

(usual) custom

V

Vacillate (back and forth)

(veiled) ambush

(very) pregnant

(very) unique

Visible (to the eye)

W

(wall) mural

Warn (in advance)

Weather (conditions)

Weather (situation)

Whether (or not)

(white) snow

Write (down)

5.     What are articles? Describe how they are used in sentences.

Articles are words that precede a noun and define the specificity of that noun. In other words, they imply how specific a particular noun is.

There are two types of Articles in the English language, Definite and Indefinite Articles.

1. Definite Article

The definite article is the word ‘the’. This article is only used when a particular place, thing or activity is being referred to. It limits the meaning to one particular thing or activity.

For example, in the sentence “I won’t be attending the party this weekend.” ‘The’ is used before the noun party therefore it refers to a specific party which the subject is talking about. The definite article can be used with both singular and plural words.

Uses of “The”:

1. The definite article can be used to make general things specific, for example, “Please pass me a pen.” when changed to “Please pass me the pen.” Changes the meaning of the sentence entirely. In the former the subject requests for a pen in general whereas in the latter he refers to a specific pen.
2. ‘The’ is used by geographical areas such as rivers, mountains, seas, oceans etc.

“The Middle East”, “The Atlantic Ocean”, “The Himalayas”

c.      Unique things always requite the article ‘the’

“The Sun”, “The Moon”

d.     Musical instruments use ‘the’

“He plays the cello.”

e.     Countries generally don’t use articles in front but if their names are plural they use the article ‘the’

“The Netherlands”, “The United States of America”

f.        Abbreviations and classes of people always use the article ‘the’

“The U.N” “The Poor” “The British” “The IMF”

2.     Indefinite Article

The Indefinite Article is of two types, namely, ‘a’ and ‘an’. The word ‘a’ is used when it precedes a word that starts with a consonant and the word ‘an’ is used when it precedes a word that starts with a vowel. Unlike the Definite Article, the Indefinite Articles refer to a general idea and not a particular one. The Indefinite Article only appears with singular nouns. For example, in the sentences “I would like a good book to read.” Or “I am craving for an apple pie.” The subject talks about books or apple pies in general rather than a specific book or apple pie.

Uses of ‘a’ and ‘an’:

1. Uncountable nouns cannot use either ‘a’ or ‘an’. For example advice is an uncountable noun, therefore a sentence such as “Can you give me an advice.” Does not make sense. Rather “Can you give me some advice.” Is more appropriate.
2. Jobs use Indefinite Articles

“I want to become a teacher” “My dream is to become an actor”

c.      There are a couple of exceptions to the overall rule of employing ‘a’ before words that start with consonants and ‘an’ before words that begin with vowels. The first letter of the word honour, for instance, may be a consonant, but it’s unpronounced. In spite of the way it is spelled, the word honour begins with a vowel. Therefore, we use an. For example, consider the following sentences:
My mother is a honest woman.
My mother is an honest woman.

d.     When the first letter of a word is a vowel but is pronounced with a consonant sound, the article 'a' must be used. For example:

She is an United States senator.

She is a United States senator.

6.     Define Verbs. What are the various types of verbs? Describe Finite, Non-finite and Auxiliary verbs in detail.

A verb is a word that expresses the state of being or work being done by the subject. There are main verbs and there are also helping verbs known as auxiliary verbs. Verbs can also be used to express tense.

Ex – She vanished in the darkness.

Finite and Non-Finite Verbs

In every sentence, there is normally at least one verb that has both a subject and a tense. When a verb contains both a subject and a tense, it can be defined as a finite verb.

Example: We want Charlie to act as club secretary.

                  I like taking photographs of insects.

                  While coming home last night, I saw a leopard run across the road.

A non-finite verb is a verb which is not defined by its subject and tense. The present and past participles, and the 'to' infinitive are the most common types of non-finite verbs. Every verb in the English language can be used in a clause in either a finite or non-finite way.

A verb is called as finite if it is discovered in a clause in combination with a subject and a tense.

     I walked home.

     We saw a deer.

     They appreciate a little praise now and then.

It is non-finite if it is used:

• Without the verb having a tense:

     To open, tear off the tab.

     Looking around, he noticed a letter on the floor.

     Worn out by the heat, they stopped for a drink.

• Without an agreement between the verb and the subject (if there is one).

     That plan failing, he gave up.

     Our guests departed, we felt a little depressed.

A compound verb comprises of one finite part, which is mostly the first auxiliary verb, while the remaining non-finite parts are the base form or the participles.

     I may have been joking when I said that.

     Helen was running around screaming.

     I had been living in a dream for months.

     Olivia is coming around at 9 o’clock tonight.

Verbs in simple present and simple past tense are always finite.

     I sing.

     We tell stories at night.

     Maya laughed.

     The shelter collapsed.

A finite verb is sometimes immediately followed by a non-finite verb.

     I like to get up early on the weekends.

     Harriet really dislikes cleaning the cooker.

     I certainly wouldn’t want to see him again.

     We persuaded them to join us.

Many a times, a noun or pronoun enters the space between a finite and non-finite verb.

     We want Charlie to act as club secretary.

     She wanted him to wash his hands in the bathroom.

     I don’t like you cleaning your boots over the sink.

When the second verb is an -ing form coming after a noun or pronoun, there can be a difference in grammar between two similar sentences. Both sentences below are acceptable, although the first example might seem ambiguous to some people. In the second sentence, the -ing form is used as a verbal noun.

     She didn’t like him cleaning his gloves over the sink.

     She didn’t like his cleaning his gloves over the sink.

Gerunds and Participles

A gerund is a word which is created from a verb but always serves the function of a noun. Gerunds always end with the -ing at the end of the word. Being used as a noun, a gerund can function as a subject, a subject complement, a direct object, an indirect object, or an object of a preposition. Gerunds often look like present participles but they are not to be confused with them. The main difference between these two is that gerunds are specifically placed in the noun position of a sentence whereas present participles are placed with the verb phrase, often as modifiers.

Below an example of a gerund in the position of the subject:

     Brushing your hair prevents it from tangling.

In this sentence, the word brushing is the gerund functioning as the subject of the sentence.

If a gerund were to be the complement of a subject in a sentence, it would look like this:

     Her number one priority is working.

In this sentence, the word working is functioning as a complement to the subject, priority.

Gerunds can also function as the object of a sentence. Below is an example where the gerund is functioning as the object of a preposition:

     “There is no use in standing in that line for four hours,” grandma said.

In this sentence, standing follows the preposition in, making it the object of the preposition.

A participle, on the other hand, is a word created from verbs that are then used as adjectives to modify nouns in a sentence. They can also be used as introductions to adverbial phrases.

Participles can be classified into two types: Present participles and Past participles. Present participles always end with the -ing at the end of a word and correlate to events that are taking place in the present. The past participle can be either regular or irregular and describes events that have already taken place.

Participles can often function as gerunds which could make it difficult to differentiate between the two.

When using a participle as an adjective, consider the below sentence:

     The ripening fruit should be put outside for composting.

Ripening here acts as a present participle (noted by the -ing ending) that is modifying the noun fruit.

     I spent the week day studying chemistry.

In the sentence above, the word 'studying' acts as a present participle which functions as the beginning of an adverbial phrase in the sentence. The phrase studying chemistry is modifying the verb spent. How did I spend the whole week? Studying chemistry.

Both of the above examples were present participles, meaning the words ended in -ing­ to describe something happening in the present. However, Past participles can have different word endings depending upon the nature and context of the word being used; Most often, there will be a -d­ or -ed added to the end of a word in a past participle. Let’s look at a couple of examples:

     The doors cracked open when the rain hurricane came through.

Here, the word cracked acts as a past participle functioning as an adjective to modify the noun doors.

     He continued forward cautioned by the desolate streets.

Here, cautioned is the past participle in the sentence functioning as the beginning of an adverbial phrase describing the word continued.

Auxiliary Verbs

Auxiliary verbs, also known as helping verbs because they help in the formation of tenses, mood and voices of other verbs. Auxiliary verbs therefore, add functional or grammatical meaning to the clause in which they appear. 'To be', 'to do' and 'to have' are the most commonly used auxiliary verbs. For example: the auxiliary 'to do' is needed to ask questions in the present and past simple tenses.. The auxiliary 'to have' is used in the present and past perfect tenses. Some tenses such as the present perfect continuous, consist of more than one auxiliary verbs.

Below are examples of some commonly used auxiliary verbs:

     Do you like German food?

     Does your mother speak English?

     Did you come to school yesterday?

     Why are you talking? You should be listening to me!

     I was having a bath when you called!

     A new annex is being built behind the school.

     Have you done your homework?

     My father has never visited the USA.

     How long have you been living in Germany?

     By this time next year, I will have been learning French for 15 years!

Contracted Verb Forms

The auxiliary verbs are very often contracted. For example, it can be said that I'm playing tennis today, instead of I am playing tennis today. These contracted forms of auxiliary verbs are more likely to be used in spoken forms or informal writing. Consider speaking to someone: Why did you not call me yesterday? and instead: Why didn't you call me? It is obvious that the latter seems more probable and consistent.

Conversely, while writing a report or an essay, it is more appropriate to write the full form without contractions: Why did America not join the war until 1941? (instead of: Why didn't America ...?).

The contracted form of auxiliaries can have multiple forms all of which can be correct depending on the context.

     She's not going to the dance.

     She isn't going to the dance.

     I haven't seen him for ages.

     I've not seen him for ages.

The full form is commonly used in spoken language only when the speaker wants to emphasize what they are saying. e:

     Why don't you call him?

     I have called him.

     I do not want to see him again.

Modal verbs

Auxiliary verbs also consist of another set of verbs called modal verbs or modal auxiliary verbs. These verbs combine with other verbs to describe necessity, possibility, intention, or ability. Modal auxiliary verbs include - must, shall, will, should, would, ought (to), can, could, may, and might.

     You must act promptly.

     Can you speak Spanish?

     I would go if I could afford it.

     He said he might reconsider his decision.

     I ought to visit my family.

     We should get to London before midday.

     May I come in?

7.     What are tenses? Give its types.

Tenses determine whether something has happened, is happening, or will happen. The tense of a verb describes its position in time.

Tenses can be divided into 3 main types and further sub dived into 4 types:

PRESENT TENSES

1. SIMPLE PRESENT TENSE: In this type of tense the action is still taking place, there is no mention of its completeness.

Example: I sleep.
She studies vocabulary every day.

2. PRESENT CONTINUOUS TENSE: In this type of tense the action is still in progress, therefore the use of the word ‘continuous’.
 

Example: I am sleeping.
I am eating lunch, I will call you later.

3. PRESENT PERFECT TENSE: In this type of tense the action has already been completed, hence the use of the word ‘perfect’.

Example: I have slept.
I have eaten Chinese food a few times already.

4. PRESENT PERFECT CONTINUOUS TENSE: In this type of tense, the action has started taking place beforehand and is still ongoing.

Example: I have been sleeping.
I have been eating a lot of vegetables lately.

PAST TENSES

1. SIMPLE PAST TENSE: In this type of tense the action which is mentioned has already taken place in the past, there is no continuity.

Example: I got some sleep yesterday.

2. PAST CONTINUOUS TENSE: This type of tense describes an on-going action that took place in the past.

Example: I was having lunch when u called yesterday.

3. PAST PERFECT TENSE: This type of tense describes a completed action which took place in the past.

Examples: I had slept.
I had already eaten when my doorbell rang.

4. PAST PERFECT CONTINUOUS TENSE: This type of tense describes an action which started in the past and continued until another point in time, still in the past.

Example: I had been sleeping for two hours before my friend arrived.

FUTURE TENSES

1. SIMPLE FUTURE TENSE: This type of tense describes an action taking place in the future; there is no mention of its continuity.
Example: I will sleep.
I shall finish my project by tomorrow morning.

2. FUTURE CONTINUOUS TENSE: This type of tense describes an action that will take place in the future but will still be ongoing.

Example: I will be sleeping at 11 p.m.
I’ll be staying at my parents’ house for a few weeks.

3. FUTURE PERFECT TENSE: This type of tense describes an action that will occur in the future before another action in the future.

Example: I will have slept before you arrive.                  

4. FUTURE PERFECT CONTINUOUS TENSE: This type of tense describes an on-going action in the future before a completed action in a specific point in time.

Example: I will have been sleeping for seven hours by 9 a.m. Tomorrow morning.
I will have been studying for two hours by the time my parents arrive.

8.     What are the rules regarding the sequencing of tenses?

Below are some basic rules regarding the sequencing of tenses:

Rule 1

A past tense in the independent clause is always followed by a past tense in the subordinate clause.

Example: I found out that she was out of town.

However, there is an exception to this rule. When the independent clause in the past tense, the subordinate clause can be in the present tense if a universal truth is being stated by it. 

Example: The children were taught that honesty is the best policy.

Another exception to this rule is when the word ‘than’ is used in the sentence to introduce the subordinate clause. In this case, the subordinate clause can be used in any tense irrespective of the tense of the independent clause.

Rule 2

If the tense used with the independent clause is in the present or future tense, the tense of the subordinate clause can be in any tense based on what needs to be conveyed.

Example: She is saying that she is alright. She says she is fine.

Rule 3

If the independent clause is in the future tense, the subordinate clause is not used in the future tense instead a subordinating clause beginning with when, until, before, after etc. is used.

Example: I will call you when dinner is ready. I shall wait until you return.

Rule 4

When the subordinate clause is introduced with the conjunction ‘that’, the following rules must be followed,

• ‘May’ should be used in the subordinate clause when the independent clause is in the present tense.
• ‘Might’ should be used in the subordinate clause when the independent clause is in the past tense.

Example: We eat that we may live. She tried to live so that he might have a chance at life.

Rule 5

When some phrases such as If only, wish that, what if, it is time are used, the clauses that follow it are always in the past tense.

Example: I wish I could eat another ice cream.

9.     Write a short note on the types of pronouns.

A pronoun is a word used in place of the noun.

A pronoun which substituted in place of a specific noun is called an antecedent. Pronouns can be further defined by their various types: personal pronouns describe specific persons or things; possessive pronouns imply ownership; relative pronouns introduce a subordinate clause; and demonstrative pronouns identify, point to, or refer to nouns.

Ex - Me, she, her, mine, theirs.

There are seven types of pronouns in the English language:

1.  PERSONAL PRONOUNS

Personal pronouns represent persons or things.

Ex. Dad, will you help weed the garden?

Personal Pronouns are divided into first, second and third persons.

1st Person - person speaking (i. We, me, us)

2nd Person - person spoken to (you)

3rd Person - person spoken about (he, she. Him. Her. It they. Them).

2.     INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS

Interrogative pronouns are used to ask questions. To interrogate a person is to ask a question.

The interrogative pronouns are: who. Whom, whose, which and what.

Ex. Who is there?

Please note that when an interrogative is used alone it is a pronoun. However, if it is used in conjunction with another word. Then it is an adjective.

Ex. Which one? 'One' here is the pronoun while 'which' is the adjective.

3.     POSSESSIVE PRONOUNS

Possessive pronouns show possession or ownership. Possessive pronouns are: mine. Yours, his. Hers. Its. Ours and theirs.

Ex. These dvds are mine.

4.     DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS

Demonstrative pronouns demonstrate or point to something. The demonstrative pronouns are: this, that. These and those.

Ex. Throw me that! 

Please note that when this. That. These and those do not replace the noun. They become adjectives.

Ex. These oranges are very sweet.

5.     INDEFINITE PRONOUNS

Indefinite pronouns are not definite about which ones.

Ex. Some made millions from the mistake.

Here is a list of indefinite pronouns: any. Anybody, anyone, anything, all. Another. Both. Each, either. Everybody, everyone, everything, whoever, many, more. Most. Much. Neither. Nobody, no one, nothing. None. One, two. Three. Hundreds. Others. Several, some. Somebody, someone, something.

6.     RELATIVE PRONOUNS

Relative pronouns relate to a noun or another pronoun in the sentence. Relative pronouns are: who. Whom, whose. Which and that.

Ex. The bus driver who was warned for speeding lost his job.

7.     REFLEXIVE PRONOUNS

Reflexive pronouns reflect back to a person. They end in -self or -selves.

Here are some examples of reflexive pronouns. Myself, yourself. Himself. Herself, ourselves, yourselves, themselves.

Ex. I saw myself in the mirror

10. Give a detailed account of the various types of nouns in the English language.

Nouns, also called naming words, refer to any person, place, animal, thing or idea. Nouns can be singular or plural, concrete or abstract. There are two types of nouns:

There are ten types of nouns in the English language, they are as follows:

1. Proper Noun:

Proper nouns name specific persons, places or things. When writing proper nouns in English sentences, it usually begins with capital letters in order to distinguish it from common nouns.

     Jenny is my friend and companion (referring to person).

     He gave his excess belongings to David before leaving on a long road trip around the country (referring to a person).

     Washington, D.C. Has been the federal capital city of the United States since 1802 (referring to a place).

     The President usually lives at the White House (referring to a thing).

     Amazon is where I buy most of my books (referring to a thing).

A proper noun prefixed by the definite article "the", if it names a specific thing (with exceptions).

     The White House is the home of the President of The U.S.

     The Foundation supports disadvantage children.

     The Middle East Crisis has been in the news recently.

     The American Civil War was the defining event in their nation's history.

     What states fought for the Confederacy?

2.     COMMON NOUNS

Definition of Common Nouns: Common nouns are non-specific names of persons, places and things.

Because common nouns are non-specific and refer to most general things, they are not capitalized.

Examples of Common Nouns:

     Her boyfriend is an electrician. (Names a Person)

     Would you like a cookie? (Names a Thing)

     I pushed my friend in the lake. (Names a Place)

     There are many books in the library. (Names a Thing)

     The man in the car stole the money from the store. (Names a Person)

Common nouns are often prefixed with the indefinite article "a".

Examples of Common Nouns with the Prefix "A":

     A voice came from the upper room.

     When I drove to the store, a noise came from the engine.

     My son built a house on the farm.

     He gave us a dog for Christmas.

     David is a fan of American football.

Examples of Proper and Common Nouns in the Same Sentence:

     My cat (Common Noun) is called Cleopatra (Proper Noun).

     There are important documents (Common Noun) at The Library of Congress (Proper Noun).

     The writer (Common Noun) of this great novel is Agatha Christie (Proper Noun).

     The supermarket (Common Noun) down the road is Costco (Proper Noun).

     My car (Common Noun) is a Toyota (Proper Noun).

3.     CONCRETE NOUNS

Definition of Concrete Nouns: Concrete nouns refer to things in their material or physical form like car, bike, spanner, broom, rice, etc.

Examples of Concrete Nouns:

     Will you put the apples in the bowl?

     Jonathan parked his vehicle in the backyard.

     Brad left his hammer at the building site.

     Dad erected a shed in the backyard.

     Emma rode her bike to school.

Examples of Concrete Nouns Experienced Through the Five Senses:

Concrete nouns can be experienced through the five senses: sight, touch or feel, smell, taste and hear.

     The dog is part of our family (sight).

     The boys kicked the football in the backyard (touch).

     The warmth of the sun helped our family endure the winter carnival (feel).

     The aroma of the flowers flowed throughout the funeral home (smell).

     The sourness of milk made her sick (taste).

     The noise of the music annoyed the neighbours (hear).

4.     ABSTRACT NOUNS

Abstract nouns name concepts, ideas and emotions.

     The speaker said love is kind and gentle.

     His success was built on the foundation of discipline.

     His courage won the battle of despondency

     Forgiveness is something we must all consider at some stage in life.

     My friendship with my children helped me through life.

If you cannot taste, touch, hear, smell or see something, it is an abstract noun.

     Our CEO is a great leader due to his compassion for people.

     The staff had a bad attitude due to the inundation of customers.

     The local football player was dishonest about why he violated the law.

     My sympathy goes out to all those who lost their homes in the bush fire.

     His determination to finish the race was courageous.

Abstract noun denotes intangible things; whereas, concrete nouns denote tangible things. Concrete nouns perceive things with the five senses; whereas, abstract nouns cannot perceive things with five senses.

Here are some examples of abstract and concrete nouns in the same sentence.

     His success (abstract noun) is seen in the money (concrete noun) he has accumulated.

     He demonstrated his love (abstract noun) with a passionate kiss (concrete noun).

     My friendship (abstract noun) with my father (concrete noun) grew as I matured as a person.

     The man showed great patience (abstract noun) with his elderly parents (concrete noun).

     My siblings were given many opportunities (abstract noun) to help our parents (concrete noun) during their horrible ordeal.

5.     COLLECTIVE NOUNS

Definition of Collective Nouns: Collection nouns refer to a group, a collection or a number of people or things.

Examples of Collective Nouns:

     The art class presented their paintings to the faculty.

     I gave my friend a pack of cards.

     The cast have been practicing their lines.

     The board of directors decided to purchase the business.

     The boy was attacked by a swarm of wasps.

Examples of Singular and Plural Verbs with Collective Nouns:

     The cast is celebrating their success (singular verb).

     The cast have been practicing their lines all day (plural verb).

     The cast members have been practicing their lines (plural verb).

     The orchestra often plays at the carnival (singular verb).

     The orchestra have been practicing their songs for months (plural verb).

6.     COMPOUND NOUNS

Definition of Compound Nouns: Compound nouns are formed from two or more words.

Examples of Compound Nouns:

     I took a beautiful photograph of the sunrise.

     I had my worst haircut when I entered the army.

     The most violent criminals come from the underworld.

     The blackboard needed to be cleaned before class.

     I had eggs for breakfast.

Examples of Compound Nouns Which Take Different Forms:

     I usually have ice cream for dessert (with spaces).

     I generally put all my pots in the greenhouse (without spaces).

     My mother-in-law visits the family regularly (with hyphens).

     The children love the merry-go-round in the park (with hyphens).

     Our children must do their homework before supper (without spaces).

     I usually meet my friends at the bus stop (with spaces).

Examples of Compound Nouns Formed from Different Components:

     The family kicked the football in the park (noun + noun).

     The cars raced down the highway (adjective + noun). •

     We eat bacon and eggs for breakfast (verb + noun).

     The sunrise was beautiful this morning (noun + verb).

     The onlookers were asked to leave the scene of the accident (preposition + noun).

     The rebels tried to overthrow the elected government (preposition + verb).

     The only drawback to the incoming government is a hostile and fake media (verb + preposition).

     The team blow-up led to a vicious brawl (verb + adverb).

7.     COUNTABLE NOUNS

Definition of Countable Nouns: Countable nouns can be counted whether singular or plural.

Examples of Countable Nouns:

     I read three books a month for professional development.

     I take a variety of photographs when I am on location.

     I used several panels for the new fence.

     A herd of dogs attacked my neighbour.

     I had many candles on my twenty-first birthday cake.

Examples of Countable Nouns Preceded by a Number or Indefinite Article a/an:

By the way, only countable nouns are preceded by a number or indefinite article a/an.

     My friend bought me a camera for my birthday.

     I take two tablets for a headache.

     My sister bought a computer from the electrical store.

     I eat an apple a day to keep the doctor away.

     I take two bottles of water with me when I go hiking.

8.     NON-COUNTABLE NOUNS

Definition of Non-Countable Nouns: Non-Countable nouns are singular and take singular verbs.

Examples of Non-Countable Nouns:

     The neighbour took the garbage to the tip.

     I always help myself to some cheese.

     The clothing was delivered by mail.

     I put the water in the fridge.

     The patient was given oxygen.

Examples of Countable and Non-Countable Nouns in the Same Sentence:

By the way, non-countable nouns cannot be preceded by a number or the indefinite article a/an.

     I will put water (non-countable noun) on all the tables (countable noun) in the dining room.

     I will give rice (non-countable noun) to all the diners (countable noun) in the restaurant.

     Oxygen (non-countable) was given to seven patients (countable noun) during the crisis.

     Clothing (non-countable) was given to all the flood victims (countable noun).

     All the flood victims (countable noun) received fresh water (non-countable noun).

9.     POSSESSIVE NOUNS

Definition of Possessive Nouns: Possessive nouns are nouns that show ownership or possession. They indicate ownership or possession. It is quite easy to recognize possessive nouns because they always show an apostrophe. Examples of Possessive Nouns:

     Rachel's wedding is next week.

     The doctor's coat was hanging in his office.

     The minister's Bible was very old.

     The thief stole Jennifer's handbag.

     The neighbour stood on the dog’s bowl and broke it.

10. VERBAL NOUNS

The Definition of Verbal Nouns: Verbal nouns are nouns derived from verbs. Verbal nouns are formed with a variety of suffixes. Examples of Verbal Noun Formations:

• arrive (verb) /arrival (noun) • teach (verb) /teaching (noun) • decide (verb)/ decision (noun) • destroy (verb) / destruction (noun) • fly (verb) /flight (noun)

Examples of Verbal Nouns:

     Teaching is a noble profession.

     The building caught fire in the middle of the night.

     His arrival surprised me.

     Jonathan's decision surprised the board members.

     His return was well received.

     The flight was cancelled due to the pandemic.

11. What is a conjunction? Describe the 3 types of conjunctions with examples.

A conjunction is a word that joins words, phrases or clauses and establishes a relationship between them. And, but, or, nor, for, so, yet are some examples of conjunctions. 

There are three major types of conjunctions:

1. Coordinating Conjunction 2. Subordinating Conjunction 3. Correlative Conjunction

1. Coordinating Conjunctions

A coordinating conjunction is a type of conjunction which joins words, phrases or clauses that contain a similar grammatical structure. A coordinating conjunction is also known as a coordinator. Coordinating conjunctions include 'but, and, or so, nor, yet, for'. They join the following:

     Word + Word

     Phrase + Phrase

     Clause + Clause